Anthrax - Knowledge (XXG)

1265:, can have devastating effects on animals. It primarily affects herbivores such as cattle, sheep, and goats, but a wide range of mammals, birds, and even humans can also be susceptible. Infection typically occurs through the ingestion of spores in contaminated soil or plants. Once inside the host, the spores transform into active bacteria, producing lethal toxins that lead to severe symptoms. Infected animals often exhibit high fever, rapid breathing, and convulsions, and they may succumb to the disease within hours to days. The presence of anthrax can pose significant challenges to livestock management and wildlife conservation efforts, making it a critical concern for both animal health and public health, as it can occasionally be transmitted to humans through contact with infected animals or contaminated products. Infected animals may stagger, have difficulty breathing, tremble, and finally collapse and die within a few hours. 1935:

the KGB. In addition to the medical problems the outbreak caused, it also prompted Western countries to be more suspicious of a covert Soviet bioweapons program and to increase their surveillance of suspected sites. In 1986, the US government was allowed to investigate the incident, and concluded the exposure was from aerosol anthrax from a military weapons facility. In 1992, President Yeltsin admitted he was "absolutely certain" that "rumors" about the Soviet Union violating the 1972 Bioweapons Treaty were true. The Soviet Union, like the US and UK, had agreed to submit information to the UN about their bioweapons programs, but omitted known facilities and never acknowledged their weapons program.

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enough to prevent resurfacing of spores requires much manpower and expensive tools. Carcasses have been soaked in formaldehyde to kill spores, though this has environmental contamination issues. Block burning of vegetation in large areas enclosing an anthrax outbreak has been tried; this, while environmentally destructive, causes healthy animals to move away from an area with carcasses in search of fresh grass. Some wildlife workers have experimented with covering fresh anthrax carcasses with shadecloth and heavy objects. This prevents some scavengers from opening the carcasses, thus allowing the putrefactive bacteria within the carcass to kill the vegetative

684: 1445: 469: 1062:) and serious adverse reactions occur in about 1% of recipients. The American product, BioThrax, is licensed by the FDA and was formerly administered in a six-dose primary series at 0, 2, 4 weeks and 6, 12, 18 months, with annual boosters to maintain immunity. In 2008, the FDA approved omitting the week-2 dose, resulting in the currently recommended five-dose series. This five-dose series is available to military personnel, scientists who work with anthrax and members of the public who do jobs which cause them to be at-risk. New second-generation vaccines currently being researched include 716: 663:, edema factor, and protective antigen. The three are not toxic by themselves, but their combination is incredibly lethal to humans. Protective antigen combines with these other two factors to form lethal toxin and edema toxin, respectively. These toxins are the primary agents of tissue destruction, bleeding, and death of the host. If antibiotics are administered too late, even if the antibiotics eradicate the bacteria, some hosts still die of toxemia because the toxins produced by the bacilli remain in their systems at lethal dose levels. 983:, rubber apron, and rubber boots with no perforations are used when handling the body. No skin, especially if it has any wounds or scratches, should be exposed. Disposable personal protective equipment is preferable, but if not available, decontamination can be achieved by autoclaving. Used disposable equipment is burned and/or buried after use. All contaminated bedding or clothing is isolated in double plastic bags and treated as biohazard waste. Respiratory equipment capable of filtering small particles, such the US 976:

to ascertain if anthrax is the cause of death. The body should be sealed in an airtight body bag and incinerated to prevent the transmission of anthrax spores. Microscopic visualization of the encapsulated bacilli, usually in very large numbers, in a blood smear stained with polychrome methylene blue (McFadyean stain) is fully diagnostic, though the culture of the organism is still the gold standard for diagnosis. Full isolation of the body is important to prevent possible contamination of others.

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gastrointestinal anthrax due to the thawing of reindeer corpses from 75 years before contact. Anthrax spores traveled though groundwater used for drinking and caused tens of people to be hospitalized, largely children. Occupational exposure to infected animals or their products (such as skin, wool, and meat) is the usual pathway of exposure for humans. Workers exposed to dead animals and animal products are at the highest risk, especially in countries where anthrax is more common. Anthrax in

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vegetation; the vegetation has been hypothesized to cause wounds within the gastrointestinal tract, permitting entry of the bacterial spores into the tissues. Once ingested or placed in an open wound, the bacteria begin multiplying inside the animal or human and typically kill the host within a few days or weeks. The spores germinate at the site of entry into the tissues and then spread by the circulation to the lymphatics, where the bacteria multiply.

1298:. The woman apparently inhaled anthrax, in spore form, from the hide of the drum. She became critically ill, but with gastrointestinal anthrax rather than inhaled anthrax, which made her unique in American medical history. The building where the infection took place was cleaned and reopened to the public and the woman recovered. The New Hampshire state epidemiologist, Jodie Dionne-Odom, stated "It is a mystery. We really don't know why it happened." 1679:), peracetic acid, ozone gas, hypochlorous acid, sodium persulfate, and liquid bleach products containing sodium hypochlorite. Nonoxidizing agents shown to be effective for anthrax decontamination include methyl bromide, formaldehyde, and metam sodium. These agents destroy bacterial spores. All of the aforementioned anthrax decontamination technologies have been demonstrated to be effective in laboratory tests conducted by the US EPA or others. 1108: 461: 43: 595: 670: 565:, causing bloody fluid to accumulate in the chest cavity, thereby causing shortness of breath. The second (pneumonia) stage occurs when the infection spreads from the lymph nodes to the lungs. Symptoms of the second stage develop suddenly within hours or days after the first stage. Symptoms include high fever, extreme shortness of breath, shock, and rapid death within 48 hours in fatal cases. 659:). Damage caused by the anthrax spores and bacilli to the central chest cavity can cause chest pain and difficulty breathing. Once in the lymph nodes, the spores germinate into active bacilli that multiply and eventually burst the macrophages, releasing many more bacilli into the bloodstream to be transferred to the entire body. Once in the bloodstream, these bacilli release three proteins: 115: 1535: 748: 1491:. The animals of one group were twice injected with an anthrax vaccine prepared by Pasteur, at an interval of 15 days; the control group was left unvaccinated. Thirty days after the first injection, both groups were injected with a culture of live anthrax bacteria. All the animals in the unvaccinated group died, while all of the animals in the vaccinated group survived. 639:, but anthrax vegetative bacteria that escape the body via oozing blood or opening the carcass may form hardy spores. These vegetative bacteria are not contagious. One spore forms per vegetative bacterium. The triggers for spore formation are not known, but oxygen tension and lack of nutrients may play roles. Once formed, these spores are very hard to eradicate. 318:, which often appear in infectious animal products. Contact is by breathing or eating or through an area of broken skin. It does not typically spread directly between people. Risk factors include people who work with animals or animal products, and military personnel. Diagnosis can be confirmed by finding antibodies or the toxin in the blood or by 1765: 360:

respiratory anthrax has a mortality of 50 to 80%, even with treatment. Until the 20th century anthrax infections killed hundreds of thousands of people and animals each year. In herbivorous animals infection occurs when they eat or breathe in the spores while grazing. Animals may become infected by killing and/or eating infected animals.

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body, its mass of anthrax bacilli becomes a potential source of infection to others and special precautions should be used to prevent further contamination. Pulmonary anthrax, if left untreated, is almost always fatal. Historically, pulmonary anthrax was called woolsorters' disease because it was an occupational hazard for

1094:(USPS) installed biodetection systems (BDSs) in their large-scale mail processing facilities. BDS response plans were formulated by the USPS in conjunction with local responders including fire, police, hospitals, and public health. Employees of these facilities have been educated about anthrax, response actions, and 1114: 1113: 1110: 1109: 1115: 1305:. The case involved a maker of traditional African-style drums who was working with a goat hide purchased from a dealer in New York City which had been previously cleared by Customs. While the hide was being scraped, a spider bite led to the spores entering the bloodstream. His son also became infected. 1934:

story, Soviet medical and legal journals published articles about an outbreak in livestock that caused gastrointestinal anthrax in people having consumed infected meat, and cutaneous anthrax in people having come into contact with the animals. All medical and public health records were confiscated by

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showed decontamination to be possible, but time-consuming and costly. Clearing the Senate Office Building of anthrax spores cost $ 27 million, according to the Government Accountability Office. Cleaning the Brentwood postal facility in Washington cost $ 130 million and took 26 months. Since

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Precautions are taken to avoid contact with the skin and any fluids exuded through natural body openings of a deceased body that is suspected of harboring anthrax. The body should be put in strict quarantine. A blood sample is collected and sealed in a container and analyzed in an approved laboratory

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Many workers who deal with wool and animal hides are routinely exposed to low levels of anthrax spores, but most exposure levels are not sufficient to produce infection. A lethal infection is reported to result from inhalation of about 10,000–20,000 spores, though this dose varies among host species.

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Anthrax can enter the human body through the intestines (gastrointestinal), lungs (pulmonary), or skin (cutaneous), and causes distinct clinical symptoms based on its site of entry. Anthrax does not usually spread from an infected human to an uninfected human. If the disease is fatal to the person's

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in 1876 when he took a blood sample from an infected cow, isolated the bacteria, and put them into a mouse. The bacterium normally rests in spore form in the soil, and can survive for decades in this state. Herbivores are often infected while grazing, especially when eating rough, irritant, or spiky

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Despite signing the 1972 agreement to end bioweapon production, the government of the Soviet Union had an active bioweapons program that included the production of hundreds of tons of anthrax after this period. On 2 April 1979, some of the over one million people living in Sverdlovsk (now called

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fragments forming a heptameric ring-shaped structure named a prepore. Once in this shape, the complex can competitively bind up to three EFs or LFs, forming a resistant complex. Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs next, providing the newly formed toxic complex access to the interior of the host

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Over the next day or so, shortness of breath, cough, and chest pain become more common, and complaints not involving the chest such as nausea, vomiting, altered mental status, sweats, and headache develop in one-third or more of people. Upper respiratory tract symptoms occur in only a quarter of

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Inhalation anthrax usually develops within a week after exposure, but may take up to 2 months. During the first few days of illness, most people have fever, chills, and fatigue. These symptoms may be accompanied by cough, shortness of breath, chest pain, and nausea or vomiting, making inhalation

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Cleanup of anthrax-contaminated areas on ranches and in the wild is much more problematic. Carcasses may be burned, though often 3 days are needed to burn a large carcass and this is not feasible in areas with little wood. Carcasses may also be buried, though the burying of large animals deeply

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Gastrointestinal anthrax is exceedingly rare in the United States, with only two cases on record. The first case was reported in 1942, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. During December 2009, the New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services confirmed a case of

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The production of two powerful exotoxins and lethal toxin by the bacteria causes death. Veterinarians can often tell a possible anthrax-induced death by its sudden occurrence and the dark, nonclotting blood that oozes from the body orifices. Most anthrax bacteria inside the body after death are

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or most other lesions, cutaneous anthrax infections normally do not cause pain. Nearby lymph nodes may become infected, reddened, swollen, and painful. A scab forms over the lesion soon, and falls off in a few weeks. Complete recovery may take longer. Cutaneous anthrax is typically caused when

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ulcer (beginning as an irritating and itchy skin lesion or blister that is dark and usually concentrated as a black dot, somewhat resembling bread mold) at the site of infection. In general, cutaneous infections form within the site of spore penetration two to five days after exposure. Unlike

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The spores of anthrax are able to survive in harsh conditions for decades or even centuries. Such spores can be found on all continents, including Antarctica. Disturbed grave sites of infected animals have been known to cause infection after 70 years. In one such event, a young boy died from

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and North America. Globally, at least 2,000 cases occur a year, with about two cases a year in the United States. Skin infections represent more than 95% of cases. Without treatment the risk of death from skin anthrax is 23.7%. For intestinal infection the risk of death is 25 to 75%, while

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from a biological weapons complex located near there. At least 94 people were infected, of whom at least 68 died. One victim died four days after the release, 10 over an eight-day period at the peak of the deaths, and the last six weeks later. Extensive cleanup, vaccinations, and medical

1371:. In a groundbreaking series of experiments, he uncovered the lifecycle and means of transmission of anthrax. His experiments not only helped create an understanding of anthrax but also helped elucidate the role of microbes in causing illness at a time when debates still took place over 1129:

soap and water. Wastewater is treated with bleach or another antimicrobial agent. Effective decontamination of articles can be accomplished by boiling them in water for 30 minutes or longer. Chlorine bleach is ineffective in destroying spores and vegetative cells on surfaces, though

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Anthrax cannot be spread from person to person, except in the rare case of skin exudates from cutaneous anthrax. However, a person's clothing and body may be contaminated with anthrax spores. Effective decontamination of people can be accomplished by a thorough wash-down with

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After this apparent triumph, which was widely reported in the local, national, and international press, Pasteur made strenuous efforts to export the vaccine beyond France. He used his celebrity status to establish Pasteur Institutes across Europe and Asia, and his nephew,

744:. Today, this form of infection is extremely rare in industrialized nations. Cutaneous anthrax is the most common form of transmission but also the least dangerous of the three transmissions. Gastrointestinal anthrax is likely fatal if left untreated, but very rare. 715: 1281:

The last fatal case of natural inhalational anthrax in the United States occurred in California in 1976, when a home weaver died after working with infected wool imported from Pakistan. To minimize the chance of spreading the disease, the body was transported to

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prohibited the "development, production and stockpiling" of biological weapons. It has since been used in bioterrorism. Likely delivery methods of weaponized anthrax include aerial dispersal or dispersal through livestock; notable bioterrorism uses include the

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governments suspected the Soviet Union had developed a sex-specific weapon. The government blamed the outbreak on the consumption of anthrax-tainted meat, and ordered the confiscation of all uninspected meat that entered the city. They also ordered all

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Cutaneous anthrax, also known as hide-porter's disease, is when anthrax occurs on the skin. It is the most common (>90% of cases) and least dangerous form (low mortality with treatment, 23.7% mortality without). Cutaneous anthrax presents as a

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Although Koch arguably made the greatest theoretical contribution to understanding anthrax, other researchers were more concerned with the practical questions of how to prevent the disease. In Britain, where anthrax affected workers in the wool,

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The infection of herbivores (and occasionally humans) by inhalation normally begins with inhaled spores being transported through the air passages into the tiny air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs. The spores are then picked up by scavenger cells

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is effective. Burning clothing is very effective in destroying spores. After decontamination, there is no need to immunize, treat, or isolate contacts of persons ill with anthrax unless they were also exposed to the same source of infection.

6310: 6295: 6280: 284:, inhalation, or intestinal absorption. Symptom onset occurs between one day and more than two months after the infection is contracted. The skin form presents with a small blister with surrounding swelling that often turns into a painless 1636:

bioweapons trials. A variation of Vollum, known as "Vollum 1B", was used during the 1960s in the US and UK bioweapon programs. Vollum 1B is widely believed to have been isolated from William A. Boyles, a 46-year-old scientist at the

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in Afghanistan. Injected anthrax may have symptoms similar to cutaneous anthrax, with the exception of black areas, and may also cause infection deep into the muscle and spread faster. This can make it harder to recognise and treat.

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Early antibiotic treatment of anthrax is essential; delay significantly lessens chances for survival. Treatment for anthrax infection and other bacterial infections includes large doses of intravenous and oral antibiotics, such as

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can occur. Lesions have been found in the intestines and in the mouth and throat. After the bacterium invades the gastrointestinal system, it spreads to the bloodstream and throughout the body, while continuing to make toxins.

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spores are affected by the material with which the spores are associated, environmental factors such as temperature and humidity, and microbiological factors such as the spore species, anthracis strain, and test methods used.

576:(GI) infection is most often caused by consuming anthrax-infected meat and is characterized by diarrhea, potentially with blood, abdominal pains, acute inflammation of the intestinal tract, and loss of appetite. Occasional 4589: 4563: 1830:. The pellets would be eaten by cattle, which would in turn be eaten by the human population and as such severally disrupt the German war effort. In the same year, bioweapons tests were carried out on the uninhabited 531:

areas of Scotland, resulting in 14 deaths. It was the first documented non-occupational human anthrax outbreak in the UK since 1960. The source of the anthrax is believed to have been dilution of the heroin with

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during the 1930s; some of this testing involved intentional infection of prisoners of war, thousands of whom died. Anthrax, designated at the time as Agent N, was also investigated by the Allies in the 1940s.

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medication. Because of the time delay inherent in getting final verification that anthrax has been used, prophylactic antibiotic treatment of possibly exposed personnel must be started as soon as possible.

959:" appearance, and are not hemolytic on 5% sheep blood agar. The bacteria are not motile, susceptible to penicillin, and produce a wide zone of lecithinase on egg yolk agar. Confirmatory testing to identify 1726:

Using the catalyst method, complete destruction of all anthrax spores can be achieved in under 30 minutes. A standard catalyst-free spray destroys fewer than half the spores in the same amount of time.

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has emerged as the preferred biocide against anthrax-contaminated sites, having been employed in the treatment of numerous government buildings over the past decade. Its chief drawback is the need for

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Anthrax is especially rare in dogs and cats, as is evidenced by a single reported case in the United States in 2001. Anthrax outbreaks occur in some wild animal populations with some regularity.

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is recommended for people at high risk of infection. Immunizing animals against anthrax is recommended in areas where previous infections have occurred. A two-month course of antibiotics such as

991:-approved high-efficiency respirator, is worn. By addressing Anthrax from a One Health perspective, we can reduce the risks of transmission and better protect both human and animal populations. 6917: 6532: 825:

cell. The acidified environment within the endosome triggers the heptamer to release the LF and/or EF into the cytosol. It is unknown how exactly the complex results in the death of the cell.

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of Vermont. As a result, 22 were infected and five died. Only a few grams of material were used in these attacks and in August 2008, the US Department of Justice announced they believed that

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Departmental Committee of Inquiry, established in 1913 to address the continuing problem of industrial anthrax. His work in this capacity, much of it collaboration with the factory inspector

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In November 2008, a drum maker in the United Kingdom who worked with untreated animal skins died from anthrax. In December 2009, an outbreak of anthrax occurred among heroin addicts in the

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became available in 1954. This was a cell-free vaccine instead of the live-cell Pasteur-style vaccine used for veterinary purposes. An improved cell-free vaccine became available in 1970.

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Nearly all of the night-shift workers of a ceramics plant directly across the street from the biological facility (compound 19) became infected, and most died. Since most were men, some

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is said to have been decontaminated with a mixture of formaldehyde and seawater by the Ministry of Defence. It is not clear whether similar treatments had been applied to US test sites.

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treatment is crucial to prevent possible death. Many attempts have been made to develop new drugs against anthrax, but existing drugs are effective if treatment is started soon enough.

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includes gamma bacteriophage testing, indirect hemagglutination, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect antibodies. The best confirmatory precipitation test for anthrax is the

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Pimental RA, Christensen KA, Krantz BA, Collier RJ (September 2004). "Anthrax toxin complexes: heptameric protective antigen can bind lethal factor and edema factor simultaneously".

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Preventive antibiotics are recommended in those who have been exposed. Early detection of sources of anthrax infection can allow preventive measures to be taken. In response to the

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can thaw the permafrost, releasing anthrax spores in the carcasses. In 2016, an anthrax outbreak in reindeer was linked to a 75-year-old carcass that defrosted during a heat wave.

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Vaccine, Institute of Medicine (US) Committee to Assess the Safety and Efficacy of the Anthrax; Joellenbeck, Lois M.; Zwanziger, Lee L.; Durch, Jane S.; Strom, Brian L. (2002),

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Anthrax was historically known by a wide variety of names, indicating its symptoms, location, and groups considered most vulnerable to infection. They include Siberian plague,

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or programmed cell death. Interleukin 1 beta is another cytokine that also regulates inflammation and apoptosis. The overproduction of TNF-alpha and IL1B ultimately leads to

1507:. Ultimately, the vaccine was unsuccessful in the challenging climate of rural Australia, and it was soon superseded by a more robust version developed by local researchers 6547: 2814: 1638: 1418:

who settled in Bradford with his family as a child, carried out important research for the local Anthrax Investigation Board. Eurich also made valuable contributions to a

852:(a type of phagocytic cell) by the process just described so they cannot phagocytose bacteria. Throughout history, lethal factor was presumed to cause macrophages to make 6527: 1730:

Cleanups at a Senate Office Building, several contaminated postal facilities, and other US government and private office buildings, a collaborative effort headed by the

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Anthrax spores can survive for very long periods of time in the environment after release. Chemical methods for cleaning anthrax-contaminated sites or materials may use

1407:, first made the link between the mysterious and deadly "woolsorter's disease" and anthrax, showing in 1878 that they were one and the same. In the early 20th century, 53: 5842: 6191: 3525: 2957: 414:

surrounded by vivid red skin has long been recognised as typical of the disease. The first recorded use of the word "anthrax" in English is in a 1398 translation of

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and elsewhere during the 19th century. Horses, cattle, and sheep were particularly vulnerable, and national funds were set aside to investigate the production of a

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at its major distribution centers to actively scan for anthrax being transported through the mail. As of 2020, no positive alerts by these systems have occurred.

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in the United States, delivered by mailing postal letters containing the spores. The letters were sent to several news media offices and two Democratic senators:

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to be shot and people not have contact with sick animals. Also, a voluntary evacuation and anthrax vaccination program was established for people from 18 to 55.

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was charged with the production of a vaccine, following his successful work in developing methods that helped to protect the important wine and silk industries.

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people, and muscle pains are rare. Altered mental status or shortness of breath generally brings people to healthcare and marks the fulminant phase of illness.

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Holty JE, Bravata DM, Liu H, Olshen RA, McDonald KM, Owens DK (February 2006). "Systematic review: a century of inhalational anthrax cases from 1900 to 2005".

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government used anthrax against cattle and humans during its campaign against rebels. The Soviet Union created and stored 100 to 200 tons of anthrax spores at

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phase of inhalational anthrax nearly always die, with one case study showing a death rate of 97%. Anthrax meningoencephalitis is also nearly always fatal.

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factor (EF), and lethal factor (LF). PA plus LF produces lethal toxin, and PA plus EF produces edema toxin. These toxins cause death and tissue swelling (

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Stark J (2012). "Anthrax and Australia in a Global Context: The International Exchange of Theories and Practices with Britain and France, c. 1850–1920".

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Akbayram S, Doğan M, Akgün C, Peker E, Bektaş MS, Kaya A, et al. (2010). "Clinical findings in children with cutaneous anthrax in eastern Turkey".

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at its hottest setting (at least 400 °F (204 °C)) used for at least 5 minutes should destroy all anthrax spores in a common postal envelope.

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contains around 1.5 million anthrax-infected reindeer carcasses, and the spores may survive in the permafrost for 105 years. A risk exists that

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Gastrointestinal anthrax infections can be treated, but usually result in fatality rates of 25% to 60%, depending upon how soon treatment commences.

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Meselson M, Guillemin J, Hugh-Jones M, Langmuir A, Popova I, Shelokov A, Yampolskaya O (November 1994). "The Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979".

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personnel are no longer routinely vaccinated against anthrax prior to active service in places where biological attacks are considered a threat.

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cells and preventing sporulation. This method also has drawbacks, as scavengers such as hyenas are capable of infiltrating almost any exclosure.

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were given by Maret in 1752 and Fournier in 1769. Before that, anthrax had been described only in historical accounts. The German scientist

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spp. are quite large in size (3 to 4 μm long), they may grow in long chains, and they stain Gram-positive. To confirm the organism is

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species grow well on 5% sheep blood agar and other routine culture media. Polymyxin-lysozyme-EDTA-thallous acetate can be used to isolate

5928: 5308: 4529: 4041: 2488: 348:. The type and number of antibiotics used depend on the type of infection. Antitoxin is recommended for those with widespread infection. 5525: 4620: 2343: 1857:

ordered the dismantling of US biowarfare programs in 1969 and the destruction of all existing stockpiles of bioweapons. In 1978–79, the

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Vaccines against anthrax for use in livestock and humans have had a prominent place in the history of medicine. The French scientist

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removes calmodulin from stimulating calcium-triggered signaling, thus inhibiting the immune response. To be specific, LF inactivates

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investigated the source and the possibility that it was contracted from an African drum recently used by the woman taking part in a

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Injection anthrax is the rarest form of anthrax, and has only been seen to have occurred in a group of heroin injecting drug users.

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spores enter through cuts on the skin. This form is found most commonly when humans handle infected animals and/or animal products.

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World Health Organization; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; World Organisation for Animal Health (2019).

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form of anthrax suitable for biological warfare requires extensive practical knowledge, training, and highly advanced equipment.

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areas of Scotland, resulting in 14 deaths. The source of the anthrax is believed to have been dilution of the heroin with

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Before 2001, fatality rates for inhalation anthrax were 90%; since then, they have fallen to 45%. People that progress to the

1200:. In March 2016, FDA approved a second anthrax treatment using a monoclonal antibody which neutralizes the toxins produced by 7765: 6512: 2063: 6183: 5834: 5071: 4680: 3899: 3509: 2662: 1542: 872:

and death. However, recent evidence indicates anthrax also targets endothelial cells that line serious cavities such as the

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in the United States, has received the most news coverage of any anthrax outbreak. The Ames strain contains two virulence

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and converted into a spray. The spray formula is applied to an infested area and is followed by another spray containing

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In response to the postal anthrax attacks and hoaxes, the United States Postal Service sterilized some mail using gamma

1764: 1628:, is much more dangerous. The Vollum (also incorrectly referred to as Vellum) strain was isolated in 1935 from a cow in 1185: 1168:. FDA-approved agents include ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, and penicillin. In possible cases of pulmonary anthrax, early 1091: 690: 573: 551: 4441: 4382: 3379:

Metcalfe N (October 2004). "The history of woolsorters' disease: a Yorkshire beginning with an international future?".

3159:"Untersuchungen über Bakterien: V. Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des 2606: 351:

A rare disease, human anthrax is most common in Africa and central and southern Asia. It also occurs more regularly in

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in the late 1930s and in the US and UK in the 1950s. The current FDA-approved US vaccine was formulated in the 1960s.

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from contaminated specimens, and bicarbonate agar is used as an identification method to induce capsule formation.

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Cutaneous anthrax is rarely fatal if treated, because the infection area is limited to the skin, preventing the

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It infects the lymph nodes in the chest first, rather than the lungs themselves, a condition called hemorrhagic

7755: 7602: 7596: 7303: 7210: 7163: 7009: 6489: 6325: 6233: 3959: 3828: 1720: 1519: 1063: 995: 955:

colonies are medium-large, gray, flat, and irregular with swirling projections, often referred to as having a "

780:, which protects the bacterium from phagocytosis by host neutrophils; and the tripartite protein toxin, called 292:. The intestinal form presents with diarrhea (which may contain blood), abdominal pains, nausea, and vomiting. 31: 6694: 4033: 1367:(now Wolsztyn, Poland). His pioneering work in the late 19th century was one of the first demonstrations that 1363:, a German physician and scientist, first identified the bacterium that caused the anthrax disease in 1875 in 6879: 5950: 5389:

Bisher, Jamie, "During World War I, Terrorists Schemed to Use Anthrax in the Cause of Finnish Independence",

3735:"Safety and Health Topics | Anthrax – Control and Prevention | Occupational Safety and Health Administration" 2519: 1903:

interventions managed to save about 30 of the victims. Extensive cover-ups and destruction of records by the

994:

The prevention of anthrax from the environmental sources like air, water, & soil is disinfection used by

669: 7553: 7264: 7059: 6884: 6754: 5154: 4940: 3787:

Taking a multisectoral, one health approach: a tripartite guide to addressing zoonotic diseases in countries

1899: 1888: 1815: 1508: 1427: 943:

spp. usually grow within 24 hours of incubation at 35 °C, in ambient air (room temperature) or in 5% CO

764:

grazing on open range where they mix with wild animals still occasionally occurs in the U.S. and elsewhere.

4255: 4222: 1423: 7659: 7452: 7111: 7066: 7015: 6630: 1372: 1368: 999: 415: 7680: 7673: 7512: 7322: 7258: 7033: 6815: 6810: 6780: 6479: 6418: 4927:", National Immunization Program, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, January 2006. (PPT format) 3870: 1846:

and the subsequent Allied liberation of France. All pellets were destroyed using incinerators in 1945.

1788: 1759: 1181: 364: 5898:

The Anthrax Letters: A Bioterrorism Expert Investigates the Attacks That Shocked America – Case Closed?

5265:"The Anthrax Cleanup of Capitol Hill." Documentary by Xin Wang produced by the EPA Alumni Association. 5035:"The Anthrax Cleanup of Capitol Hill." Documentary by Xin Wang produced by the EPA Alumni Association. 1943:

In theory, anthrax spores can be cultivated with minimal special equipment and a first-year collegiate

1032: 896: 7686: 7665: 7333: 7272: 7052: 7045: 6474: 5764: 5576: 5277: 5189: 5106: 5047: 1955: 1895: 1866: 1808: 1784: 1598: 1476: 1302: 1087: 373: 5661: 5548: 2292: 776:

The lethality of the anthrax disease is due to the bacterium's two principal virulence factors: the

7228: 7188: 7038: 6941: 6719: 6314: 6251: 5010: 4963:

The Pentagon's Brain: An Uncensored History of DARPA, America's Top Secret Military Research Agency

2207:

Hendricks KA, Wright ME, Shadomy SV, Bradley JS, Morrow MG, Pavia AT, et al. (February 2014).

1967: 1915:

reported in 1999 that a combined Russian and United States team investigated the accident in 1992.

1512: 1193: 722: 289: 157: 5692: 4063: 3832: 3014:

For the attacks of 2001, CFR was only 45%, while before this time CFRs for IA were >85% (p. 37)

2399: 796:), respectively. To enter the cells, the edema and lethal factors use another protein produced by 7526: 7409: 6484: 6441: 6242: 5976: 4980: 4899: 4433: 4374: 4294: 2824:. A report on behalf of the National Anthrax Outbreak Control Team. December 2011. Archived from 2791: 2572: 2435: 1849:

Weaponized anthrax was part of the US stockpile prior to 1972, when the United States signed the

1843: 1835: 1812: 1780: 1075: 925: 873: 614: 276: 189: 143: 5621: 5608: 2693:

The Making of Modern Anthrax, 1875–1920: Uniting Local, National and Global Histories of Disease

1571: 884:, lymph vessels, and blood vessels, causing vascular leakage of fluid and cells, and ultimately 626:, facultative anaerobe bacterium about 1 by 9 μm in size. It was shown to cause disease by 2518:. National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases. 26 August 2009. Archived from 7770: 7698: 7429: 7253: 7223: 6795: 6669: 6635: 6376: 6336: 6289: 6146: 6097: 6076:"A review of anthrax in Canada and implications for research on the disease in northern bison" 5924: 5903: 5815: 5780: 5732: 5643: 5633: 5515: 5450: 5215: 5132: 4945: 4847: 4699: 4510: 4493:

Suffin SC, Carnes WH, Kaufmann AF (September 1978). "Inhalation anthrax in a home craftsman".

4425: 4366: 4286: 4178: 3791: 3681: 3593: 3517: 3485: 3396: 3358: 3309: 3267: 3218: 3136: 3087: 2996: 2783: 2652: 2564: 2478: 2472: 2444: 2333: 2238: 1621: 1610: 1586: 1396: 1321:

river, died of anthrax and 6 people have been hospitalized with light, skin-related symptoms.

885: 881: 833: 777: 476: 403: 319: 300: 281: 217: 207: 131: 5509: 5297: 5266: 5036: 4843: 4837: 4612: 2327: 7740: 7650: 6805: 6597: 6136: 6128: 6087: 6050: 5951:"Cepheid, Northrop Grumman Enter into Agreement for the Purchase of Anthrax Test Cartridges" 5807: 5772: 5625: 5471: 5205: 5197: 5122: 5114: 4891: 4801: 4769: 4761: 4502: 4417: 4362: 4358: 4282: 4278: 4204: 4168: 4158: 4123: 3999: 3671: 3663: 3458: 3388: 3348: 3340: 3301: 3257: 3249: 3208: 3126: 3118: 3077: 3069: 2775: 2554: 2228: 2220: 1912: 1712: 1691: 1625: 1439: 1042:(Russia) varieties. All currently used anthrax vaccines show considerable local and general 1021: 1011: 947:. If bicarbonate agar is used for identification, then the medium must be incubated in 5% CO 726: 648: 4719: 3056:

Frankel AE, Kuo SR, Dostal D, Watson L, Duesbery NS, Cheng CP, et al. (January 2009).

7423: 7137: 6964: 6874: 6851: 6615: 6610: 6507: 6223: 6057: 5284: 5273: 5054: 5043: 4924: 3954: 3771: 3236:

Liu H, Bergman NH, Thomason B, Shallom S, Hazen A, Crossno J, et al. (January 2004).

3026: 2906: 2706: 2611: 2259: 1839: 1831: 1747: 1664: 1633: 1504: 1400: 1145: 1035: 598: 460: 356: 352: 325: 227: 5511:

Weapons of mass destruction: an encyclopedia of worldwide policy, technology, and history

4918:

Anthrax and Anthrax Vaccine – Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases

816:

dissociates into the extracellular medium, playing no further role in the toxic cycle. PA

800:

called protective antigen, which binds to two surface receptors on the host cell. A cell

5768: 5571: 5193: 5110: 4173: 4146: 3158: 2854: 725:: If present, a Gram-negative bacterial species would appear pink. (The other cells are 594: 7581: 6790: 6775: 6770: 6739: 6709: 6141: 6116: 5896: 5726: 5210: 5177: 5127: 5094: 4958: 4806: 4789: 4774: 4749: 3676: 3651: 3463: 3447:"Acidophilic and thermophilic Bacillus strains from geothermally heated antarctic soil" 3446: 3353: 3328: 3213: 3196: 3131: 3106: 3082: 3057: 2233: 2208: 1971: 1672: 1415: 1212:

drugs, and for prevention when alternative therapies are not available or appropriate.

1043: 964: 877: 747: 706: 399: 6410: 5811: 4506: 4315: 4097: 3479: 3262: 3237: 2362: 864:

whose primary role is to regulate immune cells, as well as to induce inflammation and

523:

In December 2009, an outbreak of anthrax occurred among injecting heroin users in the

7734: 7218: 7127: 6980: 6729: 6724: 6704: 6699: 6218: 6092: 6075: 5360: 4936: 4903: 2815:"An Outbreak of Anthrax Among Drug Users in Scotland, December 2009 to December 2010" 2779: 2744: 2597: 2559: 2542: 1963: 1908: 1854: 1823: 1617: 1606: 1575: 1461: 1314: 1209: 1205: 1149: 1126: 1017: 841: 781: 741: 623: 562: 377: 329: 6319: 5394: 5011:"Sandia decon formulation, best known as an anthrax killer, takes on household mold" 4437: 2795: 2160: 17: 7559: 7244: 6445: 4378: 4298: 2576: 2055: 2000:

A scientific experiment performed by a high school student, later published in the

1944: 1876: 1827: 1768: 1642: 1157: 1131: 1039: 1025: 980: 869: 333: 65: 6387: 6165:"40 now hospitalised after anthrax outbreak in Yamal, more than half are children" 6117:"Thawing of permafrost may disturb historic cattle burial grounds in East Siberia" 3253: 340:

after exposure can also prevent infection. If infection occurs, treatment is with

6330: 6256: 5444: 5067: 4895: 4672: 3895: 2646: 1584:, created by the Soviet bioweapons program in the 1980s, was later called by the 7713: 7488: 7458: 6689: 6620: 6371: 6004: 5864: 5629: 4163: 3922: 3552: 2090: 1990: 1959: 1804: 1783:

weapon. Its first modern incidence occurred when Nordic rebels, supplied by the

1716: 1629: 1594: 1496: 1419: 1392: 1376: 1360: 1295: 1233: 1189: 1169: 1153: 1095: 752: 656: 652: 627: 577: 490: 337: 304: 231: 197: 114: 5411: 4345:

Holty JE, Bravata DM, Liu H, Olshen RA, McDonald KM, Owens DK (February 2006).

3947: 3764: 3667: 3585: 3344: 3305: 7641: 7626: 7615: 7478: 7359: 7287: 7132: 7106: 6932: 6684: 6393: 6341: 4347:"Systematic review: a century of inhalational anthrax cases from 1900 to 2005" 3122: 2127: 2020: 1791:

in Finland in 1916. Anthrax was first tested as a biological warfare agent by

1581: 1237: 1165: 1161: 1051: 909: 849: 845: 837: 829: 644: 602: 341: 288:

with a black center. The inhalation form presents with fever, chest pain, and

285: 213: 6184:"Siberian Child Dies After Climate Change Thaws an Anthrax-Infected Reindeer" 3521: 3510:"Siberian Child Dies After Climate Change Thaws an Anthrax-Infected Reindeer" 1236:. Without treatment, up to 20% of cutaneous skin infection cases progress to 7586: 7493: 7350: 7313: 7158: 6936: 6928: 6835: 6820: 6744: 6382: 6347: 6304: 5776: 5118: 4405: 4346: 3392: 1924: 1796: 1668: 1649:, who died in 1951 after being accidentally infected with the Vollum strain. 1500: 1338: 1244: 865: 853: 761: 547: 533: 345: 315: 272: 249: 242: 6150: 6101: 5819: 5647: 5219: 5136: 4765: 4429: 4370: 4290: 4182: 3854:

Mikesell P, Ivins BE, Ristroph JD, Vodkin MH, Dreier TM, Leppla SH (1983).

3785: 3685: 3652:"Lethal factor of anthrax toxin binds monomeric form of protective antigen" 3624: 3597: 3400: 3362: 3313: 3271: 3222: 3140: 3091: 2787: 2625: 2568: 2242: 2224: 1898:), about 1,370 kilometres (850 mi) east of Moscow, were exposed to an 1690:

A bleach solution for treating hard surfaces has been approved by the EPA.

1578:

virulence plasmid and not the polyglutamic acid capsule expressing plasmid.

367:. It has been used in biowarfare and bioterrorism since 1914. In 1975, the 6132: 6026: 5784: 1379:. Koch went on to study the mechanisms of other diseases and won the 1905 1286:

in a sealed plastic body bag within a sealed metal container for autopsy.

1208:

is approved to treat inhalational anthrax in conjunction with appropriate

7518: 7442: 7399: 7292: 6999: 6969: 6785: 6734: 6679: 6459: 6031: 5201: 5176:

Rastogi VK, Ryan SP, Wallace L, Smith LS, Shah SS, Martin GB (May 2010).

4514: 4421: 2979: 1931: 1862: 1858: 1792: 1704: 1646: 1602: 1404: 1364: 1334: 1071: 1055: 1047: 861: 801: 528: 502: 441: 1479:

to demonstrate his concept of vaccination. He prepared two groups of 25

635:

outcompeted and destroyed by anaerobic bacteria within minutes to hours

7532: 6955: 3774:. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 30 April 2009. 2005: 1948: 1696: 1567: 1457: 1412: 1388: 1330: 1229: 785: 702: 524: 170: 6398: 6272: 6749: 6674: 6299: 6284: 6237: 5446:

Clouds of Secrecy: The Army's Germ Warfare Tests Over Populated Areas

1994: 1708: 1574:, is an attenuated strain used as a vaccine, which contains only the 1453: 956: 698: 694: 507: 498: 411: 410:

people with a cutaneous anthrax infection develop. The central black

407: 123: 6588:

United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases

3484:. Internet Archive. Berkeley : University of California Press. 2443:(4th ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization. pp. 20, 36. 1002:

mixed with effective microorganisms for the contaminated waterways.

437:, charbon, splenic fever, malignant edema, woolsorter's disease and 5697:

Infectious Diseases: Causes, Types, Prevention, Treatment and Facts

202:

Working with animals; travelers, postal workers, military personnel

6830: 6825: 6714: 6640: 6537: 6352: 5541:"Traditional Medical Practitioners Seek International Recognition" 3445:

Hudson, J. Andrew; Daniel, Roy M.; Morgan, Hugh W. (August 1989).

2743:. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2003. Archived from 1763: 1480: 1225: 1106: 1059: 895: 793: 789: 746: 593: 494: 475: 467: 459: 4096:. Occupational Safety & Health Administration. Archived from 3327:

Sweeney DA, Hicks CW, Cui X, Li Y, Eichacker PQ (December 2011).

3197:"The role of the lymphatic system in the pathogenesis of anthrax" 3073: 2855:"Anthrax: In Scotland, six heroin users die of anthrax poisoning" 5231: 5229: 1919: 1819: 1484: 1318: 904:

Various techniques may be used for the direct identification of

857: 486: 6899: 6414: 5835:"U.Va. Researchers Find Anthrax Can Grow and Reproduce in Soil" 3238:"Formation and composition of the Bacillus anthracis endospore" 2985:

USAMRIID's Medical Management of Biological Casualties Handbook

2543:"A national register of historic and contemporary anthrax foci" 1590:"the most virulent and vicious strain of anthrax known to man". 1954:

Concentrated anthrax spores were used for bioterrorism in the

1904: 1529: 1488: 36: 5150: 4310: 4308: 2665:

from the original on 27 August 2016 – via Google Books.

2590: 1503:

in 1888 to try to introduce the vaccine to combat anthrax in

393: 4613:"Anthrax Is Found in 2 Connecticut Residents, One a Drummer" 1605:, which separately encode for a three-protein toxin, called 1467:

In May 1881, Pasteur – in collaboration with his assistants

6533:

Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism

6074:

Dragon DC, Elkin BT, Nishi JS, Ellsworth TR (August 1999).

1074:) to protect American troops against the use of anthrax in 900:

Possible edema and necrosis in a case of injection anthrax.

5331:"Anthrax Expert Faces Fine for Burning Infected Carcasses" 3333:

American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine

2953:

Anthrax – Chapter 4 – 2020 Yellow Book | Travelers' Health

5472:"Saddam's germ war plot is traced back to one Oxford cow" 1735:

then, newer and less costly methods have been developed.

1383:

for his discovery of the bacterium causing tuberculosis.

836:. Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP into 501:). The black eschar often shows up as a large, painless, 4223:"FDA approves raxibacumab to treat inhalational anthrax" 4145:

Doganay M, Dinc G, Kutmanova A, Baillie L (March 2023).

3416:"Crossrail work stopped after human bones found on site" 1301:

In 2007 two cases of cutaneous anthrax were reported in

6573:

National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center

1546: 979:

Protective, impermeable clothing and equipment such as

61: 5601: 5599: 4643:"Croatia: Anthrax found in dead cattle in nature park" 4147:"Human Anthrax: Update of the Diagnosis and Treatment" 1031:

Currently administered human anthrax vaccines include

1024:

in 1881. Human anthrax vaccines were developed by the

647:) in the lungs and transported through small vessels ( 5925:"U.S. officials declare researcher is anthrax killer" 4094:"How should I decontaminate during response actions?" 3481:

Anthrax : the investigation of a deadly outbreak

1977:

Due to these events, the US Postal Service installed

1869:; they were abandoned in 1992 and destroyed in 2002. 1775:, holding a model vial of supposed weaponized anthrax 985:

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

6262: 5151:"Using Bleach to Destroy Anthrax and Other Microbes" 4823:

Death in a Small Package: A Short History of Anthrax

4197:"HGSI asks for FDA approval of anthrax drug ABthrax" 406:

etymology, because of the characteristic black skin

7697: 7649: 7640: 7613: 7579: 7543: 7502: 7486: 7477: 7440: 7397: 7349: 7312: 7301: 7286: 7242: 7209: 7180: 7148: 7097: 7088: 7026: 6998: 6989: 6978: 6963: 6954: 6844: 6763: 6596: 6498: 6452: 6362: 6266: 4530:"Drummer's anthrax case spurs a public health hunt" 4256:"FDA approves new treatment for inhalation anthrax" 3763:National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory 3656:

Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications

3294:

Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications

1842:bombers in 1944 were scrapped after the success of 1773:

presentation to the United Nations Security Council

1313:In July 2022, dozens of cattle in a nature park in 1070:. In the 20th century the use of a modern product ( 701:with inhalational anthrax; featured are rod-shaped 554:. This is often described as the prodromal period. 355:than elsewhere on the continent and is uncommon in 258: 248: 237: 223: 206: 196: 184: 176: 142: 130: 107: 6548:European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control 5895: 5798:Sternbach G (May 2003). "The history of anthrax". 5607: 4027: 4025: 1703:To speed the process, trace amounts of a nontoxic 314:Anthrax is spread by contact with the bacterium's 6528:Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention 5609:"Anthrax: The Investigation of a Deadly Outbreak" 3559:(4th ed.), World Health Organization, 2008, 1290:gastrointestinal anthrax in an adult female. The 6027:"Seventeen-year-old devises anthrax deactivator" 4981:"Army harvested victims' blood to boost anthrax" 4720:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905" 3650:Chvyrkova I, Zhang XC, Terzyan S (August 2007). 3152: 3150: 1818:which called for animal feed pellets containing 1787:, used anthrax with unknown results against the 908:in clinical material. Firstly, specimens may be 721:Gram-positive anthrax bacteria (purple rods) in 6862:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540 6578:National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity 5493:"UK planned to wipe out Germany with anthrax". 4586:"PROMED: Anthrax, Human – USA: (New Hampshire)" 4560:"PROMED: Anthrax, Human – USA: (New Hampshire)" 3592:. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. 3195:Hughes R, May AJ, Widdicombe JG (August 1956). 2678:Bartholomaeus Anglicus' De Proprietatibus Rerum 1448:Louis Pasteur inoculating sheep against anthrax 27:Infection caused by Bacillus anthracis bacteria 6064:, 30 October 2001. Retrieved 17 February 2007. 3927:The Anthrax Vaccine: Is It Safe? Does It Work? 3627:. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 2429: 2427: 2425: 2394: 2392: 2390: 2388: 1566:The Sterne strain of anthrax, named after the 1475:and others – performed a public experiment at 1188:(BLA, permission to market) for its new drug, 6911: 6583:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 6568:India's Ministry of Health and Family Welfare 6426: 5068:"Remediating Indoor and Outdoor Environments" 3701:Review of Medical Microbiology and Immunology 3287: 3285: 3283: 3281: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2934: 2932: 2155: 2153: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2116: 1826:to be dropped by air over the countryside of 1675:, Sandia Foam, chlorine dioxide (used in the 1273:Globally, at least 2,000 cases occur a year. 844:. The complexation of adenylate cyclase with 50:The examples and perspective in this article 8: 5750: 5748: 4825:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 3716:Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology 3584:Chambers J, Yarrarapu SN, Mathai JK (2023). 3107:"Bacillus anthracis Physiology and Genetics" 2332:. Gideon Informatics Inc. 2016. p. 12. 2085: 2083: 2081: 2050: 2048: 2046: 2044: 2042: 2040: 1907:continued from 1979 until Russian President 1707:composed of iron and tetroamido macrocyclic 1452:Anthrax posed a major economic challenge in 439: 164:: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain 2477:. Cambridge University Press. p. 897. 2254: 2252: 420: 7646: 7499: 7483: 7309: 7298: 7094: 6995: 6986: 6975: 6960: 6918: 6904: 6896: 6523:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 6433: 6419: 6411: 6263: 5720: 5718: 3625:"Molecular Basis for Anthrax Intoxication" 3031:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2322: 2320: 2318: 2202: 2200: 2198: 2196: 2194: 2192: 2190: 2188: 2186: 1700:processes to have the reactant on demand. 297:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 113: 104: 6538:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 6140: 6091: 5209: 5126: 4805: 4773: 4172: 4162: 4064:"How People Are Infected | Anthrax | CDC" 3675: 3462: 3352: 3261: 3212: 3201:British Journal of Experimental Pathology 3130: 3081: 2558: 2287: 2285: 2283: 2281: 2232: 151:: small blister with surrounding swelling 88:Learn how and when to remove this message 6227:) is being considered for deletion. See 6003:. USPS. 12 February 2002. Archived from 1911:admitted this anthrax accident in 1992. 1443: 7195:Cutaneous Streptococcus iniae infection 4363:10.7326/0003-4819-144-4-200602210-00009 4283:10.7326/0003-4819-144-4-200602210-00009 2737:"Anthrax Q & A: Signs and Symptoms" 2491:from the original on 10 September 2017. 2346:from the original on 10 September 2017. 2036: 1947:education. To make large amounts of an 1639:US Army Biological Warfare Laboratories 1632:. This same strain was used during the 1261:Anthrax, a bacterial disease caused by 665: 7751:Bacterium-related cutaneous conditions 5672:from the original on 17 September 2008 5620:(16). University of California Press: 5528:from the original on 22 February 2017. 5482:from the original on 25 December 2005. 5182:Applied and Environmental Microbiology 5099:Environmental Science & Technology 4839:Deadly Diseases and Epidemics, Anthrax 4592:from the original on 27 September 2011 4566:from the original on 27 September 2011 3012:from the original on 9 February 2015. 2917:from the original on 16 September 2020 2460:from the original on 30 November 2016. 1997:formula supplied by Sipco Industries. 920:, rapid diagnostic techniques such as 804:then cleaves PA into two fragments: PA 546:anthrax difficult to distinguish from 311:as the bacterium that causes anthrax. 6801:Biological warfare in popular culture 5953:. Security Products. 16 August 2007. 5371:from the original on 26 December 2016 5341:from the original on 26 December 2016 5314:from the original on 2 February 2016. 5017:from the original on 5 September 2008 4991:from the original on 29 December 2009 4842:. Chelesa House Publishers. pp. 4623:from the original on 24 November 2020 4540:from the original on 14 December 2013 4235:from the original on 17 December 2012 4211:from the original on 18 October 2014. 4074:from the original on 26 December 2016 4044:from the original on 26 December 2016 3745:from the original on 22 December 2019 3729: 3727: 3725: 3631:from the original on 26 December 2016 3579: 3577: 3547: 3545: 3543: 3503: 3501: 3374: 3372: 3037:from the original on 11 February 2015 2848: 2846: 2809: 2807: 2805: 2648:Wool Economy in the Ancient Near East 2506: 2504: 2502: 2500: 2498: 2410:from the original on 26 December 2016 1399:industries, it was viewed with fear. 1381:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 989:Mine Safety and Health Administration 299:, the first clinical descriptions of 7: 7329:Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome 6039:from the original on 7 October 2014. 5989:from the original on 9 October 2022. 5845:from the original on 21 October 2012 5703:from the original on 24 October 2008 5424:from the original on 31 October 2023 5153:. Society for Applied Microbiology. 5074:from the original on 13 October 2013 4941:"Selling the Threat of Bioterrorism" 4869:The Private Science of Louis Pasteur 4694:Madigan M, Martinko J, eds. (2005). 4562:. Promedmail.org. 26 December 2009. 4474:from the original on 25 October 2023 4010:from the original on 25 January 2023 3804:from the original on 14 October 2023 3426:from the original on 25 October 2023 2887:from the original on 25 January 2023 2865:from the original on 2 January 2016. 2717:from the original on 21 January 2018 2357: 2355: 2353: 2091:"Basic Information What is anthrax?" 2019:Russian researchers estimate arctic 1822:infected with anthrax spores of the 1369:diseases could be caused by microbes 1196:that neutralizes toxins produced by 322:of a sample from the infected site. 7746:Biological anti-agriculture weapons 6194:from the original on 17 August 2016 5662:"Plague war: The 1979 anthrax leak" 4987:. UCLA Dept. of Epidemiology site. 4760:(2386): 735–36. 22 September 1906. 4385:from the original on 28 August 2020 3528:from the original on 17 August 2016 2907:"Injection Anthrax | Anthrax | CDC" 2741:Emergency Preparedness and Response 1779:Anthrax spores have been used as a 820:then oligomerizes with six other PA 6171:from the original on 30 July 2016. 5931:from the original on 8 August 2008 5508:Croddy EA, Wirtz JJ, eds. (2005). 5302:Vol. 57 – No. 36, 17 October 2003" 4683:from the original on 7 March 2016. 4673:"Man who breathed in anthrax dies" 4649:. 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New York: Delta Publishing. 5545:Southern African News Features 4254:News Release (21 March 2016). 2645:Breniquet C, Michel C (2014). 2541:Cherkasskiy BL (August 1999). 1020:developed the first effective 271:is an infection caused by the 180:1 day to 2 months post contact 1: 6857:Biological Weapons Convention 6470:1989 California medfly attack 6244:Anthrax in humans and animals 5812:10.1016/S0736-4679(03)00079-9 5539:Martin D (16 November 2001). 4871:. Princeton University Press. 4611:Kaplan T (6 September 2007). 4507:10.1016/S0046-8177(78)80140-3 4464:"Anthrax | FAQs | Texas DSHS" 4406:"Anthrax meningoencephalitis" 3963:; 2005 Mar–Apr; 25(2):143–49. 3790:. World Health Organization. 3557:Anthrax in Humans and Animals 3254:10.1128/JB.186.1.164-178.2004 2993:US Government Printing Office 2437:Anthrax in humans and animals 2002:Journal of Medical Toxicology 1900:accidental release of anthrax 1851:Biological Weapons Convention 926:immunofluorescence microscopy 655:in the central chest cavity ( 369:Biological Weapons Convention 365:developed anthrax as a weapon 7708:Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae 5833:Barney J (17 October 2012). 5361:"Britain's 'Anthrax Island'" 4979:Shane S (23 December 2001). 4896:10.5401/healthhist.14.2.0001 4228:Food and Drug Administration 3823:Cohn DV (11 February 1996). 3508:Luhn, Alec (8 August 2016). 3058:"Pathophysiology of anthrax" 2213:Emerging Infectious Diseases 2025:global warming in the Arctic 1186:biologic license application 1092:United States Postal Service 1068:recombinant subunit vaccines 778:poly-D-glutamic acid capsule 691:scanning electron micrograph 552:community-acquired pneumonia 388:The English name comes from 254:20–80% die without treatment 7776:Zoonotic bacterial diseases 6563:Laboratory Response Network 6259:", 23 July 1881, p. 57 5630:10.1056/NEJM200010193431615 5497:. Glasgow. 14 October 2001. 5412:"DOD Technical Information" 5395:Anthrax Sabotage in Finland 4351:Annals of Internal Medicine 4271:Annals of Internal Medicine 4164:10.3390/diagnostics13061056 2631:Online Etymology Dictionary 2474:Clinical Infectious Disease 1979:biohazard detection systems 1677:Hart Senate Office Building 1469:Jean-Joseph Henri Toussaint 784:, consisting of protective 428:On the Properties of Things 64:, discuss the issue on the 7797: 6518:Center for Health Security 5449:. 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(2005), 3896:"Robert Koch (1843–1910)" 3451:FEMS Microbiology Letters 3123:10.1016/j.mam.2009.07.004 2400:"How People Are Infected" 1746:The experimental site at 1643:Camp (later Fort) Detrick 1520:human vaccine for anthrax 1409:Friederich Wilhelm Eurich 1351:List of anthrax outbreaks 1064:recombinant live vaccines 922:polymerase chain reaction 735:Exposure and transmission 493:that eventually forms an 126:characteristic of anthrax 122:A skin lesion with black 121: 112: 7603:Pseudomembranous colitis 7597:Clostridioides difficile 6229:templates for discussion 6182:Luhn A (8 August 2016). 5923:Bohn K (6 August 2008). 5570:Pala C (22 March 2003). 5514:. ABC-CLIO. p. 21. 5287:(see p. 3). 12 May 2015. 5057:(see p. 8). 12 May 2015. 4726:. The Nobel Foundation. 4316:"Types of Anthrax | CDC" 3960:Annals of Saudi Medicine 3869:: 320–22. Archived from 3829:University of Louisville 2262:. CDC. 14 January 2016. 1721:tert-butyl hydroperoxide 1597:, which was used in the 1120:Anthrax, and antibiotics 996:effective microorganisms 464:Skin lesion from anthrax 262:>2,000 cases per year 32:Anthrax (disambiguation) 7554:Clostridium perfringens 7265:Urinary tract infection 6755:Viral hemorrhagic fever 5777:10.1126/science.7973702 5119:10.1021/acs.est.8b05274 4794:British Medical Journal 4754:British Medical Journal 3827:. School of Dentistry, 3623:Gao M (27 April 2006). 3242:Journal of Bacteriology 3062:Frontiers in Bioscience 2607:A Greek–English Lexicon 2004:, suggested a domestic 1889:Sverdlovsk anthrax leak 1816:military operation plan 1811:, an ultimately unused 1317:, a flood plain by the 1228:factor, and protective 860:(IL1B). TNF-alpha is a 422:De proprietatibus rerum 363:Several countries have 216:or toxin in the blood, 7660:Ureaplasma urealyticum 7453:Listeria monocytogenes 7157:bacitracin resistant, 7016:Pneumococcal infection 6781:Psychochemical weapons 6631:Chlamydophila psittaci 6257:Earthworms and Anthrax 5902:. SkyhorsePublishing. 4923:24 August 2012 at the 4766:10.1136/bmj.2.2386.735 3953:2 January 2016 at the 2471:Schlossberg D (2008). 2329:Anthrax: Global Status 2225:10.3201/eid2002.130687 1776: 1449: 1428:Anthrax Prevention Act 1426:, led directly to the 1373:spontaneous generation 1170:antibiotic prophylaxis 1121: 901: 756: 751:Inhalational anthrax, 742:people who sorted wool 610: 481: 473: 465: 442:la maladie de Bradford 440: 421: 416:Bartholomaeus Anglicus 295:According to the U.S. 7766:Occupational diseases 7681:Mycoplasma pneumoniae 7674:Mycoplasma genitalium 7513:Clostridium botulinum 7259:Enterococcus faecalis 7034:Viridans streptococci 6875:Wiktionary definition 6816:Entomological warfare 6695:Legionnaires' disease 6480:Wood Green ricin plot 6133:10.3402/gha.v4i0.8482 6051:Can Dogs Get Anthrax? 6001:"Latest Facts Update" 5272:12 March 2021 at the 5042:12 March 2021 at the 3393:10.1093/occmed/kqh115 3381:Occupational Medicine 2768:Pediatric Dermatology 2676:de Trevisa J (1398). 2598:Liddell, Henry George 1789:Imperial Russian Army 1767: 1760:Anthrax weaponization 1447: 1438:Further information: 1424:G. Elmhirst Duckering 1182:Human Genome Sciences 1176:Monoclonal antibodies 1119: 899: 750: 597: 497:with a black center ( 479: 471: 463: 282:contact with the skin 156:: fever, chest pain, 7781:Respiratory diseases 7687:Mycoplasma pneumonia 7666:Ureaplasma infection 7376:novobiocin resistant 7334:Toxic shock syndrome 7273:Enterococcus faecium 6645:Equine encephalitis 6475:2001 anthrax attacks 6121:Global Health Action 6056:6 April 2012 at the 6035:. 23 February 2006. 5839:U. Va. Health System 5606:Guillemin J (2000). 5577:The Washington Times 5202:10.1128/AEM.02668-09 4422:10.1212/wnl.59.3.327 4322:. 19 November 2020. 4006:. 18 November 2020. 3770:31 July 2017 at the 2406:. 1 September 2015. 2167:. 1 September 2015. 2134:. 1 September 2015. 2097:. 1 September 2015. 1985:Decontaminating mail 1962:of South Dakota and 1956:2001 anthrax attacks 1939:Anthrax bioterrorism 1896:Ekaterinburg, Russia 1867:Vozrozhdeniya Island 1809:Operation Vegetarian 1785:German General Staff 1599:2001 anthrax attacks 1547:adding missing items 1303:Danbury, Connecticut 1038:(United States) and 374:2001 anthrax attacks 70:create a new article 62:improve this article 52:may not represent a 30:For other uses, see 18:Inhalational anthrax 7619:(non-spore forming) 7229:Streptococcus bovis 7189:Streptococcus iniae 6937:Infectious diseases 6720:Salmonella enterica 6252:Scientific American 6247:– Textbook from WHO 5871:. 10 October 2001. 5769:1994Sci...266.1202M 5699:. MedicineNet.com. 5194:2010ApEnM..76.3343R 5111:2019EnST...53.4045W 4679:. 2 November 2008. 4647:The Washington Post 4100:on 26 December 2016 3923:"Executive Summary" 3699:Levinson W (2010). 3586:"Anthrax Infection" 3553:"Anthrax in humans" 3329:"Anthrax infection" 2913:. 28 January 2019. 2707:"Cutaneous Anthrax" 2522:on 26 December 2016 2434:Turnbull P (2008). 1824:Vollum-14578 strain 1654:Society and culture 1570:-born immunologist 1513:John McGarvie Smith 1460:. French scientist 1194:monoclonal antibody 1078:was controversial. 998:thru spraying, and 723:cerebrospinal fluid 376:and an incident in 326:Anthrax vaccination 290:shortness of breath 228:Anthrax vaccination 158:shortness of breath 7527:Clostridium tetani 7410:Bacillus anthracis 7027:optochin resistant 6942:Bacterial diseases 6821:Infectious disease 6558:Health Threat Unit 6490:2013 ricin letters 6485:2003 ricin letters 6442:Biological warfare 6363:External resources 5335:The New York Times 4884:Health and History 4617:The New York Times 4468:www.dshs.texas.gov 4070:. 9 January 2019. 3948:"Anthrax vaccines" 3714:Forbes BA (2002). 3161:Bacillus anthracis 3033:. 23 August 2013. 2859:The New York Times 2831:on 20 October 2013 2363:"Types of Anthrax" 1844:Operation Overlord 1836:Scottish Highlands 1807:began research on 1781:biological warfare 1777: 1754:Biological warfare 1711:are combined with 1684:Bacillus anthracis 1545:; you can help by 1526:Engineered strains 1450: 1263:Bacillus anthracis 1122: 1076:biological warfare 924:-based assays and 902: 888:and septic shock. 874:pericardial cavity 858:interleukin 1 beta 828:Edema factor is a 757: 676:Bacillus anthracis 620:Bacillus anthracis 615:Bacillus anthracis 611: 607:Bacillus anthracis 482: 474: 466: 451:Signs and symptoms 435:Cumberland disease 309:Bacillus anthracis 277:Bacillus anthracis 190:Bacillus anthracis 137:Infectious disease 7728: 7727: 7724: 7723: 7699:Anaeroplasmatales 7636: 7635: 7575: 7574: 7473: 7472: 7469: 7468: 7393: 7392: 7282: 7281: 7238: 7237: 7205: 7204: 7084: 7083: 6893: 6892: 6880:Wikimedia Commons 6845:International law 6796:Biological hazard 6670:Foodborne illness 6666: 6658: 6651: 6636:Coxiella burnetii 6598:Biological agents 6408: 6407: 5909:978-1-60239-715-6 5763:(5188): 1202–08. 5738:978-0-385-33496-9 5725:Alibek K (1999). 5639:978-0-520-22917-4 5521:978-1-85109-490-5 5456:978-0-8226-3001-2 5188:(10): 3343–3e51. 5013:. 26 April 2007. 4946:Los Angeles Times 4867:Geison G (2014). 4853:978-0-7910-7302-5 4836:Decker J (2003). 4705:978-0-13-144329-7 4038:Los Angeles Times 3797:978-92-4-151493-4 3491:978-0-520-22204-5 2624:Harper, Douglas. 1873:American military 1622:biological weapon 1616:Nonetheless, the 1587:Los Angeles Times 1563: 1562: 1434:First vaccination 1117: 886:hypovolemic shock 882:peritoneal cavity 834:adenylate cyclase 727:white blood cells 622:is a rod-shaped, 605:of the bacterium 578:vomiting of blood 301:cutaneous anthrax 266: 265: 218:microbial culture 208:Diagnostic method 154:Inhalational form 102:Medical condition 98: 97: 90: 72:, as appropriate. 16:(Redirected from 7788: 7761:Health disasters 7651:Mycoplasmataceae 7647: 7627:Finegoldia magna 7500: 7484: 7382:S. saprophyticus 7310: 7299: 7095: 6996: 6987: 6976: 6961: 6920: 6913: 6906: 6897: 6806:Ethnic bioweapon 6764:Related concepts 6730:Salmonella typhi 6661: 6654: 6646: 6453:Modern incidents 6435: 6428: 6421: 6412: 6264: 6204: 6203: 6201: 6199: 6179: 6173: 6172: 6161: 6155: 6154: 6144: 6112: 6106: 6105: 6095: 6071: 6065: 6047: 6041: 6040: 6023: 6017: 6016: 6014: 6012: 5997: 5991: 5990: 5988: 5981: 5973: 5967: 5966: 5964: 5962: 5947: 5941: 5940: 5938: 5936: 5920: 5914: 5913: 5901: 5894:Cole LA (2009). 5891: 5885: 5884: 5882: 5880: 5861: 5855: 5854: 5852: 5850: 5830: 5824: 5823: 5795: 5789: 5788: 5752: 5743: 5742: 5722: 5713: 5712: 5710: 5708: 5688: 5682: 5681: 5679: 5677: 5658: 5652: 5651: 5611: 5603: 5594: 5593: 5591: 5589: 5567: 5561: 5560: 5558: 5556: 5547:. 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Archived from 4116: 4110: 4109: 4107: 4105: 4090: 4084: 4083: 4081: 4079: 4060: 4054: 4053: 4051: 4049: 4029: 4020: 4019: 4017: 4015: 3996: 3990: 3989: 3987: 3985: 3970: 3964: 3944: 3938: 3937: 3936: 3934: 3918: 3912: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3892: 3886: 3885: 3883: 3881: 3876:on 8 August 2017 3875: 3860: 3851: 3845: 3844: 3842: 3840: 3831:. Archived from 3820: 3814: 3813: 3811: 3809: 3781: 3775: 3761: 3755: 3754: 3752: 3750: 3731: 3720: 3719: 3718:(11th ed.). 3711: 3705: 3704: 3703:(11th ed.). 3696: 3690: 3689: 3679: 3647: 3641: 3640: 3638: 3636: 3620: 3614: 3613: 3611: 3609: 3581: 3572: 3571: 3570: 3568: 3549: 3538: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3505: 3496: 3495: 3475: 3469: 3468: 3466: 3442: 3436: 3435: 3433: 3431: 3420:Evening Standard 3411: 3405: 3404: 3376: 3367: 3366: 3356: 3324: 3318: 3317: 3289: 3276: 3275: 3265: 3233: 3227: 3226: 3216: 3192: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3167: 3154: 3145: 3144: 3134: 3111:Mol. Aspects Med 3102: 3096: 3095: 3085: 3053: 3047: 3046: 3044: 3042: 3023: 3017: 3016: 3011: 2991:(7th ed.). 2990: 2976: 2970: 2969: 2967: 2965: 2948: 2927: 2926: 2924: 2922: 2903: 2897: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2873: 2867: 2866: 2850: 2841: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2830: 2819: 2811: 2800: 2799: 2763: 2757: 2756: 2754: 2752: 2733: 2727: 2726: 2724: 2722: 2713:. 21 July 2014. 2703: 2697: 2696: 2691:Stark J (2013). 2688: 2682: 2681: 2673: 2667: 2666: 2642: 2636: 2635: 2621: 2615: 2594: 2593: 2587: 2581: 2580: 2562: 2538: 2532: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2508: 2493: 2492: 2468: 2462: 2461: 2459: 2442: 2431: 2420: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2396: 2383: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2369:. 21 July 2024. 2359: 2348: 2347: 2324: 2313: 2312: 2310: 2308: 2299:. 17 June 2015. 2289: 2276: 2275: 2273: 2271: 2256: 2247: 2246: 2236: 2204: 2181: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2157: 2148: 2147: 2145: 2143: 2128:"Who Is at Risk" 2124: 2111: 2110: 2108: 2106: 2087: 2076: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2062:. 23 July 2014. 2052: 1913:Jeanne Guillemin 1713:sodium carbonate 1692:Chlorine dioxide 1665:oxidizing agents 1626:Second World War 1558: 1555: 1537: 1536: 1530: 1440:Anthrax vaccines 1341:in Afghanistan. 1146:fluoroquinolones 1118: 1012:Anthrax vaccines 1000:bokashi mudballs 718: 705:(yellow) and an 686: 672: 574:Gastrointestinal 569:Gastrointestinal 445: 424: 397: 396: 117: 105: 93: 86: 82: 79: 73: 45: 44: 37: 21: 7796: 7795: 7791: 7790: 7789: 7787: 7786: 7785: 7756:Bovine diseases 7731: 7730: 7729: 7720: 7693: 7632: 7609: 7571: 7539: 7465: 7436: 7424:Bacillus cereus 7389: 7345: 7290: 7278: 7234: 7201: 7176: 7144: 7138:Rheumatic fever 7080: 7022: 6967: 6965:Lactobacillales 6950: 6924: 6894: 6889: 6866: 6852:Geneva Protocol 6840: 6811:Decontamination 6759: 6616:Botulinum toxin 6611:Avian influenza 6592: 6508:Australia Group 6500: 6494: 6448: 6439: 6409: 6404: 6403: 6358: 6357: 6275: 6232: 6213: 6208: 6207: 6197: 6195: 6181: 6180: 6176: 6163: 6162: 6158: 6114: 6113: 6109: 6073: 6072: 6068: 6058:Wayback Machine 6048: 6044: 6025: 6024: 6020: 6010: 6008: 5999: 5998: 5994: 5986: 5979: 5975: 5974: 5970: 5960: 5958: 5949: 5948: 5944: 5934: 5932: 5922: 5921: 5917: 5910: 5893: 5892: 5888: 5878: 5876: 5863: 5862: 5858: 5848: 5846: 5832: 5831: 5827: 5797: 5796: 5792: 5754: 5753: 5746: 5739: 5724: 5723: 5716: 5706: 5704: 5690: 5689: 5685: 5675: 5673: 5660: 5659: 5655: 5640: 5605: 5604: 5597: 5587: 5585: 5569: 5568: 5564: 5554: 5552: 5538: 5537: 5533: 5522: 5507: 5506: 5502: 5492: 5491: 5487: 5469: 5468: 5464: 5457: 5442: 5441: 5437: 5427: 5425: 5421: 5414: 5410: 5409: 5405: 5388: 5384: 5374: 5372: 5359: 5358: 5354: 5344: 5342: 5328: 5327: 5323: 5317: 5311: 5304: 5296: 5295: 5291: 5285:Wayback Machine 5274:Wayback Machine 5264: 5260: 5250: 5248: 5235: 5234: 5227: 5175: 5174: 5170: 5160: 5158: 5149: 5148: 5144: 5092: 5091: 5087: 5077: 5075: 5066: 5065: 5061: 5055:Wayback Machine 5044:Wayback Machine 5034: 5030: 5020: 5018: 5009: 5008: 5004: 4994: 4992: 4978: 4977: 4973: 4959:Jacobsen, Annie 4957: 4953: 4935: 4931: 4925:Wayback Machine 4915: 4911: 4881: 4880: 4876: 4866: 4865: 4861: 4854: 4835: 4834: 4830: 4820: 4819: 4815: 4788: 4787: 4783: 4748: 4747: 4743: 4733: 4731: 4724:The Nobel Prize 4718: 4717: 4713: 4706: 4693: 4692: 4688: 4671: 4670: 4666: 4656: 4654: 4641: 4640: 4636: 4626: 4624: 4610: 4609: 4605: 4595: 4593: 4584: 4583: 4579: 4569: 4567: 4558: 4557: 4553: 4543: 4541: 4527: 4526: 4522: 4495:Human Pathology 4492: 4491: 4487: 4477: 4475: 4462: 4461: 4457: 4447: 4445: 4403: 4402: 4398: 4388: 4386: 4344: 4343: 4339: 4329: 4327: 4314: 4313: 4306: 4268: 4267: 4263: 4253: 4252: 4248: 4238: 4236: 4221: 4220: 4216: 4207:. 21 May 2009. 4195: 4194: 4190: 4144: 4143: 4139: 4129: 4127: 4118: 4117: 4113: 4103: 4101: 4092: 4091: 4087: 4077: 4075: 4062: 4061: 4057: 4047: 4045: 4031: 4030: 4023: 4013: 4011: 3998: 3997: 3993: 3983: 3981: 3972: 3971: 3967: 3955:Wayback Machine 3945: 3941: 3932: 3930: 3920: 3919: 3915: 3905: 3903: 3894: 3893: 3889: 3879: 3877: 3873: 3858: 3853: 3852: 3848: 3838: 3836: 3835:on 8 April 2008 3822: 3821: 3817: 3807: 3805: 3798: 3783: 3782: 3778: 3772:Wayback Machine 3762: 3758: 3748: 3746: 3733: 3732: 3723: 3713: 3712: 3708: 3698: 3697: 3693: 3649: 3648: 3644: 3634: 3632: 3622: 3621: 3617: 3607: 3605: 3583: 3582: 3575: 3566: 3564: 3551: 3550: 3541: 3531: 3529: 3507: 3506: 3499: 3492: 3477: 3476: 3472: 3444: 3443: 3439: 3429: 3427: 3413: 3412: 3408: 3378: 3377: 3370: 3339:(12): 1333–41. 3326: 3325: 3321: 3291: 3290: 3279: 3235: 3234: 3230: 3194: 3193: 3189: 3180: 3165: 3157:Koch R (1876). 3156: 3155: 3148: 3104: 3103: 3099: 3068:(12): 4516–24. 3055: 3054: 3050: 3040: 3038: 3025: 3024: 3020: 3009: 3003: 2988: 2978: 2977: 2973: 2963: 2961: 2950: 2949: 2930: 2920: 2918: 2905: 2904: 2900: 2890: 2888: 2875: 2874: 2870: 2852: 2851: 2844: 2834: 2832: 2828: 2817: 2813: 2812: 2803: 2765: 2764: 2760: 2750: 2748: 2747:on 5 April 2007 2735: 2734: 2730: 2720: 2718: 2705: 2704: 2700: 2690: 2689: 2685: 2675: 2674: 2670: 2659: 2651:. Oxbow Books. 2644: 2643: 2639: 2623: 2622: 2618: 2612:Perseus Project 2588: 2584: 2540: 2539: 2535: 2525: 2523: 2510: 2509: 2496: 2485: 2470: 2469: 2465: 2457: 2451: 2440: 2433: 2432: 2423: 2413: 2411: 2398: 2397: 2386: 2376: 2374: 2361: 2360: 2351: 2340: 2326: 2325: 2316: 2306: 2304: 2291: 2290: 2279: 2269: 2267: 2258: 2257: 2250: 2206: 2205: 2184: 2174: 2172: 2159: 2158: 2151: 2141: 2139: 2126: 2125: 2114: 2104: 2102: 2089: 2088: 2079: 2069: 2067: 2054: 2053: 2038: 2033: 2014: 1987: 1945:microbiological 1941: 1930:To support the 1891: 1885: 1840:Royal Air Force 1832:Gruinard Island 1762: 1756: 1748:Gruinard Island 1661: 1656: 1559: 1553: 1550: 1534: 1528: 1505:New South Wales 1499:, travelled to 1477:Pouilly-le-Fort 1442: 1436: 1401:John Henry Bell 1358: 1353: 1347: 1327: 1311: 1279: 1271: 1259: 1218: 1178: 1141: 1107: 1105: 1084: 1036:subunit vaccine 1014: 1008: 973: 950: 946: 894: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 774: 737: 730: 719: 710: 689:Color-enhanced 687: 678: 673: 617: 599:Photomicrograph 592: 587: 571: 543: 521: 458: 453: 386: 357:Northern Europe 353:Southern Europe 165: 162:Intestinal form 160: 152: 103: 94: 83: 77: 74: 59: 46: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7794: 7792: 7784: 7783: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7763: 7758: 7753: 7748: 7743: 7733: 7732: 7726: 7725: 7722: 7721: 7719: 7718: 7717: 7716: 7703: 7701: 7695: 7694: 7692: 7691: 7690: 7689: 7677: 7670: 7669: 7668: 7655: 7653: 7644: 7638: 7637: 7634: 7633: 7631: 7630: 7622: 7620: 7611: 7610: 7608: 7607: 7606: 7605: 7592: 7590: 7582:Clostridioides 7577: 7576: 7573: 7572: 7570: 7569: 7568: 7567: 7562: 7549: 7547: 7541: 7540: 7538: 7537: 7536: 7535: 7523: 7522: 7521: 7508: 7506: 7497: 7481: 7475: 7474: 7471: 7470: 7467: 7466: 7464: 7463: 7462: 7461: 7448: 7446: 7438: 7437: 7435: 7434: 7433: 7432: 7430:Food poisoning 7420: 7419: 7418: 7405: 7403: 7395: 7394: 7391: 7390: 7388: 7387: 7386: 7385: 7373: 7372: 7371: 7368:S. epidermidis 7355: 7353: 7347: 7346: 7344: 7343: 7342: 7341: 7336: 7331: 7318: 7316: 7307: 7304:Staphylococcus 7296: 7284: 7283: 7280: 7279: 7277: 7276: 7269: 7268: 7267: 7250: 7248: 7240: 7239: 7236: 7235: 7233: 7232: 7221: 7215: 7213: 7207: 7206: 7203: 7202: 7200: 7199: 7198: 7197: 7184: 7182: 7178: 7177: 7175: 7174: 7173: 7172: 7154: 7152: 7146: 7145: 7143: 7142: 7141: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7103: 7101: 7092: 7086: 7085: 7082: 7081: 7079: 7078: 7070: 7063: 7056: 7049: 7042: 7030: 7028: 7024: 7023: 7021: 7020: 7019: 7018: 7005: 7003: 6993: 6984: 6973: 6958: 6952: 6951: 6949: 6948: 6939: 6925: 6923: 6922: 6915: 6908: 6900: 6891: 6890: 6888: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6871: 6868: 6867: 6865: 6864: 6859: 6854: 6848: 6846: 6842: 6841: 6839: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6791:Biocontainment 6788: 6783: 6778: 6776:Anthrax hoaxes 6773: 6771:Agro-terrorism 6767: 6765: 6761: 6760: 6758: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6740:Staphylococcus 6737: 6732: 6727: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6659: 6652: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6602: 6600: 6594: 6593: 6591: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6504: 6502: 6496: 6495: 6493: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6456: 6454: 6450: 6449: 6440: 6438: 6437: 6430: 6423: 6415: 6406: 6405: 6402: 6401: 6390: 6379: 6367: 6366: 6364: 6360: 6359: 6356: 6355: 6344: 6333: 6322: 6307: 6292: 6276: 6271: 6270: 6268: 6267:Classification 6261: 6260: 6248: 6240: 6216: 6212: 6211:External links 6209: 6206: 6205: 6174: 6156: 6107: 6066: 6042: 6018: 5992: 5977:"USPS BDS FAQ" 5968: 5942: 5915: 5908: 5886: 5856: 5825: 5790: 5744: 5737: 5714: 5683: 5653: 5638: 5595: 5562: 5551:on 11 May 2013 5531: 5520: 5500: 5485: 5462: 5455: 5435: 5403: 5382: 5352: 5321: 5289: 5258: 5225: 5168: 5142: 5105:(8): 4045–62. 5085: 5059: 5028: 5002: 4971: 4951: 4949:, 1 July 2007. 4937:Willman, David 4929: 4909: 4874: 4859: 4852: 4828: 4813: 4781: 4741: 4711: 4704: 4686: 4664: 4634: 4603: 4577: 4551: 4520: 4485: 4455: 4396: 4337: 4304: 4261: 4246: 4214: 4188: 4137: 4111: 4085: 4055: 4021: 3991: 3965: 3939: 3913: 3887: 3846: 3815: 3796: 3776: 3756: 3721: 3706: 3691: 3642: 3615: 3573: 3539: 3497: 3490: 3470: 3437: 3406: 3368: 3319: 3277: 3228: 3187: 3176:(2): 277–310. 3146: 3097: 3048: 3018: 3001: 2971: 2928: 2898: 2868: 2842: 2801: 2758: 2728: 2698: 2683: 2668: 2657: 2637: 2616: 2582: 2533: 2494: 2483: 2463: 2449: 2421: 2384: 2349: 2338: 2314: 2277: 2248: 2182: 2149: 2112: 2077: 2035: 2034: 2032: 2029: 2013: 2010: 1986: 1983: 1972:anthrax hoaxes 1940: 1937: 1887:Main article: 1884: 1881: 1758:Main article: 1755: 1752: 1673:ethylene oxide 1660: 1657: 1655: 1652: 1651: 1650: 1614: 1591: 1579: 1561: 1560: 1540: 1538: 1527: 1524: 1487:, and several 1435: 1432: 1416:bacteriologist 1357: 1354: 1346: 1343: 1326: 1325:United Kingdom 1323: 1310: 1307: 1278: 1275: 1270: 1267: 1258: 1255: 1217: 1214: 1177: 1174: 1140: 1137: 1104: 1101: 1083: 1080: 1044:reactogenicity 1010:Main article: 1007: 1004: 972: 969: 948: 944: 893: 890: 878:pleural cavity 821: 817: 813: 809: 805: 773: 770: 736: 733: 732: 731: 720: 713: 711: 695:splenic tissue 688: 681: 679: 674: 667: 613:Main article: 591: 588: 586: 583: 570: 567: 542: 539: 520: 517: 457: 454: 452: 449: 385: 382: 264: 263: 260: 256: 255: 252: 246: 245: 239: 235: 234: 225: 221: 220: 210: 204: 203: 200: 194: 193: 186: 182: 181: 178: 174: 173: 167:Injection form 146: 140: 139: 134: 128: 127: 119: 118: 110: 109: 101: 96: 95: 56:of the subject 54:worldwide view 49: 47: 40: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7793: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7738: 7736: 7715: 7712: 7711: 7710: 7709: 7705: 7704: 7702: 7700: 7696: 7688: 7685: 7684: 7683: 7682: 7678: 7676: 7675: 7671: 7667: 7664: 7663: 7662: 7661: 7657: 7656: 7654: 7652: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7639: 7629: 7628: 7624: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7617: 7612: 7604: 7601: 7600: 7599: 7598: 7594: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7584: 7583: 7578: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7557: 7556: 7555: 7551: 7550: 7548: 7546: 7542: 7534: 7531: 7530: 7529: 7528: 7524: 7520: 7517: 7516: 7515: 7514: 7510: 7509: 7507: 7505: 7501: 7498: 7495: 7491: 7490: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7476: 7460: 7457: 7456: 7455: 7454: 7450: 7449: 7447: 7445: 7444: 7439: 7431: 7428: 7427: 7426: 7425: 7421: 7417: 7414: 7413: 7412: 7411: 7407: 7406: 7404: 7402: 7401: 7396: 7384: 7383: 7379: 7378: 7377: 7374: 7370: 7369: 7365: 7364: 7363: 7361: 7357: 7356: 7354: 7352: 7348: 7340: 7337: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7326: 7325: 7324: 7320: 7319: 7317: 7315: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7305: 7300: 7297: 7294: 7289: 7285: 7275: 7274: 7270: 7266: 7263: 7262: 7261: 7260: 7255: 7252: 7251: 7249: 7247: 7246: 7241: 7231: 7230: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7216: 7214: 7212: 7208: 7196: 7193: 7192: 7191: 7190: 7186: 7185: 7183: 7179: 7171: 7168: 7167: 7166: 7165: 7164:S. agalactiae 7160: 7156: 7155: 7153: 7151: 7147: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7128:Scarlet fever 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7115: 7114: 7113: 7109:susceptible: 7108: 7105: 7104: 7102: 7100: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7087: 7077: 7075: 7071: 7069: 7068: 7064: 7062: 7061: 7057: 7055: 7054: 7050: 7048: 7047: 7043: 7041: 7040: 7035: 7032: 7031: 7029: 7025: 7017: 7014: 7013: 7012: 7011: 7010:S. pneumoniae 7007: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6988: 6985: 6983: 6982: 6981:Streptococcus 6977: 6974: 6971: 6966: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6953: 6947: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6927: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6914: 6909: 6907: 6902: 6901: 6898: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6872: 6869: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6849: 6847: 6843: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6768: 6766: 6762: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6725:Salmonellosis 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6700:Marburg virus 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6664: 6660: 6657: 6653: 6650: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6603: 6601: 6599: 6595: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6505: 6503: 6497: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6457: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6436: 6431: 6429: 6424: 6422: 6417: 6416: 6413: 6400: 6396: 6395: 6391: 6389: 6385: 6384: 6380: 6378: 6374: 6373: 6369: 6368: 6365: 6361: 6354: 6350: 6349: 6345: 6343: 6339: 6338: 6334: 6332: 6328: 6327: 6323: 6321: 6317: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6306: 6302: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6291: 6287: 6286: 6282: 6278: 6277: 6274: 6269: 6265: 6258: 6254: 6253: 6249: 6246: 6245: 6241: 6239: 6235: 6230: 6226: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6214: 6210: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6178: 6175: 6170: 6166: 6160: 6157: 6152: 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About.com. 3897: 3891: 3888: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3857: 3850: 3847: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3819: 3816: 3803: 3799: 3793: 3789: 3788: 3780: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3766: 3760: 3757: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3730: 3728: 3726: 3722: 3717: 3710: 3707: 3702: 3695: 3692: 3687: 3683: 3678: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3662:(3): 690–95. 3661: 3657: 3653: 3646: 3643: 3630: 3626: 3619: 3616: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3580: 3578: 3574: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3548: 3546: 3544: 3540: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3504: 3502: 3498: 3493: 3487: 3483: 3482: 3474: 3471: 3465: 3460: 3457:(3): 279–82. 3456: 3452: 3448: 3441: 3438: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3410: 3407: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3387:(7): 489–93. 3386: 3382: 3375: 3373: 3369: 3364: 3360: 3355: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3323: 3320: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3300:(1): 258–62. 3299: 3295: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3282: 3278: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3248:(1): 164–78. 3247: 3243: 3239: 3232: 3229: 3224: 3220: 3215: 3210: 3207:(4): 343–49. 3206: 3202: 3198: 3191: 3188: 3179: 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1277:United States 1276: 1274: 1268: 1266: 1264: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1248: 1246: 1241: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1222:lethal factor 1215: 1213: 1211: 1210:antibacterial 1207: 1206:Obiltoxaximab 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1180:In May 2009, 1175: 1173: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1150:ciprofloxacin 1147: 1138: 1136: 1133: 1128: 1127:antimicrobial 1102: 1100: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1081: 1079: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1034: 1029: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1018:Louis Pasteur 1013: 1005: 1003: 1001: 997: 992: 990: 986: 982: 981:rubber gloves 977: 970: 968: 966: 962: 958: 954: 942: 938: 934: 929: 928:may be used. 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 898: 891: 889: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 842:pyrophosphate 839: 835: 831: 826: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 782:anthrax toxin 779: 771: 769: 765: 763: 754: 749: 745: 743: 734: 728: 724: 717: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 685: 680: 677: 671: 666: 664: 662: 661:lethal factor 658: 654: 650: 646: 640: 638: 632: 629: 625: 624:Gram-positive 621: 616: 608: 604: 600: 596: 589: 584: 582: 579: 575: 568: 566: 564: 563:mediastinitis 559: 555: 553: 549: 540: 538: 535: 530: 526: 518: 516: 514: 509: 504: 500: 496: 492: 488: 478: 470: 462: 455: 450: 448: 446: 444: 443: 436: 431: 429: 425: 423: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 391: 383: 381: 379: 375: 370: 366: 361: 358: 354: 349: 347: 344:and possibly 343: 339: 335: 331: 330:ciprofloxacin 327: 323: 321: 317: 312: 310: 306: 302: 298: 293: 291: 287: 283: 279: 278: 274: 270: 261: 257: 253: 251: 247: 244: 241:Antibiotics, 240: 236: 233: 229: 226: 222: 219: 215: 211: 209: 205: 201: 199: 195: 192: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 172: 168: 163: 159: 155: 150: 147: 145: 141: 138: 135: 133: 129: 125: 120: 116: 111: 106: 100: 92: 89: 81: 71: 67: 63: 57: 55: 48: 39: 38: 33: 19: 7706: 7679: 7672: 7658: 7625: 7614: 7595: 7580: 7560:Gas gangrene 7552: 7544: 7525: 7511: 7503: 7487: 7451: 7441: 7422: 7415: 7408: 7398: 7380: 7375: 7366: 7358: 7321: 7302: 7271: 7257: 7245:Enterococcus 7243: 7227: 7187: 7162: 7110: 7074:S. anginosus 7073: 7065: 7060:S. sanguinis 7058: 7051: 7044: 7037: 7008: 6979: 6605: 6501:and response 6446:bioterrorism 6392: 6381: 6370: 6346: 6335: 6324: 6309: 6294: 6279: 6250: 6243: 6222: 6196:. 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President 1848: 1828:Nazi Germany 1802: 1778: 1769:Colin Powell 1745: 1741:B. anthracis 1740: 1737: 1729: 1725: 1702: 1695: 1689: 1683: 1681: 1662: 1659:Site cleanup 1585: 1551: 1517: 1493: 1466: 1451: 1385: 1359: 1328: 1312: 1300: 1288: 1280: 1272: 1269:Epidemiology 1262: 1260: 1252: 1249: 1242: 1219: 1202:B. anthracis 1201: 1198:B. anthracis 1197: 1184:submitted a 1179: 1158:erythromycin 1142: 1132:formaldehyde 1123: 1096:prophylactic 1085: 1040:live vaccine 1030: 1026:Soviet Union 1015: 993: 978: 974: 961:B. anthracis 960: 953:B. anthracis 952: 940: 937:B. anthracis 936: 932: 930: 918:B. anthracis 917: 913: 910:Gram stained 906:B. anthracis 905: 903: 870:septic shock 827: 798:B. anthracis 797: 775: 766: 758: 738: 675: 641: 636: 633: 619: 618: 606: 572: 560: 556: 544: 522: 513:B. anthracis 512: 483: 438: 432: 427: 419: 389: 387: 362: 350: 334:levofloxacin 324: 313: 308: 294: 275: 268: 267: 198:Risk factors 188: 166: 161: 153: 148: 99: 84: 78:October 2021 75: 51: 7714:Erysipeloid 7489:Clostridium 7459:Listeriosis 7362:susceptible 7112:S. pyogenes 7067:S. sobrinus 7002:susceptible 6690:Henipavirus 6621:Brucellosis 6372:MedlinePlus 6217:‹ The 5375:26 December 5345:26 December 4890:(2): 1–25. 4320:www.cdc.gov 4239:14 December 4157:(6): 1056. 4151:Diagnostics 4104:26 December 4068:www.cdc.gov 4048:26 December 4004:www.cdc.gov 3765:Respirators 3749:22 December 3635:26 December 3041:10 February 2911:www.cdc.gov 2881:Mayo Clinic 2835:14 December 2721:16 February 2260:"Treatment" 2161:"Diagnosis" 1991:irradiation 1968:Bruce Ivins 1960:Tom Daschle 1805:Porton Down 1717:bicarbonate 1630:Oxfordshire 1624:during the 1595:Ames strain 1497:Adrien Loir 1420:Home Office 1377:cell theory 1361:Robert Koch 1296:drum circle 1240:and death. 1234:vital organ 1190:raxibacumab 1154:doxycycline 1139:Antibiotics 1082:Antibiotics 957:medusa head 850:neutrophils 840:(cAMP) and 832:-dependent 753:mediastinal 707:erythrocyte 657:mediastinum 653:lymph nodes 645:macrophages 637:post mortem 628:Robert Koch 491:skin lesion 342:antibiotics 338:doxycycline 305:Robert Koch 232:antibiotics 177:Usual onset 7735:Categories 7642:Mollicutes 7616:Finegoldia 7545:nonmotile: 7479:Clostridia 7360:novobiocin 7288:Bacillales 7133:Erysipelas 7107:bacitracin 6885:Wikisource 6685:Hantavirus 6663:Venezuelan 6499:Prevention 6394:Patient UK 6337:DiseasesDB 5555:19 October 5428:31 October 5278:Transcript 5078:10 October 5048:Transcript 4985:Boston Sun 4544:19 October 4478:19 October 4330:25 January 4014:25 January 3608:2 November 3590:StatPearls 3567:2 November 3532:2 November 3430:2 November 2891:25 January 2056:"Symptoms" 2031:References 2021:permafrost 1925:stray dogs 1813:biowarfare 1582:Strain 836 1572:Max Sterne 1554:April 2018 1543:incomplete 1473:Émile Roux 1349:See also: 1166:penicillin 1162:vancomycin 1052:induration 971:Prevention 846:calmodulin 838:cyclic AMP 830:calmodulin 649:lymphatics 603:Gram stain 224:Prevention 214:antibodies 7589:-forming) 7496:-forming) 7323:S. aureus 7181:ungrouped 7159:CAMP test 7053:S. oralis 7046:S. mutans 6929:Bacillota 6836:Terrorism 6745:Tularemia 6383:eMedicine 6353:409498004 6348:SNOMED CT 6198:19 August 6011:13 August 5849:1 October 5728:Biohazard 5707:13 August 5676:13 August 5666:Frontline 5588:26 August 5476:The Times 5161:13 August 5021:13 August 4969:, p. 293. 4904:142036883 4734:4 October 4410:Neurology 3906:13 August 3839:13 August 3808:8 October 3522:1059-1028 2626:"anthrax" 2512:"Anthrax" 2293:"Anthrax" 1859:Rhodesian 1797:Manchuria 1771:giving a 1669:peroxides 1509:John Gunn 1501:Australia 1365:Wollstein 1356:Discovery 1339:bone meal 1245:fulminant 1216:Prognosis 1103:Treatment 1033:acellular 892:Diagnosis 866:apoptosis 854:TNF-alpha 772:Mechanism 762:livestock 651:) to the 548:influenza 534:bone meal 519:Injection 430:, 1240). 384:Etymology 346:antitoxin 273:bacterium 259:Frequency 250:Prognosis 243:antitoxin 238:Treatment 212:Based on 169:: fever, 149:Skin form 132:Specialty 66:talk page 7771:Zoonoses 7519:Botulism 7443:Listeria 7400:Bacillus 7039:S. mitis 7000:optochin 6786:Bacteria 6735:Smallpox 6680:Glanders 6460:Unit 731 6219:template 6192:Archived 6169:Archived 6151:22114567 6127:: 8482. 6102:10475950 6054:Archived 6037:Archived 6032:NBC News 5984:Archived 5961:26 March 5955:Archived 5935:7 August 5929:Archived 5879:16 April 5873:Archived 5869:BBC News 5843:Archived 5820:12745053 5701:Archived 5670:Archived 5648:11041763 5582:Archived 5526:Archived 5480:Archived 5419:Archived 5399:Archived 5369:Archived 5365:BBC News 5339:Archived 5309:Archived 5281:Archived 5270:Archived 5245:Archived 5220:20305025 5155:Archived 5137:30901213 5072:Archived 5051:Archived 5040:Archived 5015:Archived 4995:6 August 4989:Archived 4961:(2015), 4939:(2007), 4921:Archived 4728:Archived 4681:Archived 4677:BBC News 4651:Archived 4621:Archived 4596:17 March 4590:Archived 4570:17 March 4564:Archived 4538:Archived 4472:Archived 4442:Archived 4438:37545366 4430:12177364 4383:Archived 4371:16490913 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