1635:
1210:
616:
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503:, near Paris. Before his arrival, inmates were chained in cramped cell-like rooms where there was poor ventilation, led by a man named Jackson 'Brutis' Taylor. Taylor was then killed by the inmates leading to Pinel's leadership. In 1797, Jean-Baptiste Pussin, the "governor" of mental patients at BicĂŞtre, first freed patients of their chains and banned physical punishment, although straitjackets could be used instead. Patients were allowed to move freely about the hospital grounds, and eventually dark dungeons were replaced with sunny, well-ventilated rooms. Pinel argued that mental illness was the result of excessive exposure to social and
438:
1145:
seen as a last resort for treatment of mood disorders and is administered much more safely than in the past. Elsewhere, particularly in India, use of ECT is reportedly increasing, as a cost-effective alternative to drug treatment. The effect of a shock on an overly excitable patient often allowed these patients to be discharged to their homes, which was seen by administrators (and often guardians) as a preferable solution to institutionalisation. Lobotomies were performed in the thousands from the 1930s to the 1950s, and were ultimately replaced with modern
247:
270:, London had "below stairs a parlor, a kitchen, two larders, a long entry throughout the house, and 21 rooms wherein the poor distracted people lie, and above the stairs eight rooms more for servants and the poor to lie in". Inmates who were deemed dangerous or disturbing were chained, but Bethlem was an otherwise open building. Its inhabitants could roam around its confines and possibly throughout the general neighborhood in which the hospital was situated. In 1676, Bethlem expanded into newly built premises at
3702:. At the outset of treatment, Thorazine's combination of antipsychotic and sedative effects provides both emotional and physical calming. Assaultive or destructive behavior is rapidly controlled. As therapy continues, the initial sedative effect gradually disappears. But the antipsychotic effect continues, helping to dispel or modify delusions, hallucinations and confusion, while keeping the patient calm and approachable. SMITH KLINE AND FRENCH LABORATORIES leaders in psychopharmaceutical research.
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of outdoor relief were extended by the parish authorities to families in these circumstances, including financial support, the provision of parish nurses and, where family care was not possible, lunatics might be 'boarded out' to other members of the local community or committed to private madhouses. Exceptionally, if those deemed mad were judged to be particularly disturbing or violent, parish authorities might meet the not inconsiderable costs of their confinement in charitable asylums such as
80:
526:
278:
522:, went on to help establish 10 new mental hospitals that operated on the same principles. There was an emphasis on the selection and supervision of attendants in order to establish a suitable setting to facilitate psychological work, and particularly on the employment of ex-patients as they were thought most likely to refrain from inhumane treatment while being able to stand up to patients' pleas, menaces, or complaints.
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868:
1343:, a French psychiatrist at Bonneval, related that between 1921 and 1937 only 6% of patients with schizophrenia and chronic delirium were discharged from his institution. The comparable figure for the period from 1955 to 1967, after the introduction of chlorpromazine, was 67%. Between 1955 and 1968 the residential psychiatric population in the United States dropped by 30%. Newly developed
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behaving in ways the male society did not agree with." These men had the last say when it came to the mental health of these women, so if they believed that these women were mentally ill, or if they simply wanted to silence the voices and opinions of these women, they could easily send them to mental institutions. This was an easy way to render them vulnerable and submissive.
1206:
therein. Psychiatry possesses a built-in capacity for abuse which is greater than in other areas of medicine. The diagnosis of mental disease can serve as proxy for the designation of social dissidents, allowing the state to hold persons against their will and to insist upon therapies that work in favour of ideological conformity and in the broader interests of society.
36:
4218:
423:, may have evolved from householders who were boarding lunatics on behalf of parochial authorities and later formalised this practice into a business venture. The vast majority were small in scale with only seven asylums outside London with in excess of thirty patients by 1800 and somewhere between ten and twenty institutions had fewer patients than this.
949:, but the specific reasons as to why the increase occurred are still debated today. No matter the cause, the pressure on asylums from the increase was taking its toll on the asylums and psychiatry as a specialty. Asylums were once again turning into custodial institutions and the reputation of psychiatry in the medical world had hit an extreme low.
1133:
fifteen minutes to complete. Freeman is credited with the popularisation of the technique in the United States. In 1949, 5,074 lobotomies were carried out in the United States and by 1951, 18,608 people had undergone the controversial procedure in that country. One of the most famous people to have a lobotomy was the sister of
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384:, exercised considerable control in preventing new entrants to the market. Thus, rather than there being a proliferation of private madhouses in London, existing institutions tended to expand considerably in size. The establishments which increased most during the 18th century, such as Hoxton House, did so by accepting
469:, attitudes began to change, in particular among the educated classes in Western Europe. “Mental illness” came to be viewed as a disorder that required some form of compassionate but clinical, “rational” treatment that would aid in the rehabilitation of the patient into a rational being. When the ruling monarch of the
559:, where eventually about 30 patients lived as part of a small community in a quiet country house and engaged in a combination of rest, talk, and manual work. Rejecting medical theories and techniques, the efforts of the York Retreat centred around minimising restraints and cultivating rationality and moral strength.
1533:
In Hong Kong, a number of residential care services such as half-way houses, long-stay care homes, and supported hostels are provided for the discharged patients. In addition, a number of community support services such as
Community Rehabilitation Day Services, Community Mental Health Link, Community
1132:
and James W. Watts in what is known as
Freeman–Watts procedure or the standard prefrontal lobotomy. From 1946, Freeman developed the transorbital lobotomy, using a device akin to an ice-pick. This was an "office" procedure which did not have to be performed in a surgical theatre and took as little as
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as well as paupers and the insane. In the 1850s, lurid rumours that medical doctors were declaring normal people "insane" in
Britain, were spread by the press causing widespread public anxiety. The fear was that people who were a source of embarrassment to their families were conveniently disposed of
159:
In Europe during the medieval era, a small subsection of the population of those considered mad were housed in a variety of institutional settings. Mentally ill people were often held captive in cages or kept up within the city walls, or they were compelled to amuse members of courtly society. Porter
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cautioned against idealising the role of hospitals generally in medieval Islam, stating that "They were a drop in the ocean for the vast population that they had to serve, and their true function lay in highlighting ideals of compassion and bringing together the activities of the medical profession."
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Psychiatrists around the world have been involved in the suppression of individual rights by states wherein the definitions of mental disease had been expanded to include political disobedience. Nowadays, in many countries, political prisoners are sometimes confined to mental institutions and abused
1144:
In modern times, insulin shock therapy and lobotomies are viewed as being almost as barbaric as the Bedlam "treatments", although the insulin shock therapy was still seen as the only option which produced any noticeable effect on patients. ECT is still used in the West in the 21st century, but it is
753:
The men who were in charge of these women, either a husband, father or brother, could send these women to mental institutions, stating that they believed that these women were mentally ill because of their strong opinions. "Between the years of 1850–1900, women were placed in mental institutions for
258:
The level of specialist institutional provision for the care and control of the insane remained extremely limited at the turn of the 18th century. Madness was seen principally as a domestic problem, with families and parish authorities in Europe and
England central to regimens of care. Various forms
944:
However, the hope that mental illness could be ameliorated through treatment during the mid-19th century was disappointed. Instead, psychiatrists were pressured by an ever-increasing patient population. The average number of patients in asylums in the United States jumped 927%. Numbers were similar
1458:
By the beginning of the 20th century, ever-increasing admissions had resulted in serious overcrowding. Funding was often cut, especially during periods of economic decline, and during wartime in particular many patients starved to death. Asylums became notorious for poor living conditions, lack of
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movement of the early 20th century led to a number of countries enacting laws for the compulsory sterilization of the "feeble minded", which resulted in the forced sterilization of numerous psychiatric inmates. As late as the 1950s, laws in Japan allowed the forcible sterilization of patients with
952:
In the 1800s, middle class facilities became more common, replacing private care for wealthier persons. However, facilities in this period were largely oversubscribed. Individuals were referred to facilities either by the community or by the criminal justice system. Dangerous or violent cases were
940:
combined had only a few hundred people in asylums, but by the end of the century this number had risen to the hundreds of thousands. The United States housed 150,000 patients in mental hospitals by 1904. Germany housed more than 400 public and private sector asylums. These asylums were critical to
119:
Modern psychiatric hospitals evolved from and eventually replaced the older lunatic asylum. The treatment of inmates in early lunatic asylums was sometimes brutal and focused on containment and restraint. The discovery of anti-psychotic drugs and mood-stabilizing drugs resulted in a shift in focus
562:
The entire Tuke family became known as founders of moral treatment. They created a family-style ethos, and patients performed chores to give them a sense of contribution. There was a daily routine of both work and leisure time. If patients behaved well, they were rewarded; if they behaved poorly,
741:
Based on her study of cases from the
Homewood Retreat, Cheryl Krasnick Warsh concludes that "the realities of the household in late Victorian and Edwardian middle class society rendered certain elements—socially redundant women in particular—more susceptible to institutionalization than others."
960:
Defining someone as insane was a necessary prerequisite for being admitted to a facility. A doctor was only called after someone was labelled insane on social terms and had become socially or economically problematic. Until the 1890s, little distinction existed between the lunatic and criminal
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also promoted humane treatment of the insane outside dungeons and without iron restraints, as well as sought their reintegration into society. In 1792, Rush successfully campaigned for a separate ward for the insane at the
Pennsylvania Hospital. His talk-based approach could be considered as a
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in the United States), which was the first convulsive or seizure therapy for a psychiatric disorder. Again, both of these therapies were initially targeted at curing dementia praecox. Cardiazol shock therapy, founded on the theoretical notion that there existed a biological antagonism between
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payouts to ex-patients of state-run mental institutions in the 1970s to 1990s. The forum heard of poor reasons for admissions; unsanitary and overcrowded conditions; lack of communication to patients and family members; physical violence and sexual misconduct and abuse; inadequate complaints
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program resulted in the killings of thousands of the mentally ill housed in state institutions. In 1939, the Nazis secretly began to exterminate the mentally ill in a euthanasia campaign. Around 6,000 disabled babies, children and teenagers were murdered by starvation or lethal injection.
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states that "the kin of asylum patients were, in fact, the major impetus behind commitment, but their motivations were based not so much upon greed as upon the internal dynamics of the family, and upon the economic structure of western society in the 19th and early 20th centuries."
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until the 19th century, however private madhouses proliferated there in 18th on a scale unseen elsewhere. References to such institutions are limited for the 17th century but it is evident that by the start of the 18th century, the so-called 'trade in lunacy' was well established.
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The first community-based alternatives were suggested and tentatively implemented in the 1920s and 1930s, although asylum numbers continued to increase up to the 1950s. The movement for deinstitutionalisation came to the fore in various
Western countries in the 1950s and 1960s.
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1013:) first used in 1917, and for which he won a Nobel Prize in 1927. This treatment heralded the beginning of a radical and experimental era in psychiatric medicine that increasingly broke with an asylum-based culture of therapeutic nihilism in the treatment of chronic
745:
In the 18th to the early 20th century, women were sometimes institutionalised due to their opinions, their unruliness and their inability to be controlled properly by a primarily male-dominated culture. There were financial incentives too; before the passage of the
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developed a systematic approach for training individuals with mental deficiencies, and, in 1839, he opened the first school for the "severely retarded". His method of treatment was based on the assumption that the "mentally deficient" did not suffer from disease.
682:, to focus on lunacy legislation reform. The commission was made up of eleven Metropolitan Commissioners who were required to carry out the provisions of the Act: the compulsory construction of asylums in every county, with regular inspections on behalf of the
1597:
There were some references to instances of helpful aspects or kindnesses despite the system. Participants were offered counselling to help them deal with their experiences, and advice on their rights, including access to records and legal redress.
368:, an ardent critic of private madhouses, estimated in 1724 that there were fifteen then operating in the London area. Defoe may have exaggerated but exact figures for private metropolitan madhouses are available only from 1774, when
655:– its officers were eventually dismissed and national attention was focused on the routine use of bars, chains and handcuffs and the filthy conditions the inmates lived in. However, it was not until 1828 that the newly appointed
957:, South Africa shows the distribution between different facilities. Out of 2046 persons surveyed, 1,281 were in private dwellings, 120 in jails and 645 in asylums, with men representing nearly two-thirds of the number surveyed.
902:, by then the largest in the country. Hill's system was adapted, since Conolly was unable to supervise each attendant as closely as Hill had done. By September 1839, mechanical restraint was no longer required for any patient.
380:, had been in operation since the 17th century. By 1807, the number had increased to seventeen. This limited growth in the number of London madhouses is believed likely to reflect the fact that vested interests, especially the
945:
in
Britain and Germany. Overcrowding was rampant in France, where asylums would commonly take in double their maximum capacity. Increases in asylum populations may have been a result of the transfer of care from families and
592:
rudimentary form of modern occupational therapy, although most of his physical approaches have long been discredited, such as bleeding and purging, hot and cold baths, mercury pills, a "tranquilizing chair" and gyroscope.
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When the patient lashes out against "them" – THORAZINE (brand of chlorpromazine) quickly puts an end to his violent outburst. 'Thorazine' is especially effective when the psychotic episode is triggered by delusions or
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In a monolithic state, psychiatry can be used to bypass standard legal procedures for establishing guilt or innocence and allow political incarceration without the ordinary odium attaching to such political trials. In
630:
The modern era of institutionalized provision for the care of the mentally ill, began in the early 19th century with a large state-led effort. Public mental asylums were established in
Britain after the passing of the
1225:
in the 1940s, the 'duty to care' was violated on an enormous scale: A reported 300,000 individuals were sterilised and 100,000 killed in
Germany alone, as were many thousands further afield, mainly in Eastern Europe.
563:
there was some minimal use of restraints or instilling of fear. The patients were told that treatment depended on their conduct. In this sense, the patient's moral autonomy was recognised. William Tuke's grandson,
894:, pioneered a mode of treatment that suited "all types" of patients, so that mechanical restraints and coercion could be dispensed with—a situation he finally achieved in 1838. In 1839 Sergeant John Adams and Dr.
1657:
may have led to a form of "re-institutionalization" through the increased use of jail detention for those with mental disorders deemed unmanageable and noncompliant. In summer 2009, author and columnist
571:
had by then been published, and Samuel Tuke translated his term as "moral treatment". Tuke's Retreat became a model throughout the world for humane and moral treatment of patients with mental disorders.
1292:, a psychiatrist of the Saint-Anne Psychiatric Center in Paris, is credited with first recognising the specificity of action of the drug in psychosis in 1952. Denier traveled with a colleague to the
860:, universities often played a part in the administration of the asylums. In Germany, many practising psychiatrists were educated in universities associated with particular asylums. However, because
1482:, helped expose the poor conditions and treatment. Sociologists and others argued that such institutions maintained or created dependency, passivity, exclusion and disability, causing people to be
1542:
Countries where deinstitutionalisation has happened may be experiencing a process of "re-institutionalisation" or relocation to different institutions, as evidenced by increases in the number of
1492:
There were differing views on deinstitutionalization, however, in groups such as mental health professionals, public officials, families, advocacy groups, public citizens and unions.
1328:(Zurich), Willi Mayer-Gross (Birmingham), Winford (Washington) and Denber (New York) attesting to the effective and concordant action of the new drugs in the treatment of psychosis.
993:
A series of radical physical therapies were developed in central and continental Europe in the late 1910s, the 1920s and most particularly, the 1930s. Among these, we may note the
728:
Looking into the late 19th and early 20th century history of the Homewood Retreat of Guelph, Ontario, and the context of commitments to asylums in North America and Great Britain,
2530:
Borthwick, Annie; Holman, Chris; Kennard, David; McFetridge, Mark; Messruther, Karen; Wilkes, Jenny (2001). "The relevance of moral treatment to contemporary mental health care".
1622:" housed in a variety of disparate institutions; but, by the beginning of the 20th century, that figure had grown to about 100,000. This growth coincided with the development of "
1646:. Wave one began in the 1950s and targeted people with mental illness. The second wave began roughly fifteen years after and focused on individuals who had been diagnosed with a
767:(1798), in which the title character is confined to an insane asylum when she becomes inconvenient to her husband. Real women's stories reached the public through court cases:
1489:
There was an argument that community services would be cheaper. It was suggested that new psychiatric medications made it more feasible to release people into the community.
296:, London, wards were established for chronic lunatics. From the mid-eighteenth century the number of public charitably funded asylums expanded moderately with the opening of
388:
patients rather than private, middle class, fee-paying patients. Significantly, pauper patients, unlike their private counterparts, were not subject to inspection under the
266:
In the late 17th century, this model began to change, and privately run asylums for the insane began to proliferate and expand in size. Already in 1632 it was recorded that
1634:
481:
in 1789, mental illness came to be seen as something which could be treated and cured. The introduction of moral treatment was initiated independently by the French doctor
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1838:"Book Review: Thomas R. MĂĽller, Wahn und Sinn. Patienten, Ă„rzte, Personal und Institutionen der Psychiatrie in Sachsen vom Mittelalter bis zum Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts"
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countries, the total number of beds in asylum-type institutions has decreased, replaced by psychiatric inpatient units in general hospitals and other local settings.
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promoting the drug at medical conferences in 1954. The first publication regarding its use in North America was made in the same year by the Canadian psychiatrist
1209:
4199:
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South Africa currently has 27 registered psychiatric hospitals. These hospitals are spread throughout the country. Some of the most well-known institutions are:
1394:
exposed abuses throughout the psychiatric care system and were instrumental in reforms of the 1940s and 1950s. The CPS reformers were especially active at the
1701:
2565:
Borthwick A.; Holman C.; Kennard D.; McFetridge M.; Messruther K.; Wilkes J. (2001). "The relevance of moral treatment to contemporary mental health care".
351:, was incorporated in 1768 under the name of the "Public Hospital for Persons of Insane and Disordered Minds" and its first patients were admitted in 1773.
933:
470:
514:
Pussin and Pinel's approach was seen as remarkably successful, and they later brought similar reforms to a mental hospital in Paris for female patients,
3439:
160:
gives examples of such locales where some of the insane were cared for, such as in monasteries. A few towns had towers where madmen were kept (called
3887:
1025:
from the 1910s, although the two terms were used more or less interchangeably until at least the end of the 1930s), which were typically regarded as
57:
44:
1250:
395:
Fragmentary evidence indicates that some provincial madhouses existed in Britain from at least the 17th century and possibly earlier. A madhouse at
1764:
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from containment in lunatic asylums to treatment in psychiatric hospitals. Later, there was further and more thorough critique in the form of the
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Fakhourya W, Priebea S (August 2007). "Deinstitutionalization and reinstitutionalization: major changes in the provision of mental healthcare".
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Modern persecution, or, Insane asylums unveiled as demonstrated by the report of the Investigating Committee of the Legislature of Illinois
1668:, "jails have become society's primary mental institutions, though few have the funding or expertise to carry out that role properly... at
453:
3414:"Japanese Eugenic Sterilization, Newsletter of the Network on Ethics and Intellectual Disability, Vol.3, No.1 [Fall 1997], pp.1–4"
747:
1594:; lack of support on discharge; interrupted lives and lost potential; and continued stigma, prejudice and emotional distress and trauma.
2730:
Unsworth, Clive."Law and Lunacy in Psychiatry's 'Golden Age'", Oxford Journal of Legal Studies. Vol. 13, No. 4. (Winter, 1993), pp. 482.
1559:
1416:
magazine printed an exposé of the psychiatric system by Albert Q. Maisel based on the reports of COs. Another effort of CPS, namely the
1253:. A "mental health genocide" reminiscent of the Nazi aberrations has been located in the history of South African oppression during the
555:, following the death of a fellow Quaker in a local asylum in 1790. In 1796, with the help of fellow Quakers and others, he founded the
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515:
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In the United States, the erection of state asylums began with the first law for the creation of one in New York, passed in 1842. The
297:
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2812:
2394:
Weiner DB (September 1979). "The apprenticeship of Philippe Pinel: a new document, "observations of Citizen Pussin on the insane"".
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2096:
1953:
344:
281:
3236:
Brown Edward M (2000). "Why Wagner-Jauregg won the Nobel Prize for discovering malaria therapy for General Paresis of the Insane".
899:
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Although Tuke, Pinel and others had tried to do away with physical restraint, it remained widespread in the 19th century. At the
474:
2924:
2040:
Suzuki, Akihito (1992). "Lunacy, in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century England: Analysis of Quarter Sessions Records Part II".
1972:
Suzuki, Akihito (1991). "Lunacy, in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century England: Analysis of Quarter Sessions Records Part I".
1510:
1246:
1242:
238:, has been adapted as a museum of psychiatry, with an overview of treatments from the origins of the building up to the 1990s.
2883:(1988). "The First Mrs. Rochester: Wrongful Confinement, Social Redundancy, and Commitment to the Private Asylum, 1883‑1923".
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degenerative disorders and therefore unamenable to any therapeutic intervention. Malarial therapy was followed in 1920 by
1006:
908:(1805–1885) introduced activities for patients including writing, art, group activity and drama, pioneered early forms of
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was abducted by male relatives to prevent her committing her inheritance and her life to live in a revivalist clergyman's
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By the end of the 19th century, national systems of regulated asylums for the mentally ill had been established in most
437:
336:
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were described by European travellers, who wrote about their wonder at the care and kindness shown to lunatics. In 872,
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1686:
1514:
1395:
381:
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3953:"Reinstitutionalisation in mental health care: comparison of data on service provision from six European countries"
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era. A continued misappropriation of the discipline was subsequently attributed to the People's Republic of China.
976:
891:
874:
was an influential reformer of the lunatic asylum in the mid-19th century, and an advocate of the new 'science' of
864:
remained a loosely bound conglomerate of individual states, it lacked a national regulatory framework for asylums.
781:
701:
In 1838, France enacted a law to regulate both the admissions into asylums and asylum services across the country.
604:
49:
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Ugo Cerletti, for instance, described psychiatry during the inter-war period as a "funereal science". Quoted in
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to house the many 'pauper lunatics'. Nine counties first applied, and the first public asylum opened in 1811 in
1647:
1421:
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and that therefore inducing epileptiform fits in schizophrenic patients might effect a cure, was superseded by
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in Bristol from 1766. It is likely that many of these provincial madhouses, as was the case with the exclusive
360:
339:. A portion of this hospital was set apart for the mentally ill, and the first patients were admitted in 1752.
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3413:
226:, was founded in 1247. At the start of the 15th century, it housed six insane men. The former lunatic asylum,
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Mental Health Care, etc. have been launched to facilitate the re-integration of patients into the community.
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was opened approximately in 1850. The creation of this hospital, as of many others, was largely the work of
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The Architecture of Madness: Insane Asylums in the United States (Architecture, Landscape and Amer Culture)
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that provided care to the insane, which included music therapy. Nonetheless, British historian of medicine
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was an institution where people with mental illness were confined. It was an early precursor of the modern
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Stroman, Duane. 2003. "The Disability Rights Movement: From Deinstitutionalization to Self-determination.
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399:, Box, Wiltshire was opened during the 17th century. Further locales of early businesses include one at
328:
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2202:
The Trade in Lunacy: A Study of Private Madhouses in England in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries
1339:
The new antipsychotics had an immense impact on the lives of psychiatrists and patients. For instance,
1117:
1101:
666:
was an important landmark in the treatment of the mentally ill, as it explicitly changed the status of
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Stevenson, Christine; Jonathan Andrews; Asa Briggs; Roy Porter; Penny Tucker; Keir Waddington (1997).
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begins in 1285 with a case that linked "the instigation of the devil" with being "frantic and mad".
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to join her in advancing the organization's objectives of reform and humane treatment of patients.
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301:
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848:, a family friend, when she asked him to respond to reports of her husband's gay orgies on Capri.
79:
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1997:
1865:
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1399:
1058:
1034:
857:
714:
567:, published an influential work in the early 19th century on the methods of the retreat; Pinel's
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389:
369:
3837:"Origins of the "Third psychiatric revolution": the Community Mental Health Centers Act of 1963"
3385:"Eliminating forced, coercive and otherwise involuntary sterilization: an interagency statement"
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to be used in a modified form for the treatment of severe depression and a few other disorders.
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in 1751 in Upper Moorfields, London; the establishment in 1765 of the Hospital for Lunatics at
292:. It was a small facility which generally housed between twenty and thirty inmates. In 1728 at
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2020:
1989:
1949:
1857:
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1428:, impressed by the changes introduced by COs in the mental health system, became a sponsor of
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Leningrad Special Psychiatric Hospital of Prison Type of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs
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599:, who discontinued the use of chains on the inmates in the early 19th century. In the town of
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4001:
Te Āiotanga: Report of the Confidential Forum for Former In-Patients of Psychiatric Hospitals
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in New York City, in order to investigate conditions there. Her account was published in the
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1981:
1849:
1837:
1813:
The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present
1375:
1363:
1352:
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1138:
1018:
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652:
552:
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404:
4135:
3072:"British Outsider Art Exhibitions, John Joseph Sheehy London and Group Show in Paris 2008"
2976:
2433:(in Serbian) (7th ed.). Belgrade: Zavod za udzbenike i nastavna sredstva. p. 7.
1591:
1433:
1344:
1325:
1316:(antipsychotics) in 1955 a series of psychiatric studies were presented by, among others,
1134:
803:
768:
663:
644:
449:. Pinel ordering the removal of chains from patients at the Paris asylum for insane women.
432:
324:
277:
144:
2977:"Storia gay - Friedrich Alfred Krupp (1854-1902), l'omosessualitĂ e lo scandalo di Capri"
1128:
in 1935, which targets the brain's frontal lobes. This was shortly thereafter adapted by
837:
686:. All asylums were required to have written regulations and to have a resident qualified
1406:
magazine as a way to communicate ideas and promote reform. This periodical later became
4222:
4054:
4029:
3759:
3734:
3673:
3646:
3623:
3469:
3035:
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2200:
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2145:
1691:
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1479:
1470:
The prevailing public arguments, time of onset, and pace of reforms varied by country.
1289:
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967:
820:
776:
722:
718:
683:
667:
482:
396:
87:
3977:
3952:
2286:
941:
the evolution of psychiatry as they provided places of practice throughout the world.
575:
The York Retreat inspired similar institutions in the United States, most notably the
190:
In Spain, other such institutions for the insane were established after the Christian
4244:
4045:
3750:
3699:
3071:
2586:
2551:
1672:, 28% of the inmates require mental health services, a number that rises each year."
1654:
1587:
1568:
1412:
1309:
1297:
1293:
1273:
1113:
1105:
1079:
1050:
1022:
1010:
786:
721:. Many state hospitals in the United States were built in the 1850s and 1860s on the
622:, a vigorous campaigner for the reform of lunacy law in England, and the Head of the
584:
519:
211:
3257:
2069:
1869:
1530:
In Japan, the number of hospital beds has risen steadily over the last few decades.
4081:
3337:
2001:
1623:
1321:
1313:
1234:
1222:
1176:
1091:
1042:
895:
588:
556:
548:
541:
530:
489:
365:
343:
is recognized as the first state to establish an institution for the mentally ill.
332:
309:
92:
2742:"The Lunacy Commission, A Study of its Origin, Emergence and Character;Chap.5.1.3"
2707:"The Lunacy Commission, A Study of its Origin, Emergence and Character;Chap.3.1.1"
1141:, who was rendered profoundly intellectually disabled as a result of the surgery.
178:
4113:
3188:
2310:
2113:
1216:
was a psychiatric institution used by the Soviet authorities to suppress dissent.
916:, and initiated one of the earliest collections of artistic work by patients, at
717:, whose philanthropic efforts extended over many states, and in Europe as far as
3968:
3821:
3624:"Press conference exposes mental health genocide during apartheid, 14 June 1997"
2601:
1571:
1038:
1030:
913:
867:
458:
408:
377:
235:
227:
191:
4229:
3249:
2053:
1985:
1331:
3026:
2680:
2161:
2015:
Andrews, Jonathan (2004). "The Rise of the Asylum". In Deborah Brunton (ed.).
1853:
1437:
1183:
1026:
875:
811:
636:
600:
271:
152:
139:
124:
movement which focuses on treatment at home or in less isolated institutions.
17:
1861:
966:
into asylums with the willing connivance of the psychiatric profession. This
3664:
3460:
3284:
Hoenig J (1995). "Schizophrenia. In Berrios, German and Porter, Roy (Eds.),
3011:"The politics and ideology of non-restraint: the case of the Hanwell Asylum"
1711:
1575:
1371:
1317:
1305:
1285:
1281:
1254:
1180:
1066:
954:
946:
687:
416:
412:
400:
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317:
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207:
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also had a small number of cells set aside for lunatics, whilst the town of
4063:
3986:
3852:
3768:
3682:
3609:
3478:
2578:
2543:
2407:
2061:
1993:
1618:
At the beginning of the 19th century, there were, perhaps, a few thousand "
372:
was introduced: sixteen institutions were recorded. At least two of these,
359:
There was no centralised state response to “madness” in society in century
35:
3860:
3153:
The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic
3044:
2654:
2257:"THE FIRST INSANE ASYLUM.; To Virginia Belongs the Credit in This Country"
2179:
3911:
2517:
The Retreat, York: An Early Experiment in the Treatment of Mental Illness
2472:
10.1002/(SICI)1520-6696(199723)33:4<381::AID-JHBS3>3.0.CO;2-S
2415:
1340:
1301:
1237:, and to surface on occasion in other Eastern European countries such as
1168:
1158:
1125:
1121:
1083:
1074:
1062:
898:
were impressed by the work of Hill, and introduced the method into their
671:
508:
340:
288:
A second public charitable institution was opened in 1713, the Bethel in
284:
was the first psychiatric institution to be founded in the United States.
199:
195:
4177:
A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac
4000:
3903:
3288:. Athlone: p. 337; Meduna, L. J. (1985). Autobiography of L.J. Meduna".
2767:
2017:
Medicine Transformed: Health, Disease & Society in Europe, 1800–1930
1116:
was narrowed to a very small number of people for specific indications.
1619:
1563:
994:
861:
289:
231:
203:
3562:
Medicine betrayed: the participation of doctors in human rights abuses
2905:
2706:
1574:
hierarchy based on containment; fear and humiliation in the misuse of
4030:"Cost shifting to jails after a change to managed mental health care"
2896:
2628:
1903:
1669:
1046:
937:
640:
486:
373:
215:
173:
3190:
The Confinement of the Insane: International Perspectives, 1800–1965
2146:"The Bethel at Norwich: An Eighteenth-Century Hospital for Lunatics"
1378:, although its use was banned in the United States until the 1970s.
3716:. Trans. Gordon Hickish. Martin Dunitz: pp. 110,114, 121–123, 130.
2950:. Hartford: Investigating Committee of the Legislature of Illinois.
1410:, a professional journal for mental health workers. On 6 May 1946,
1069:
shock therapy (cardiazol is the tradename of the chemical compound
3586:
Birley, J. L. T. (January 2000). "Political abuse of psychiatry".
1633:
1424:. Initially skeptical about the value of Civilian Public Service,
1330:
1208:
1096:
971:
953:
usually given precedence for admission. A survey taken in 1891 in
866:
614:
524:
452:
436:
276:
245:
148:
2741:
1946:
Madmen: A Social History of Madhouses, Mad-Doctors & Lunatics
1335:
Advertisement for Thorazine (chlorpromazine) from the early 1960s
651:
were established to investigate abuses at private madhouses like
4115:
The architecture of madness: insane asylums in the United States
3951:
Priebe S, Badesconyi A, Fioritti A, et al. (January 2005).
3440:"Psychiatric Genocide: Nazi Attempts to Eradicate Schizophrenia"
2853:
The Architecture of Madness: Insane Asylums in the United States
1513:, colloquially known as Groendakkies ("Little Green Roofs") and
1288:
in the United States), was first synthesized in France in 1950.
1097:
305:
3529:
The encyclopedia of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders
2921:"Women and Psychiatry – Hysteria, Feminism, and Psychoanalysis"
2312:
The Encyclopedia of Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders
2236:"Insane, Institutional Care of the, in the United States"
1474:
in the United States, and the scrutiny of institutions through
3057:
Edited by: Bynum, W. F; Porter, Roy; Shepherd, Michael (1988)
2358:
Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of Ticehurst Private Asylum
750:, all of a wife's assets passed automatically to her husband.
166:
in German, or "fools' towers"). The ancient Parisian hospital
29:
4028:
Domino ME, Norton EC, Morrissey JP, Thakur N (October 2004).
3061:. Vol.3. The Asylum and its psychiatry. Routledge. London EC4
1320:(Vienna), Dr. Ihsan Aksel (Istanbul), Felix Labarth (Basle),
304:; the Manchester Lunatic Hospital, which opened in 1766; the
2963:
Women of the Asylum: Voices from Behind the Walls, 1840–1945
1567:
mechanisms; pressures and difficulties for staff, within an
1265:
The 20th century saw the development of the first effective
551:
led the development of a radical new type of institution in
183:
attached to the Teutonic Knights' hospital. Dave Sheppard's
3930:"Tara H Moross Centre Hospital – Psychiatric Ward (Ward 8)"
3059:
The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the history of psychiatry
2502:
Madness, Morality and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat
2456:"Chiarugi and Pinel considered: Soul's brain/person's mind"
1061:, a Hungarian neuropathologist and psychiatrist working in
2487:
A Quiet Haven: Quakers, Moral Treatment, and Asylum Reform
607:
started a retreat for mentally disabled children in 1841.
1432:
and actively inspired other prominent citizens including
698:, although the body appeared in an earlier form in 1841.
659:
were empowered to license and supervise private asylums.
3111:
3109:
3107:
3105:
3092:
3090:
3088:
2992:
2990:
2429:
Bukelic, Jovan (1995). "2". In Mirjana Jovanovic (ed.).
1783:
Faith and mental health: religious resources for healing
1374:
in 1948 would eventually revolutionise the treatment of
1037:
to treat dementia praecox, which was popularised by the
725:, an architectural style meant to have curative effect.
2089:
Health, Medicine and Mortality in the Sixteenth Century
1108:
with the lobotomy of a patient's frontal lobes in 1935.
403:
in Surrey which was accepting patients by 1700, one at
4162:
Histoire de la folie : De l'Antiquité à nos jours
3647:"Political Abuse of Psychiatry—An Historical Overview"
2091:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 145.
1882:
Gary D. Albrecht, Katherine D. Seelman, Michael Bury:
1308:, was first used by an American psychiatrist based in
4206:
3499:
Semple, David; Smyth, Roger; Burns, Jonathan (2005).
2489:, London & Toronto: Associated University Presses
2019:. Manchester: The Open University. pp. 298–330.
3888:"Deinstitutionalization in the absence of consensus"
3555:
3553:
3551:
3549:
2681:"Index of Lunatic Asylums and Mental Hospitals;1815"
1626:," now known as psychiatry, as a medical specialty.
3182:
3180:
2085:"Management and Mismanagement at Bedlam, 1547–1633"
789:, the Commissioner for Lunacy. A generation later,
690:. A national body for asylum superintendents – the
3999:Dept of Internal Affairs, New Zealand Government.
2768:"The Lunacy Commission as a government department"
2309:
2199:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1550:beds and rising numbers in the prison population.
1390:in the US assigned to psychiatric hospitals under
1312:, Nathan S. Kline. At a Paris-based colloquium on
694:– was established in 1866 under the Presidency of
27:Place for housing the insane, an aspect of history
3714:Ten Years that Changed the Face of Mental Illness
3602:10.1111/j.0902-4441.2000.007s020[dash]3.x
1967:
1965:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1707:List of asylums commissioned in England and Wales
1201:Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
495:In 1792, Pinel became the chief physician at the
335:in 1751 as a result of work begun in 1709 by the
2431:Neuropsihijatrija za III razred medicinske skole
2120:. London & New York: Routledge. p. 51.
4164:, 2009, Editions Tallandier, Texto, 618 pages.
1642:The United States has experienced two waves of
457:The joint counties' lunatic asylum, erected at
222:, which later became known more notoriously as
3803:
3801:
3799:
3797:
3795:
3505:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 6.
3438:Torrey E.F.; Yolken R.H. (16 September 2009).
1939:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1921:
620:Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury
544:, a pioneer of moral treatment for the insane.
2193:
2191:
2189:
1638:Views of Toledo State Hospital for the Insane
1562:initiative in 2005 in the context of ongoing
1459:hygiene, overcrowding, and ill-treatment and
595:A similar reform was carried out in Italy by
254:, an early public asylum for the mentally ill
185:Development of Mental Health Law and Practice
8:
3217:. Bythebrooke.blogspot.com. 12 November 2008
2351:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2343:
2341:
2339:
2337:
2335:
2333:
1702:History of psychiatric institutions in China
1586:and other treatments/punishments, including
1191:Psychiatric internment as a political device
674:who required treatment. The Act created the
477:, who had a mental disorder, experienced a
308:Asylum in 1777 (not to be confused with the
263:, in Houses of Correction or in workhouses.
2856:. Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press.
2114:"The Architecture of Bethlem at Moorfields"
1090:(ECT), invented by the Italian neurologist
961:lunatic. The term was often used to police
415:dating from around 1740, and a madhouse at
4198:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
4011:
4009:
793:, daughter of the women's rights advocate
4179:, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
4053:
3976:
3758:
3672:
3468:
3034:
2904:
2316:(3rd ed.). New York: Facts on File.
2169:
2139:
2137:
639:to build rate-supported asylums in every
2825:"Edouard Seguin (American psychiatrist)"
78:
60:of all important aspects of the article.
4213:
3318:
3306:
3271:
3171:
3139:
3127:
3115:
3096:
2996:
2791:
2504:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
2288:"Asylums and Care for the Insane"
1723:
1517:in Pretoria, TARA in Johannesburg, and
844:, was consigned to an insane asylum by
840:, wife of the German arms manufacturer
411:in Oxfordshire from about 1725, one at
4191:
4141:Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique
3886:Scherl DJ, Macht LB (September 1979).
3626:. South African Government Information
1948:(Ill. ed. ed.). Stroud: Tempus.
1304:. Also in 1954 another antipsychotic,
323:A similar expansion took place in the
56:Please consider expanding the lead to
2875:
2873:
2655:"Mental Health History Timeline;1811"
2629:"Mental Health History Timeline;1808"
2380:Elkes, A. & Thorpe, J.G. (1967).
2225:
2223:
1430:the National Mental Health Foundation
1233:was reported to be systematic in the
230:, established in the 16th century in
7:
2297:. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
1836:Tillack-Graf, Anne-Kathleen (2015).
1770:from the original on 9 October 2022.
1506:Uganda has one psychiatric hospital.
2384:. London: Faber & Faber, p. 13.
407:in Wiltshire from 1718, another at
242:Emergence of public lunatic asylums
194:; facilities included hospitals in
3645:van Voren, Robert (January 2010).
3532:. Infobase Publishing. p. 3.
1382:United States: reform in the 1940s
1120:performed the first leucotomy, or
801:and subsequently wrote of this in
25:
3187:Roy Porter; David Wright (2003).
2198:Parry-Jones, William Ll. (1972).
748:Married Women's Property Act 1882
737:Women in psychiatric institutions
518:. Pinel's student and successor,
274:with a capacity for 100 inmates.
220:Priory of Saint Mary of Bethlehem
4228:
4216:
4046:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2004.00295.x
3751:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2009.00706.x
3735:"The history of lithium therapy"
3286:A History of Clinical Psychiatry
3155:. Boston: Little Brown, p. 239.
2291:. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).
2239:. In Rines, George Edwin (ed.).
1904:"Mental Health History Timeline"
1650:(e.g. intellectual disability).
816:Blackwell's Island Insane Asylum
761:'s posthumously published novel
692:Medico-Psychological Association
34:
4144:, 1961, Gallimard, Tel, 688 p.
3782:Albert Q. Maisel (6 May 1946).
3733:Shorter, Edward (1 June 2009).
3565:. Zed Books. 1992. p. 65.
3352:Yanni, Carla. (12 April 2007).
3009:Suzuki, Akihto (January 1995).
1884:Handbook of Disability Studies,
1511:Weskoppies Psychiatric Hospital
824:newspaper, and in book form as
797:, was locked up by her husband
785:on this case, dedicating it to
316:Lunatic Asylum (1794), and the
48:may be too short to adequately
3589:Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica
3331:Henley, Jon (12 August 2009).
3193:. Cambridge University Press.
1785:. Templeton Foundation Press.
1781:Koenig, Harold George (2005).
932:. At the turn of the century,
764:Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman
757:An early fictional example is
579:and the Hartford Retreat (now
86:was one of the main themes in
58:provide an accessible overview
1:
3788:. LIFE magazine. p. 102.
3502:Oxford handbook of psychiatry
3360:University of Minnesota Press
3215:"by the brooke: lunacy panic"
2356:MacKenzie, Charlotte (1992).
2087:. In Webster, Charles (ed.).
2083:Allderidge, Patricia (1979).
1324:(London), Sarro (Barcelona),
1231:political abuse of psychiatry
1197:Political abuse of psychiatry
1007:general paresis of the insane
814:had herself committed to the
534:
4251:Former psychiatric hospitals
4017:University Press of America.
3835:Rochefort DA (Spring 1984).
1347:were used to treat cases of
1280:(known under the trade name
337:Religious Society of Friends
3969:10.1136/bmj.38296.611215.AE
3822:10.1016/j.mppsy.2007.05.008
3383:World Health Organization.
2961:Geller, Jeffrey F. (1994).
2485:Cherry, Charles L. (1989),
1687:History of mental disorders
1515:Denmar Psychiatric Hospital
1396:Philadelphia State Hospital
1229:From the 1960s up to 1986,
4274:
3250:10.1177/0957154X0001104403
2602:"GuggenbĂĽhl, Johann Jakob"
2054:10.1177/0957154x9200300903
1986:10.1177/0957154X9100200807
1558:New Zealand established a
1451:
1351:, and the introduction of
1194:
1156:
892:Edward Parker Charlesworth
511:and physiological damage.
441:Dr. Philippe Pinel at the
430:
137:In the Islamic world, the
3892:Hosp Community Psychiatry
3841:J Health Polit Policy Law
3027:10.1017/s0025727300059457
2162:10.1017/s0025727300056039
1854:10.1177/0957154X15605782d
1815:. London: Fontana Press.
1088:electroconvulsive therapy
1073:, known by the tradename
90:'s masterpieces, such as
4118:. U of Minnesota Press.
3712:Thuillier, Jean (1999).
2981:www.giovannidallorto.com
2567:Journal of Mental Health
2532:Journal of Mental Health
2515:Glover, Mary R. (1984),
1648:developmental disability
1578:; over-use and abuse of
1422:Mental Health Foundation
1294:United States and Canada
1163:Compulsory sterilization
970:appeared in widely read
930:industrialized countries
649:Parliamentary Committees
176:boasted a madhouse, the
3333:"The Forgotten Kennedy"
2829:Encyclopædia Britannica
2805:A History of Psychology
2382:A Summary of Psychiatry
1392:Civilian Public Service
1388:conscientious objectors
1172:psychiatric illnesses.
1104:pioneered the field of
1021:(increasingly known as
974:of the time, including
827:Ten Days in a Mad-House
657:Commissioners in Lunacy
633:1808 County Asylums Act
605:Johann Jakob GuggenbĂĽhl
581:the Institute of Living
320:Lunatic Asylum (1797).
3853:10.1215/03616878-9-1-1
3652:Schizophrenia Bulletin
3526:Noll, Richard (2007).
3448:Schizophrenia Bulletin
3418:www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp
3151:Rothman, D.J. (1990).
2946:Packard, E.P. (1873).
2881:Warsh, Cheryl Krasnick
2579:10.1080/09638230124277
2544:10.1080/09638230124277
2408:10.1176/ajp.136.9.1128
2308:Noll, Richard (2007).
2242:Encyclopedia Americana
2144:Winston, Mark (1994).
1697:Timeline of psychiatry
1682:Deinstitutionalization
1653:A process of indirect
1644:deinstitutionalization
1639:
1584:psychiatric medication
1454:Deinstitutionalisation
1448:Deinstitutionalisation
1420:, became the national
1418:Mental Hygiene Project
1336:
1217:
1109:
890:, with the support of
879:
842:Friedrich Alfred Krupp
627:
545:
505:psychological stresses
462:
450:
349:Williamsburg, Virginia
345:Eastern State Hospital
285:
282:Eastern State Hospital
268:Bethlem Royal Hospital
255:
252:Bethlem Royal Hospital
122:deinstitutionalization
97:
4112:Yanni, Carla (2007).
3665:10.1093/schbul/sbp119
3461:10.1093/schbul/sbp097
3238:History of Psychiatry
2850:Yanni, Carla (2007).
2360:. London: Routledge.
2294:Catholic Encyclopedia
2206:. London: Routledge.
2042:History of Psychiatry
1974:History of Psychiatry
1842:History of Psychiatry
1637:
1472:Class action lawsuits
1442:Harry Emerson Fosdick
1362:The discovery of the
1334:
1212:
1100:
1057:, and in August 1934
1055:insulin shock therapy
1015:psychiatric disorders
999:Julius Wagner-Jauregg
870:
779:based his 1859 novel
773:intentional community
730:Cheryl Krasnick Warsh
618:
528:
456:
440:
382:College of Physicians
370:licensing legislation
329:Pennsylvania Hospital
280:
249:
82:
2500:Digby, Anne (1983),
1944:Porter, Roy (2006).
1811:Porter, Roy (1997).
1548:forensic psychiatric
1408:The Psychiatric Aide
1049:-based psychiatrist
1017:, most particularly
910:occupational therapy
906:William A. F. Browne
888:Robert Gardiner Hill
872:William A. F. Browne
810:In 1887, journalist
799:Edward Bulwer-Lytton
791:Rosina Bulwer Lytton
711:Utica State Hospital
696:William A. F. Browne
611:Institutionalisation
569:Treatise on Insanity
467:Age of Enlightenment
147:built a hospital in
114:psychiatric hospital
4175:Shorter, E (1997),
4078:Mac Donald, Heather
3904:10.1176/ps.30.9.599
3412:TSUCHIYA, Takashi.
2600:MĂĽller, Christian.
1738:on 30 November 2012
1519:Valkenberg Hospital
1476:disability activism
1386:From 1942 to 1947,
1300:, who was based in
1274:anti-psychotic drug
835:Margarethe von Ende
759:Mary Wollstonecraft
577:Brattleboro Retreat
427:Humanitarian reform
302:Newcastle upon Tyne
4256:Total institutions
4082:"The Jail Inferno"
3918:on 6 January 2012.
3362:. pp. 53–62.
3321:, p. 226–229.
3309:, p. 190–225.
3290:Convulsive Therapy
2606:www.hls-dhs-dss.ch
2519:, York: Ebor Press
2454:Gerard DL (1998).
2261:The New York Times
2118:History of Bethlem
1906:. Studymore.org.uk
1660:Heather Mac Donald
1640:
1337:
1218:
1147:psychotropic drugs
1110:
1059:Ladislas J. Meduna
1035:deep sleep therapy
989:Physical therapies
977:The Woman in White
880:
858:continental Europe
782:The Woman in White
715:Dorothea Lynde Dix
628:
546:
501:Le Kremlin-BicĂŞtre
463:
451:
447:Tony Robert-Fleury
376:and Wood's Close,
298:St Luke's Hospital
286:
256:
98:
4186:978-0-471-24531-5
4125:978-0-8166-4939-6
3739:Bipolar Disorders
3572:978-1-85649-104-4
3539:978-0-8160-6405-2
3512:978-0-19-852783-1
3488:on 3 August 2012.
3369:978-0-8166-4940-2
3200:978-0-521-80206-2
3161:978-0-316-75745-4
2885:Historical Papers
2863:978-0-8166-4939-6
2831:. 6 December 2013
2794:, p. 34, 41.
2766:Roberts, Andrew.
2740:Roberts, Andrew.
2705:Roberts, Andrew.
2679:Roberts, Andrew.
2653:Roberts, Andrew.
2627:Roberts, Andrew.
2440:978-86-17-03418-2
1792:978-1-932031-91-1
1590:, with continued
1544:supported housing
1484:institutionalised
1461:abuse of patients
1426:Eleanor Roosevelt
1368:lithium carbonate
1267:psychiatric drugs
1153:Eugenics movement
1071:pentylenetetrazol
846:Kaiser Wilhelm II
676:Lunacy Commission
635:. This empowered
624:Lunacy Commission
597:Vincenzo Chiarugi
84:Social alienation
75:
74:
16:(Redirected from
4263:
4233:
4232:
4221:
4220:
4219:
4212:
4203:
4197:
4189:
4156:
4134:
4129:
4099:
4098:
4096:
4094:
4074:
4068:
4067:
4057:
4025:
4019:
4013:
4004:
3997:
3991:
3990:
3980:
3948:
3942:
3941:
3939:
3937:
3926:
3920:
3919:
3914:. Archived from
3883:
3877:
3876:
3874:
3872:
3863:. Archived from
3832:
3826:
3825:
3805:
3790:
3789:
3779:
3773:
3772:
3762:
3745:(Suppl 2): 4–9.
3730:
3724:
3710:
3704:
3695:The text reads:
3693:
3687:
3686:
3676:
3642:
3636:
3635:
3633:
3631:
3620:
3614:
3613:
3583:
3577:
3576:
3557:
3544:
3543:
3523:
3517:
3516:
3496:
3490:
3489:
3487:
3481:. Archived from
3472:
3444:
3435:
3429:
3428:
3426:
3424:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3398:
3389:
3380:
3374:
3373:
3349:
3343:
3342:
3328:
3322:
3316:
3310:
3304:
3298:
3297:
3281:
3275:
3268:
3262:
3261:
3233:
3227:
3226:
3224:
3222:
3211:
3205:
3204:
3184:
3175:
3169:
3163:
3149:
3143:
3142:, p. 48-49.
3137:
3131:
3125:
3119:
3113:
3100:
3094:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3078:
3068:
3062:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3038:
3006:
3000:
2994:
2985:
2984:
2973:
2967:
2966:
2958:
2952:
2951:
2943:
2937:
2936:
2934:
2932:
2923:. Archived from
2917:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2897:10.7202/030985ar
2877:
2868:
2867:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2821:
2815:
2801:
2795:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2780:
2778:
2772:studymore.org.uk
2763:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2752:
2746:studymore.org.uk
2737:
2731:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2717:
2711:studymore.org.uk
2702:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2691:
2685:studymore.org.uk
2676:
2670:
2669:
2667:
2665:
2659:studymore.org.uk
2650:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2639:
2633:studymore.org.uk
2624:
2618:
2617:
2615:
2613:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2562:
2556:
2555:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2497:
2491:
2490:
2482:
2476:
2475:
2460:J Hist Behav Sci
2451:
2445:
2444:
2426:
2420:
2419:
2391:
2385:
2378:
2372:
2371:
2353:
2328:
2327:
2315:
2305:
2299:
2298:
2290:
2279:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2268:
2253:
2247:
2246:
2238:
2231:William A. White
2227:
2218:
2217:
2205:
2195:
2184:
2183:
2173:
2141:
2132:
2131:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2080:
2074:
2073:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2012:
2006:
2005:
1969:
1960:
1959:
1941:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1900:
1889:
1880:
1874:
1873:
1833:
1827:
1826:
1808:
1797:
1796:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1769:
1762:
1754:
1748:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1734:. Archived from
1728:
1376:bipolar disorder
1364:mood stabilizing
1353:muscle relaxants
1139:Rosemary Kennedy
1019:dementia praecox
1003:malarial therapy
680:Lord Shaftesbury
653:Bethlem Hospital
553:Northern England
539:
536:
497:BicĂŞtre Hospital
485:and the English
405:Fonthill Gifford
390:1774 legislation
325:British American
70:
67:
61:
38:
30:
21:
4273:
4272:
4266:
4265:
4264:
4262:
4261:
4260:
4241:
4240:
4239:
4227:
4217:
4215:
4207:
4190:
4187:
4174:
4154:
4136:Michel Foucault
4132:
4126:
4111:
4108:
4106:Further reading
4103:
4102:
4092:
4090:
4076:
4075:
4071:
4040:(5): 1379–401.
4034:Health Serv Res
4027:
4026:
4022:
4014:
4007:
3998:
3994:
3963:(7483): 123–6.
3950:
3949:
3945:
3935:
3933:
3928:
3927:
3923:
3885:
3884:
3880:
3870:
3868:
3834:
3833:
3829:
3807:
3806:
3793:
3781:
3780:
3776:
3732:
3731:
3727:
3711:
3707:
3694:
3690:
3644:
3643:
3639:
3629:
3627:
3622:
3621:
3617:
3585:
3584:
3580:
3573:
3559:
3558:
3547:
3540:
3525:
3524:
3520:
3513:
3498:
3497:
3493:
3485:
3442:
3437:
3436:
3432:
3422:
3420:
3411:
3410:
3406:
3396:
3394:
3387:
3382:
3381:
3377:
3370:
3351:
3350:
3346:
3330:
3329:
3325:
3317:
3313:
3305:
3301:
3283:
3282:
3278:
3269:
3265:
3244:(44): 371–382.
3235:
3234:
3230:
3220:
3218:
3213:
3212:
3208:
3201:
3186:
3185:
3178:
3170:
3166:
3150:
3146:
3138:
3134:
3126:
3122:
3114:
3103:
3095:
3086:
3076:
3074:
3070:
3069:
3065:
3056:
3052:
3015:Medical History
3008:
3007:
3003:
2995:
2988:
2975:
2974:
2970:
2965:. Anchor Books.
2960:
2959:
2955:
2945:
2944:
2940:
2930:
2928:
2919:
2918:
2914:
2879:
2878:
2871:
2864:
2849:
2848:
2844:
2834:
2832:
2823:
2822:
2818:
2802:
2798:
2790:
2786:
2776:
2774:
2765:
2764:
2760:
2750:
2748:
2739:
2738:
2734:
2729:
2725:
2715:
2713:
2704:
2703:
2699:
2689:
2687:
2678:
2677:
2673:
2663:
2661:
2652:
2651:
2647:
2637:
2635:
2626:
2625:
2621:
2611:
2609:
2599:
2598:
2594:
2564:
2563:
2559:
2529:
2528:
2524:
2514:
2513:
2509:
2499:
2498:
2494:
2484:
2483:
2479:
2453:
2452:
2448:
2441:
2428:
2427:
2423:
2396:Am J Psychiatry
2393:
2392:
2388:
2379:
2375:
2368:
2355:
2354:
2331:
2324:
2307:
2306:
2302:
2281:
2280:
2276:
2266:
2264:
2255:
2254:
2250:
2229:
2228:
2221:
2214:
2197:
2196:
2187:
2150:Medical History
2143:
2142:
2135:
2128:
2111:
2110:
2106:
2099:
2082:
2081:
2077:
2039:
2038:
2034:
2027:
2014:
2013:
2009:
1971:
1970:
1963:
1956:
1943:
1942:
1919:
1909:
1907:
1902:
1901:
1892:
1881:
1877:
1835:
1834:
1830:
1823:
1810:
1809:
1800:
1793:
1780:
1779:
1775:
1767:
1760:
1758:"Life Magazine"
1756:
1755:
1751:
1741:
1739:
1732:"Life Magazine"
1730:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1678:
1632:
1616:
1604:
1592:adverse effects
1556:
1540:
1528:
1503:
1498:
1456:
1450:
1434:Owen J. Roberts
1384:
1345:antidepressants
1326:Manfred Bleuler
1263:
1203:
1195:Main articles:
1193:
1165:
1157:Main articles:
1155:
1135:John F. Kennedy
991:
986:
926:
924:Rapid expansion
918:Montrose Asylum
854:
804:A Blighted Life
769:Louisa Nottidge
739:
664:Lunacy Act 1845
645:Nottinghamshire
613:
540:) was built by
537:
435:
433:Moral treatment
429:
421:Ticehurst House
357:
355:Trade in lunacy
331:was founded in
244:
218:, England, the
145:Ahmad ibn Tulun
135:
130:
71:
65:
62:
55:
43:This article's
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4271:
4270:
4267:
4259:
4258:
4253:
4243:
4242:
4238:
4237:
4225:
4205:
4204:
4185:
4172:
4170:978-2847349276
4152:
4150:978-2070295821
4130:
4124:
4107:
4104:
4101:
4100:
4069:
4020:
4005:
3992:
3943:
3921:
3898:(9): 599–604.
3878:
3867:on 9 July 2012
3827:
3816:(8): 313–316.
3791:
3774:
3725:
3705:
3700:hallucinations
3688:
3637:
3615:
3596:(399): 13–15.
3578:
3571:
3545:
3538:
3518:
3511:
3491:
3430:
3404:
3375:
3368:
3358:(1 ed.).
3344:
3323:
3311:
3299:
3276:
3263:
3228:
3206:
3199:
3176:
3164:
3144:
3132:
3120:
3101:
3084:
3063:
3050:
3001:
2986:
2968:
2953:
2938:
2927:on 7 July 2016
2912:
2891:(1): 145–167.
2869:
2862:
2842:
2816:
2796:
2784:
2758:
2732:
2723:
2697:
2671:
2645:
2619:
2592:
2573:(4): 427–439.
2557:
2538:(4): 427–439.
2522:
2507:
2492:
2477:
2466:(4): 381–403.
2446:
2439:
2421:
2402:(9): 1128–34.
2386:
2373:
2367:978-0415088916
2366:
2329:
2323:978-0816064052
2322:
2300:
2283:James J. Walsh
2274:
2263:. 16 July 1900
2248:
2219:
2212:
2185:
2133:
2127:978-0415017732
2126:
2104:
2097:
2075:
2032:
2026:978-0719067358
2025:
2007:
1961:
1954:
1917:
1890:
1875:
1848:(4): 498–499.
1828:
1822:978-0006374541
1821:
1798:
1791:
1773:
1749:
1722:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1715:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1692:Kirkbride Plan
1689:
1684:
1677:
1674:
1631:
1628:
1615:
1614:United Kingdom
1612:
1608:South American
1603:
1600:
1560:reconciliation
1555:
1552:
1539:
1536:
1527:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1507:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1480:antipsychiatry
1452:Main article:
1449:
1446:
1383:
1380:
1290:Pierre Deniker
1284:in Europe and
1278:chlorpromazine
1262:
1259:
1247:Czechoslovakia
1192:
1189:
1154:
1151:
1130:Walter Freeman
1045:. In 1933 the
990:
987:
985:
982:
968:sensationalism
925:
922:
900:Hanwell Asylum
884:Lincoln Asylum
853:
850:
821:New York World
777:Wilkie Collins
738:
735:
723:Kirkbride Plan
719:Constantinople
703:Édouard Séguin
684:Home Secretary
612:
609:
516:La Salpetrière
483:Philippe Pinel
471:United Kingdom
431:Main article:
428:
425:
356:
353:
327:colonies. The
294:Guy's Hospital
243:
240:
134:
131:
129:
126:
102:lunatic asylum
88:Francisco Goya
73:
72:
52:the key points
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
18:Insane asylums
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4269:
4268:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4248:
4246:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4224:
4214:
4210:
4201:
4195:
4188:
4182:
4178:
4173:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4158:Claude Quétel
4153:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4142:
4137:
4131:
4127:
4121:
4117:
4116:
4110:
4109:
4105:
4089:
4088:
4083:
4079:
4073:
4070:
4065:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4024:
4021:
4018:
4012:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3996:
3993:
3988:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3947:
3944:
3931:
3925:
3922:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3882:
3879:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3831:
3828:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3804:
3802:
3800:
3798:
3796:
3792:
3787:
3786:
3778:
3775:
3770:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3729:
3726:
3723:
3722:1-85317-886-1
3719:
3715:
3709:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3692:
3689:
3684:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3653:
3648:
3641:
3638:
3625:
3619:
3616:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3590:
3582:
3579:
3574:
3568:
3564:
3563:
3556:
3554:
3552:
3550:
3546:
3541:
3535:
3531:
3530:
3522:
3519:
3514:
3508:
3504:
3503:
3495:
3492:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3449:
3441:
3434:
3431:
3419:
3415:
3408:
3405:
3393:
3386:
3379:
3376:
3371:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3356:
3348:
3345:
3340:
3339:
3334:
3327:
3324:
3320:
3315:
3312:
3308:
3303:
3300:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3280:
3277:
3274:, p. 218
3273:
3267:
3264:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3232:
3229:
3216:
3210:
3207:
3202:
3196:
3192:
3191:
3183:
3181:
3177:
3174:, p. 65.
3173:
3168:
3165:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3148:
3145:
3141:
3136:
3133:
3130:, p. 47.
3129:
3124:
3121:
3118:, p. 46.
3117:
3112:
3110:
3108:
3106:
3102:
3099:, p. 34.
3098:
3093:
3091:
3089:
3085:
3073:
3067:
3064:
3060:
3054:
3051:
3046:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3005:
3002:
2999:, p. 35.
2998:
2993:
2991:
2987:
2982:
2978:
2972:
2969:
2964:
2957:
2954:
2949:
2942:
2939:
2926:
2922:
2916:
2913:
2907:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2876:
2874:
2870:
2865:
2859:
2855:
2854:
2846:
2843:
2830:
2826:
2820:
2817:
2814:
2813:9780205512133
2810:
2806:
2800:
2797:
2793:
2788:
2785:
2773:
2769:
2762:
2759:
2747:
2743:
2736:
2733:
2727:
2724:
2712:
2708:
2701:
2698:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2672:
2660:
2656:
2649:
2646:
2634:
2630:
2623:
2620:
2607:
2603:
2596:
2593:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2561:
2558:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2526:
2523:
2518:
2511:
2508:
2503:
2496:
2493:
2488:
2481:
2478:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2450:
2447:
2442:
2436:
2432:
2425:
2422:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2390:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2374:
2369:
2363:
2359:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2346:
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4087:City Journal
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3924:
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3865:the original
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3656:
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3483:the original
3455:(1): 26–32.
3452:
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3417:
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3391:
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3354:
3347:
3338:The Guardian
3336:
3326:
3319:Shorter 1997
3314:
3307:Shorter 1997
3302:
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3289:
3285:
3279:
3272:Shorter 1997
3266:
3241:
3237:
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3219:. Retrieved
3209:
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3172:Shorter 1997
3167:
3152:
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3140:Shorter 1997
3135:
3128:Shorter 1997
3123:
3116:Shorter 1997
3097:Shorter 1997
3075:. Retrieved
3066:
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3053:
3018:
3014:
3004:
2997:Shorter 1997
2980:
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2925:the original
2915:
2888:
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2828:
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2792:Shorter 1997
2787:
2775:. Retrieved
2771:
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2749:. Retrieved
2745:
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2726:
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2710:
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2632:
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2610:. Retrieved
2605:
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2260:
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2153:
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2048:(8): 29–44.
2045:
2041:
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2010:
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1973:
1945:
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1883:
1878:
1845:
1841:
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1752:
1740:. Retrieved
1736:the original
1726:
1665:City Journal
1663:
1652:
1641:
1617:
1605:
1596:
1564:compensation
1557:
1546:facilities,
1541:
1532:
1529:
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1465:
1457:
1429:
1417:
1411:
1407:
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1361:
1338:
1322:Linford Rees
1314:neuroleptics
1271:
1264:
1235:Soviet Union
1228:
1223:Nazi Germany
1219:
1204:
1177:Nazi Germany
1174:
1166:
1143:
1111:
1092:Ugo Cerletti
1043:Jakob Klaesi
992:
984:20th century
975:
959:
951:
943:
927:
904:
896:John Conolly
886:in England,
881:
855:
832:
825:
819:
809:
802:
795:Anna Wheeler
780:
762:
756:
752:
744:
740:
727:
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700:
691:
678:, headed by
668:mentally ill
661:
629:
626:for 40 years
594:
589:Philadelphia
574:
568:
561:
557:York Retreat
549:William Tuke
547:
542:William Tuke
531:York Retreat
513:
494:
490:William Tuke
464:
394:
374:Hoxton House
366:Daniel Defoe
358:
333:Philadelphia
322:
310:York Retreat
287:
265:
257:
250:Plan of the
189:
184:
177:
168:
161:
158:
138:
136:
133:Medieval era
118:
109:
105:
101:
99:
93:The Madhouse
91:
76:
63:
47:
45:lead section
4155:(in French)
4133:(in French)
3871:29 November
3847:(1): 1–30.
3785:Bedlam 1946
3021:(1): 1–17.
2608:(in German)
1606:In several
1572:psychiatric
1554:New Zealand
1398:where four
1112:The use of
1053:introduced
1031:barbiturate
914:art therapy
637:magistrates
565:Samuel Tuke
538: 1796
465:During the
459:Abergavenny
443:Salpêtrière
409:Hook Norton
378:Clerkenwell
236:Netherlands
228:Het Dolhuys
214:(1483). In
210:(1481) and
192:Reconquista
163:NarrentĂĽrme
140:Bimaristans
4245:Categories
4235:Psychiatry
3932:. Medpages
3810:Psychiatry
3630:16 January
3392:unaids.org
3077:15 January
2906:10613/3065
2267:1 November
1742:18 January
1718:References
1662:stated in
1438:Pearl Buck
1402:initiated
1366:effect of
1349:depression
1272:The first
1251:Yugoslavia
1184:euthanasia
1118:Egas Moniz
1102:Egas Moniz
1027:hereditary
947:poorhouses
876:phrenology
812:Nellie Bly
670:people to
601:Interlaken
475:George III
445:, 1795 by
272:Moorfields
169:HĂ´tel-Dieu
153:Roy Porter
66:March 2024
4003:June 2007
2587:218906106
2552:218906106
1862:0957-154X
1712:Ann Pratt
1576:seclusion
1372:John Cade
1318:Hans Hoff
1306:reserpine
1286:Thorazine
1282:Largactil
1255:apartheid
1181:Aktion T4
1094:in 1938.
1067:cardiazol
1033:-induced
955:Cape Town
833:In 1902,
688:physician
479:remission
417:Fishponds
413:St Albans
401:Guildford
397:Kingsdown
318:Liverpool
314:Leicester
208:Barcelona
50:summarize
4194:citation
4064:15333114
3987:15567803
3769:19538681
3683:19892821
3610:10794019
3479:19759092
3296:(1): 53.
3258:71299293
3221:15 April
2835:15 April
2285:(1913).
2233:(1920).
2070:28734153
2062:11612665
1994:11612606
1910:15 April
1870:20151680
1765:Archived
1676:See also
1624:alienism
1620:lunatics
1355:allowed
1341:Henri Ey
1310:New York
1302:Montreal
1169:eugenics
1159:Eugenics
1126:Portugal
1122:lobotomy
1084:epilepsy
1075:metrazol
1063:Budapest
995:Austrian
963:vagrancy
807:(1880).
672:patients
509:heredity
341:Virginia
206:(1436),
202:(1425),
200:Zaragoza
198:(1407),
196:Valencia
179:Tollhaus
96:(above).
4223:History
4209:Portals
4093:27 July
4055:1361075
3861:6736594
3760:3712976
3674:2800147
3470:2800142
3423:23 June
3397:23 June
3045:7877402
3036:1036935
2807:p.214.
2777:24 June
2751:24 June
2716:24 June
2690:24 June
2664:24 June
2638:24 June
2612:23 June
2180:8145607
2171:1036809
2002:2250614
1400:Quakers
1243:Hungary
1239:Romania
934:Britain
862:Germany
361:Britain
312:); the
290:Norwich
261:Bethlem
232:Haarlem
204:Seville
128:History
4183:
4168:
4148:
4122:
4062:
4052:
3985:
3978:544427
3975:
3936:28 May
3912:223959
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2931:9 July
2860:
2811:
2803:King.
2585:
2550:
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1670:Rikers
1538:Europe
1501:Africa
1179:, the
1175:Under
1047:Vienna
972:novels
938:France
641:county
487:Quaker
461:, 1850
386:pauper
234:, the
224:Bedlam
216:London
212:Toledo
174:Elbing
3486:(PDF)
3443:(PDF)
3388:(PDF)
3254:S2CID
2583:S2CID
2548:S2CID
2066:S2CID
1998:S2CID
1886:p.20
1866:S2CID
1768:(PDF)
1761:(PDF)
1496:Today
1261:Drugs
1039:Swiss
507:, to
149:Cairo
4200:link
4181:ISBN
4166:ISBN
4146:ISBN
4120:ISBN
4095:2009
4060:PMID
3983:PMID
3938:2018
3908:PMID
3873:2009
3857:PMID
3765:PMID
3718:ISBN
3679:PMID
3632:2012
3606:PMID
3567:ISBN
3534:ISBN
3507:ISBN
3475:PMID
3425:2016
3399:2016
3364:ISBN
3223:2014
3195:ISBN
3157:ISBN
3079:2009
3041:PMID
2933:2016
2858:ISBN
2837:2014
2809:ISBN
2779:2016
2753:2016
2718:2016
2692:2016
2666:2016
2640:2016
2614:2016
2435:ISBN
2412:PMID
2362:ISBN
2318:ISBN
2269:2009
2208:ISBN
2176:PMID
2122:ISBN
2093:ISBN
2058:PMID
2021:ISBN
1990:PMID
1950:ISBN
1912:2014
1858:ISSN
1817:ISBN
1787:ISBN
1744:2011
1526:Asia
1478:and
1440:and
1413:Life
1249:and
1199:and
1167:The
1161:and
1082:and
1009:(or
1005:for
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529:The
306:York
100:The
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4042:doi
3973:PMC
3965:doi
3961:330
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3818:doi
3755:PMC
3747:doi
3669:PMC
3661:doi
3598:doi
3594:101
3465:PMC
3457:doi
3246:doi
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3023:doi
2901:hdl
2893:doi
2575:doi
2540:doi
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2404:doi
2400:136
2166:PMC
2158:doi
2050:doi
1982:doi
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1914:.
1872:.
1852::
1825:.
1795:.
1746:.
878:.
533:(
181:,
68:)
64:(
54:.
20:)
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