354:
potential. The results showed that both compound and unitary inhibitory postsynaptic potentials are amplified by dendritic calcium ion channels. The width of a somatic IPSP is independent of the distance between the soma and the synapse whereas the rise time increases with this distance. These IPSPs also regulate theta rhythms in pyramidal cells. On the other hand, inhibitory postsynaptic potentials are depolarizing and sometimes excitatory in immature mammalian spinal neurons because of high concentrations of intracellular chloride through ionotropic GABA or glycine chloride ion channels. These depolarizations activate voltage-dependent calcium channels. They later become hyperpolarizing as the mammal matures. To be specific, in rats, this maturation occurs during the perinatal period when brain stem projects reach the lumbar enlargement. Descending modulatory inputs are necessary for the developmental shift from depolarizing to hyperpolarizing inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. This was studied through complete
225:) are pentamers most commonly composed of three different subunits (α, β, γ), although several other subunits (δ,ε, θ, π, ρ) and conformations exist. The open channels are selectively permeable to chloride or potassium ions (depending on the type of receptor) and allow these ions to pass through the membrane. If the electrochemical potential of the ion is more negative than that of the action potential threshold then the resultant conductance change that occurs due to the binding of GABA to its receptors keeps the postsynaptic potential more negative than the threshold and decreases the probability of the postsynaptic neuron completing an action potential.
271:. This begins the activation of the G-protein, which then releases itself from the receptor and interacts with ion channels and other proteins to open or close ion channels through intracellular messengers. They produce slow postsynaptic responses (from milliseconds to minutes) and can be activated in conjunction with ionotropic receptors to create both fast and slow postsynaptic potentials at one particular synapse. Metabotropic GABA receptors, heterodimers of R1 and R2 subunits, use potassium channels instead of chloride. They can also block calcium ion channels to hyperpolarize postsynaptic cells.
214:(also known as ligand-gated ion channels) play an important role in inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. A neurotransmitter binds to the extracellular site and opens the ion channel that is made up of a membrane-spanning domain that allows ions to flow across the membrane inside the postsynaptic cell. This type of receptor produces very fast postsynaptic actions within a couple of milliseconds of the presynaptic terminal receiving an action potential. These channels influence the amplitude and time-course of postsynaptic potentials as a whole.
296:
postsynaptic spiking in the medial portion of the dorsalateral thalamic nucleus without any extra excitatory inputs. This shows an excess of thalamic GABAergic activation. This is important because spiking timing is needed for proper sound localization in the ascending auditory pathways. Songbirds use GABAergic calyceal synaptic terminals and a calcyx-like synapse such that each cell in the dorsalateral thalamic nucleus receives at most two axon terminals from the basal ganglia to create large postsynaptic currents.
364:, an excitatory neurotransmitter, is usually associated with excitatory postsynaptic potentials in synaptic transmission. However, a study completed at the Vollum Institute at the Oregon Health Sciences University demonstrates that glutamate can also be used to induce inhibitory postsynaptic potentials in neurons. This study explains that metabotropic glutamate receptors feature activated G proteins in dopamine neurons that induce phosphoinositide hydrolysis. The resultant products bind to
317:(DSI)" in CA1 pyramidal cells and cerebellar Purkinje cells. In a laboratory setting step depolarizations the soma have been used to create DSIs, but it can also be achieved through synaptically induced depolarization of the dendrites. DSIs can be blocked by ionotropic receptor calcium ion channel antagonists on the somata and proximal apical dendrites of CA1 pyramidal cells. Dendritic inhibitory postsynaptic potentials can be severely reduced by DSIs through direct depolarization.
368:(IP3) receptors through calcium ion channels. The calcium comes from stores and activate potassium conductance, which causes a pure inhibition in the dopamine cells. The changing levels of synaptically released glutamate creates an excitation through the activation of ionotropic receptors, followed by the inhibition of metabotropic glutamate receptors.
350:-initiated rhythm through the release of endocannabinoids. An endocannabinoid-dependent mechanism can disrupt theta IPSPs through action potentials delivered as a burst pattern or brief train. In addition, the activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors removes any theta IPSP activity through a G-protein, calcium ion–independent pathway.
159:
137:
154:
This system IPSPs can be temporally summed with subthreshold or suprathreshold EPSPs to reduce the amplitude of the resultant postsynaptic potential. Equivalent EPSPs (positive) and IPSPs (negative) can cancel each other out when summed. The balance between EPSPs and IPSPs is very important in the
345:
and GABAergic synaptic inhibition helps to modulate them. They are dependent on IPSPs and started in either CA3 by muscarinic acetylcholine receptors and within C1 by the activation of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors. When interneurons are activated by metabotropic acetylcholine receptors
336:
activated nonselective cation conductance decreases EPSP summation and duration and they also change inhibitory inputs into postsynaptic excitation. IPSPs come into the picture when the tufted cells membranes are depolarized and IPSPs then cause inhibition. At resting threshold IPSPs induce action
299:
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials are also used to study the basal ganglia of amphibians to see how motor function is modulated through its inhibitory outputs from the striatum to the tectum and tegmentum. Visually guided behaviors may be regulated through the inhibitory striato-tegmental pathway
291:
In addition, research is being performed in the field of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area, which deals with reward, and the substantia nigra, which is involved with movement and motivation. Metabotropic responses occur in dopamine neurons through the regulation of the excitability of
295:
IPSPs can also be used to study the input-output characteristics of an inhibitory forebrain synapse used to further study learned behavior—for example in a study of song learning in birds at the
University of Washington. Poisson trains of unitary IPSPs were induced at a high frequency to reproduce
279:
There are many applications of inhibitory postsynaptic potentials to the real world. Drugs that affect the actions of the neurotransmitter can treat neurological and psychological disorders through different combinations of types of receptors, G-proteins, and ion channels in postsynaptic neurons.
47:
likely to generate an action potential. IPSPs can take place at all chemical synapses, which use the secretion of neurotransmitters to create cell-to-cell signalling. EPSPs and IPSPs compete with each other at numerous synapses of a neuron. This determines whether an action potential occurring at
304:
and the
Chinese Academy of Sciences. The basal ganglia in amphibians is very important in receiving visual, auditory, olfactory, and mechansensory inputs; the disinhibitory striato-protecto-tectal pathway is important in prey-catching behaviors of amphibians. When the ipsilateral striatum of an
109:
and causing them to open, then chloride ions, which are in greater concentration in the synaptic cleft, diffuse into the postsynaptic neuron. As these are negatively charged ions, hyperpolarisation results, making it less likely for an action potential to be generated in the postsynaptic neuron.
287:
of the brain are being performed. When a high concentration of agonist is applied for an extended amount of time (fifteen minutes or more), hyperpolarization peaks and then decreases. This is significant because it is a prelude to tolerance; the more opioids one needs for pain the greater the
121:
threshold voltage, ionic permeability of the ion channel, as well as the concentrations of the ions in and out of the cell; this determines if it is excitatory or inhibitory. IPSPs always tend to keep the membrane potential more negative than the action potential threshold and can be seen as a
353:
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials have also been studied in the
Purkinje cell through dendritic amplification. The study focused in on the propagation of IPSPs along dendrites and its dependency of ionotropic receptors by measuring the amplitude and time-course of the inhibitory postsynaptic
79:—the membrane potential must reach a voltage threshold more positive than the resting membrane potential. Therefore, hyperpolarisation of the postsynaptic membrane makes it less likely for depolarisation to sufficiently occur to generate an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron.
288:
tolerance of the patient. These studies are important because it helps us to learn more about how we deal with pain and our responses to various substances that help treat pain. By studying our tolerance to pain, we can develop more efficient medications for pain treatment.
179:
of postsynaptic potentials occurs in smaller neurons, whereas in larger neurons larger numbers of synapses and ionotropic receptors as well as a longer distance from the synapse to the soma enables the prolongation of interactions between neurons.
89:
threshold. Another way to look at inhibitory postsynaptic potentials is that they are also a chloride conductance change in the neuronal cell because it decreases the driving force. This is because, if the neurotransmitter released into the
292:
cells. Opioids inhibit GABA release; this decreases the amount of inhibition and allows them to fire spontaneously. Morphine and opioids relate to inhibitory postsynaptic potentials because they induce disinhibition in dopamine neurons.
340:
Another interesting study of inhibitory postsynaptic potentials looks at neuronal theta rhythm oscillations that can be used to represent electrophysiological phenomena and various behaviors. Theta rhythms are found in the
346:
in the CA1 region of rat hippocampal slices, a theta pattern of IPSPs in pyramidal cells occurs independent of the input. This research also studies DSIs, showing that DSIs interrupt metabotropic
986:
Jean-Xavier C, Pflieger JF, Liabeuf S, Vinay L (November 2006). "Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials in lumbar motoneurons remain depolarizing after neonatal spinal cord transection in the rat".
267:. These do not use ion channels in their structure; instead they consist of an extracellular domain that binds to a neurotransmitter and an intracellular domain that binds to
1099:
419:
Thompson SM, Gähwiler BH (March 1989). "Activity-dependent disinhibition. I. Repetitive stimulation reduces IPSP driving force and conductance in the hippocampus in vitro".
162:
Graph displaying an EPSP, an IPSP, and the summation of an EPSP and an IPSP. When the two are summed together the potential is still below the action potential threshold.
314:
305:
adult toad was electrically stimulated, inhibitory postsynaptic potentials were induced in binocular tegmental neurons, which affects the visual system of the toad.
528:
Llinas R, Terzuolo CA (March 1965). "Mechanisms of
Supraspinal Actions Upon Spinal Cord Activities. Reticular Inhibitory Mechanisms Upon Flexor Motoneurons".
879:
117:
In general, a postsynaptic potential is dependent on the type and combination of receptor channel, reverse potential of the postsynaptic potential,
1092:
481:"The specific ionic conductances and the ionic movements across the motoneuronal membrane that produce the inhibitory post-synaptic potential"
463:
248:(Valium) bind to the α and γ subunits of GABA receptors to improve GABAergic signaling. Alcohol also modulates ionotropic GABA receptors.
48:
the presynaptic terminal produces an action potential at the postsynaptic membrane. Some common neurotransmitters involved in IPSPs are
1085:
766:
71:
is generated, i.e. the postsynaptic membrane potential becomes more negative than the resting membrane potential, and this is called
1257:
40:
1140:
831:"Intrinsic conductances actively shape excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic responses in olfactory bulb external tufted cells"
718:"Direct depolarization and antidromic action potentials transiently suppress dendritic IPSPs in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cells"
1211:
669:"Postsynaptic potentials and axonal projections of tegmental neurons responding to electrical stimulation of the toad striatum"
126:
333:
72:
1031:
Fiorillo CD, Williams JT (July 1998). "Glutamate mediates an inhibitory postsynaptic potential in dopamine neurons".
358:
transections at birth of rats and recording IPSPs from lumbar motoneurons at the end of the first week after birth.
1358:
301:
67:
to particular ions. An electric current that changes the postsynaptic membrane potential to create a more negative
616:
Williams, JT, Vollum
Institute of Oregon Health Sciences University, Interviewed by Saira Ahmed, November 11, 2008
60:
918:
103:
140:
Flowchart describing how an inhibitory postsynaptic potential works from neurotransmitter release to summation
1353:
1216:
1300:
1252:
1196:
1171:
995:
256:
68:
1135:
365:
283:
For example, studies researching opioid receptor-mediated receptor desensitizing and trafficking in the
1305:
1280:
1040:
211:
1000:
1295:
1201:
382:
313:
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials can be inhibited themselves through a signaling process called "
1242:
1064:
937:"Calcium dependence of retrograde inhibition by endocannabinoids at synapses onto Purkinje cells"
910:
797:
747:
377:
337:
potentials. GABA is responsible for much of the work of the IPSPs in the external tufted cells.
176:
28:
85:
can also occur due to an IPSP if the reverse potential is between the resting threshold and the
195:
molecules and their receptors work much in the same way in the spinal cord, brain, and retina.
1285:
1232:
1056:
1013:
968:
902:
860:
789:
739:
698:
649:
596:
565:"Coexistence of excitatory and inhibitory GABA synapses in the cerebellar interneuron network"
545:
510:
459:
436:
130:
880:"Regulation of IPSP theta rhythm by muscarinic receptors and endocannabinoids in hippocampus"
1247:
1206:
1188:
1048:
1005:
958:
948:
894:
850:
842:
781:
729:
688:
680:
639:
586:
576:
537:
500:
492:
428:
409:
Purves et al. Neuroscience. 4th ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer
Associates, Incorporated; 2008.
325:
118:
114:
can be used to measure postsynaptic potentials at either excitatory or inhibitory synapses.
106:
91:
86:
64:
36:
32:
805:
1348:
1291:
284:
245:
191:
is a very common neurotransmitter used in IPSPs in the adult mammalian brain and retina.
111:
320:
Along these lines, inhibitory postsynaptic potentials are useful in the signaling of the
1044:
767:"Dendritic amplification of inhibitory postsynaptic potentials in a model Purkinje cell"
1323:
1109:
963:
953:
936:
855:
830:
693:
668:
591:
581:
564:
505:
480:
321:
260:
218:
82:
76:
155:
integration of electrical information produced by inhibitory and excitatory synapses.
1342:
785:
347:
237:
233:
95:
914:
751:
1077:
1068:
846:
801:
496:
329:
229:
332:. Low-voltage activated calcium ion conductance enhances even larger EPSPs. The
684:
644:
628:"Unitary IPSPs drive precise thalamic spiking in a circuit required for learning"
627:
1128:
355:
342:
59:
Inhibitory presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters that then bind to the
241:
734:
717:
541:
432:
1237:
361:
268:
1017:
972:
906:
864:
793:
743:
702:
653:
600:
549:
514:
158:
136:
1060:
1009:
898:
440:
99:
228:
Ionotropic GABA receptors are used in binding for various drugs such as
1123:
328:. EPSPs are amplified by persistent sodium ion conductance in external
192:
53:
43:(EPSP), which is a synaptic potential that makes a postsynaptic neuron
1166:
1150:
172:
878:
Reich CG, Karson MA, Karnup SV, Jones LM, Alger BE (December 2005).
125:
IPSPs were first investigated in motorneurons by David P. C. Lloyd,
1145:
1052:
75:. To generate an action potential, the postsynaptic membrane must
188:
49:
1081:
175:
can also affect the inhibitory postsynaptic potential. Simple
39:. The opposite of an inhibitory postsynaptic potential is an
1316:
1273:
1225:
1187:
1180:
1159:
1116:
63:; this induces a change in the permeability of the
765:Solinas SM, Maex R, De Schutter E (March 2006).
300:found in amphibians in a study performed at the
479:Coombs JS, Eccles JC, Fatt P (November 1955).
259:are often G-protein-coupled receptors such as
1093:
315:depolarized-induced suppression of inhibition
203:There are two types of inhibitory receptors:
8:
612:
610:
405:
403:
401:
399:
397:
1184:
1100:
1086:
1078:
999:
962:
952:
854:
733:
692:
643:
590:
580:
504:
456:Berne & Levy principles of physiology
157:
135:
393:
716:Morishita W, Alger BE (January 2001).
454:Levy M, Koeppen B, Stanton B (2005).
7:
774:The European Journal of Neuroscience
626:Person AL, Perkel DJ (April 2005).
954:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-15-06373.2003
829:Liu S, Shipley MT (October 2008).
582:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-06-02019.2003
14:
41:excitatory postsynaptic potential
21:inhibitory postsynaptic potential
1141:Lateralization of brain function
935:Brenowitz SD, Regehr WG (2003).
786:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04564.x
667:Wu GY, Wang SR (December 2007).
563:Chavas J, Marty A (March 2003).
458:(4th ed.). Elsevier Mosby.
98:of the postsynaptic membrane to
1212:Somatosensory evoked potentials
122:"transient hyperpolarization".
847:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2608-08.2008
497:10.1113/jphysiol.1955.sp005412
65:postsynaptic neuronal membrane
1:
685:10.1016/j.neulet.2007.09.071
645:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.12.057
184:Inhibitory neurotransmitters
835:The Journal of Neuroscience
569:The Journal of Neuroscience
217:Ionotropic GABA receptors (
35:less likely to generate an
1375:
988:Journal of Neurophysiology
887:Journal of Neurophysiology
722:Journal of Neurophysiology
530:Journal of Neurophysiology
421:Journal of Neurophysiology
302:Baylor College of Medicine
94:causes an increase in the
1207:Auditory evoked potential
485:The Journal of Physiology
735:10.1152/jn.2001.85.1.480
542:10.1152/jn.1965.28.2.413
433:10.1152/jn.1989.61.3.501
133:in the 1950s and 1960s.
1217:Visual evoked potential
941:Journal of Neuroscience
16:Part of brain chemistry
1301:Long-term potentiation
1253:Postsynaptic potential
1197:Bereitschaftspotential
257:Metabotropic receptors
252:Metabotropic receptors
163:
141:
69:postsynaptic potential
61:postsynaptic receptors
1136:Intracranial pressure
1010:10.1152/jn.00328.2006
899:10.1152/jn.00480.2005
366:inositol triphosphate
161:
139:
107:chloride ion channels
1306:Long-term depression
1281:Axoplasmic transport
673:Neuroscience Letters
212:Ionotropic receptors
207:Ionotropic receptors
199:Inhibitory receptors
1296:Synaptic plasticity
1288:/Nerve regeneration
1045:1998Natur.394...78F
383:Shunting inhibition
33:postsynaptic neuron
1243:Membrane potential
1108:Physiology of the
378:Nonspiking neurons
177:temporal summation
164:
142:
29:synaptic potential
1359:Graded potentials
1336:
1335:
1332:
1331:
1286:Neuroregeneration
1233:Neurotransmission
947:(15): 6373–6384.
465:978-0-8089-2321-3
334:hyperpolarization
240:), steroids, and
73:hyperpolarisation
1366:
1248:Action potential
1226:Other short term
1189:Evoked potential
1185:
1102:
1095:
1088:
1079:
1073:
1072:
1028:
1022:
1021:
1003:
983:
977:
976:
966:
956:
932:
926:
925:
923:
917:. Archived from
884:
875:
869:
868:
858:
841:(41): 10311–22.
826:
820:
819:
817:
816:
810:
804:. Archived from
771:
762:
756:
755:
737:
713:
707:
706:
696:
664:
658:
657:
647:
623:
617:
614:
605:
604:
594:
584:
560:
554:
553:
525:
519:
518:
508:
476:
470:
469:
451:
445:
444:
416:
410:
407:
326:olfactory cortex
171:The size of the
119:action potential
87:action potential
37:action potential
1374:
1373:
1369:
1368:
1367:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1339:
1338:
1337:
1328:
1312:
1292:Neuroplasticity
1269:
1221:
1176:
1155:
1112:
1106:
1076:
1039:(6688): 78–82.
1030:
1029:
1025:
1001:10.1.1.326.1283
985:
984:
980:
934:
933:
929:
921:
882:
877:
876:
872:
828:
827:
823:
814:
812:
808:
769:
764:
763:
759:
715:
714:
710:
666:
665:
661:
625:
624:
620:
615:
608:
562:
561:
557:
527:
526:
522:
478:
477:
473:
466:
453:
452:
448:
418:
417:
413:
408:
395:
391:
374:
311:
285:locus coeruleus
277:
264:
254:
246:Benzodiazepines
222:
209:
201:
186:
169:
152:
147:
112:Microelectrodes
27:) is a kind of
17:
12:
11:
5:
1372:
1370:
1362:
1361:
1356:
1354:Neural synapse
1351:
1341:
1340:
1334:
1333:
1330:
1329:
1327:
1326:
1324:Myelinogenesis
1320:
1318:
1314:
1313:
1311:
1310:
1309:
1308:
1303:
1289:
1283:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1270:
1268:
1267:
1266:
1265:
1260:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1222:
1220:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1193:
1191:
1182:
1178:
1177:
1175:
1174:
1169:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1132:
1131:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1113:
1110:nervous system
1107:
1105:
1104:
1097:
1090:
1082:
1075:
1074:
1023:
994:(5): 2274–81.
978:
927:
924:on 2019-02-27.
870:
821:
780:(5): 1207–18.
757:
708:
679:(2–3): 111–4.
659:
618:
606:
575:(6): 2019–31.
555:
520:
471:
464:
446:
411:
392:
390:
387:
386:
385:
380:
373:
370:
322:olfactory bulb
310:
307:
276:
273:
262:
253:
250:
220:
208:
205:
200:
197:
185:
182:
168:
165:
151:
148:
146:
143:
131:Rodolfo Llinás
102:by binding to
92:synaptic cleft
83:Depolarization
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1371:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1344:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1297:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1278:
1276:
1272:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1255:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1230:
1228:
1224:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1183:
1179:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1164:
1162:
1160:Primarily PNS
1158:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1130:
1127:
1126:
1125:
1122:
1121:
1119:
1117:Primarily CNS
1115:
1111:
1103:
1098:
1096:
1091:
1089:
1084:
1083:
1080:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1053:10.1038/27919
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1027:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1002:
997:
993:
989:
982:
979:
974:
970:
965:
960:
955:
950:
946:
942:
938:
931:
928:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
893:(6): 4290–9.
892:
888:
881:
874:
871:
866:
862:
857:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
825:
822:
811:on 2007-04-18
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
768:
761:
758:
753:
749:
745:
741:
736:
731:
727:
723:
719:
712:
709:
704:
700:
695:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
663:
660:
655:
651:
646:
641:
638:(1): 129–40.
637:
633:
629:
622:
619:
613:
611:
607:
602:
598:
593:
588:
583:
578:
574:
570:
566:
559:
556:
551:
547:
543:
539:
536:(2): 413–22.
535:
531:
524:
521:
516:
512:
507:
502:
498:
494:
491:(2): 326–74.
490:
486:
482:
475:
472:
467:
461:
457:
450:
447:
442:
438:
434:
430:
427:(3): 501–11.
426:
422:
415:
412:
406:
404:
402:
400:
398:
394:
388:
384:
381:
379:
376:
375:
371:
369:
367:
363:
359:
357:
351:
349:
348:acetylcholine
344:
338:
335:
331:
327:
323:
318:
316:
308:
306:
303:
297:
293:
289:
286:
281:
274:
272:
270:
266:
258:
251:
249:
247:
243:
239:
238:pentobarbital
235:
234:Phenobarbital
231:
226:
224:
215:
213:
206:
204:
198:
196:
194:
190:
183:
181:
178:
174:
166:
160:
156:
149:
144:
138:
134:
132:
128:
123:
120:
115:
113:
108:
105:
101:
100:chloride ions
97:
93:
88:
84:
80:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
57:
55:
51:
46:
42:
38:
34:
31:that makes a
30:
26:
22:
1262:
1036:
1032:
1026:
991:
987:
981:
944:
940:
930:
919:the original
890:
886:
873:
838:
834:
824:
813:. Retrieved
806:the original
777:
773:
760:
728:(1): 480–4.
725:
721:
711:
676:
672:
662:
635:
631:
621:
572:
568:
558:
533:
529:
523:
488:
484:
474:
455:
449:
424:
420:
414:
360:
352:
339:
330:tufted cells
319:
312:
298:
294:
290:
282:
278:
275:Significance
255:
230:barbiturates
227:
216:
210:
202:
187:
170:
153:
124:
116:
104:ligand-gated
96:permeability
81:
58:
44:
24:
20:
18:
1129:Wakefulness
356:spinal cord
343:hippocampus
127:John Eccles
1343:Categories
1263:Inhibitory
1258:Excitatory
815:2019-09-22
389:References
242:picrotoxin
145:Components
77:depolarize
1274:Long term
1238:Chronaxie
1172:Sensation
996:CiteSeerX
362:Glutamate
269:G-protein
265:receptors
223:receptors
1018:16807348
973:12867523
915:10333266
907:16093334
865:18842890
794:16553783
752:17060042
744:11152751
703:17996369
654:15820699
601:12657660
550:14283063
515:13278905
372:See also
1124:Arousal
1069:4352019
1061:9665131
1041:Bibcode
964:6740543
856:2570621
802:6139806
694:2696233
592:6742031
506:1363415
441:2709096
324:to the
309:Studies
193:Glycine
167:Factors
54:glycine
1349:Memory
1167:Reflex
1151:Memory
1067:
1059:
1033:Nature
1016:
998:
971:
961:
913:
905:
863:
853:
800:
792:
750:
742:
701:
691:
652:
632:Neuron
599:
589:
548:
513:
503:
462:
439:
173:neuron
1317:Other
1146:Sleep
1065:S2CID
922:(PDF)
911:S2CID
883:(PDF)
809:(PDF)
798:S2CID
770:(PDF)
748:S2CID
150:Types
1202:P300
1181:Both
1057:PMID
1014:PMID
969:PMID
903:PMID
861:PMID
790:PMID
740:PMID
699:PMID
650:PMID
597:PMID
546:PMID
511:PMID
460:ISBN
437:PMID
261:GABA
219:GABA
189:GABA
129:and
52:and
50:GABA
45:more
25:IPSP
1049:doi
1037:394
1006:doi
959:PMC
949:doi
895:doi
851:PMC
843:doi
782:doi
730:doi
689:PMC
681:doi
677:429
640:doi
587:PMC
577:doi
538:doi
501:PMC
493:doi
489:130
429:doi
56:.
19:An
1345::
1063:.
1055:.
1047:.
1035:.
1012:.
1004:.
992:96
990:.
967:.
957:.
945:23
943:.
939:.
909:.
901:.
891:94
889:.
885:.
859:.
849:.
839:28
837:.
833:.
796:.
788:.
778:23
776:.
772:.
746:.
738:.
726:85
724:.
720:.
697:.
687:.
675:.
671:.
648:.
636:46
634:.
630:.
609:^
595:.
585:.
573:23
571:.
567:.
544:.
534:28
532:.
509:.
499:.
487:.
483:.
435:.
425:61
423:.
396:^
244:.
236:,
1294:/
1101:e
1094:t
1087:v
1071:.
1051::
1043::
1020:.
1008::
975:.
951::
897::
867:.
845::
818:.
784::
754:.
732::
705:.
683::
656:.
642::
603:.
579::
552:.
540::
517:.
495::
468:.
443:.
431::
263:B
232:(
221:A
23:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
