Instructional scaffolding - Knowledge (XXG)

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teacher scaffolds conversation to maximize the development of a child's intrapsychological functioning. In this process, the adult controls the elements of the task that are beyond the child's ability, all the while increasing the expectations of what the child is able to do. Speech, a critical tool to scaffold thinking and responding, plays a crucial role in the development of higher psychological processes because it enables thinking to be more abstract, flexible, and independent. From a Vygotskian perspective, talk and action work together with the sociocultural fabric of the writing event to shape a child's construction of awareness and performance. Dialogue may range from casual talk to deliberate explanations of features of written language. The talk embedded in the actions of the literacy event shapes the child's learning as the tutor regulates his or her language to conform to the child's degrees of understanding. shows that what may seem like casual conversational exchanges between tutor and student actually offer many opportunities for fostering cognitive development, language learning, story composition for writing, and reading comprehension. Conversations facilitate generative, constructive, experimental, and developmental speech and writing in the development of new ideas.

255:(ZPD). An essential element to the ZPD and scaffolding is the acquisition of language. According to Vygotsky, language (and in particular, speech) is fundamental to children's cognitive growth because language provides purpose and intention so that behaviors can be better understood. Through the use of speech, children are able to communicate to and learn from others through dialogue, which is an important tool in the ZPD. In a dialogue, a child's unsystematic, disorganized, and spontaneous concepts are met with the more systematic, logical and rational concepts of the skilled helper. Empirical research suggests that the benefits of scaffolding are not only useful during a task, but can extend beyond the immediate situation in order to influence future cognitive development. For instance, a recent study recorded verbal scaffolding between mothers and their 3- and 4-year-old children as they played together. Then, when the children were six years old, they underwent several measures of 319:'display/assessment orientation' of IRE. In this kind of pattern of interaction, the third part of the triadic dialogue offers 'follow-up' and teachers' scaffolding becomes 'supportive'. Rather than producing 'authoritative discourse', teachers construct 'internally persuasive discourse' that allows 'equality' and 'symmetry' wherein the issues of power, control, institutional managerial positioning, etc. are diffused or suspended. The discourse opens up the roles for students as the 'primary knower' and the 'sequence initiator', which allows them to be the negotiator and co-constructor of meaning. The suspension of asymmetry in the talk represents a shift in the teacher's ideological stance and, therefore, demonstrates that supportive scaffolding is more than simply a model of instruction. 315:

incorporating Bhaktin's (1981) and van Lier's (1996) works. Within the IRE pattern, teachers provide 'directive scaffolding' on the assumption that their job is to transmit knowledge and then assess its appropriation by the learners. The question-answer-evaluation sequence creates a predetermined standard for acceptable participation and induces passive learning. In this type of interaction, the teacher holds the right to evaluate and asks 'known-information' questions which emphasise the reproduction of information. The nature and role of the triadic dialogue have been oversimplified and the potential for the roles of teachers and students in them has been undermined.

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through continued feedback throughout the progression of the task. In the early studies, scaffolding was primarily done in oral, face- to-face learning environments. In classrooms, scaffolding may include modelling behaviours, coaching and prompting, thinking out loud, dialogue with questions and answers, planned and spontaneous discussions, as well as other interactive planning or structural assistance to help the learner bridge a cognitive gap. This can also include peer mentoring from more experienced students. These peers can be referred to as MKOs.

266:(ZPD). The zone of proximal development is the field between what a learner can do on their own (expert stage) and the most that can be achieved with the support of a knowledgeable peer or instructor (pedagogical stage). Vygotsky was convinced that a child could be taught any subject efficiently using scaffolding practices by implementing the scaffolds through the zone of proximal development. Students are escorted and monitored through learning activities that function as interactive conduits to get them to the next stage. Thus the learner obtains 490:

cognitive architecture. While accepting this general line of argument, counter-arguments for individual approaches such as problem-based learning have highlighted how these are not minimal guidance approaches, and are consistent with human cognitive architecture. Other strands of criticism suggest that there is little empirical evidence for the effectiveness of learner-centered approaches when compared to more teacher-led approaches, and this is despite extensive encouragement and support from national and international education agencies including

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examples, feedback) can cause them to interact and reinforce each other. Multiple conditions do not guarantee greater learning, as certain types of guidance can be extraneous to the learning goals or the modality of learning. With this, more guidance (if not appropriate to the learning) can negatively impact performance, as it gives the learner overwhelming levels of information. However, appropriately designed high levels of guidance, which properly interact with the learning, is more beneficial to learning than low levels of guidance.

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explicit way of teaching that gives emphasis to the role of the teacher as a transmitter of knowledge and the students as passive receptacles. The 'transmission' of knowledge and skills from the teacher to the student in this context is often manifested in the form of drill, practice and rote memorization. An 'instructionist', then, focuses on the preparation, organization and management of the lesson making sure the plan is detailed and the communication is effective. The emphasis is on the up-front explicit delivery of instruction.

259:, such as working memory and goal-directed play. The study found that the children's working memory and language skills at six years of age were related to the amount of verbal scaffolding provided by mothers at age three. In particular, scaffolding was most effective when mothers provided explicit conceptual links during play. Therefore, the results of this study not only suggest that verbal scaffolding aids children's cognitive development, but that the quality of the scaffolding is also important for learning and development. 251:'s concept of an expert assisting a novice, or an apprentice. Scaffolding is changing the level of support to suit the cognitive potential of the child. Over the course of a teaching session, one can adjust the amount of guidance to fit the child's potential level of performance. More support is offered when a child is having difficulty with a particular task and, over time, less support is provided as the child makes gains on the task. Ideally, scaffolding works to maintain the child's potential level of development in the 954:

online classes, which leads to low participation. Online education increases the risk of anxiety disorder, clinical depression, apathy, learned helplessness, and burnout. Learners without access to a laptop and the internet are often left out of the online learning world. Online learning courses do not provide enough verbal interaction, which makes it difficult for teachers to measure student engagement and learning outcomes. Students with disabilities often require special software to access educational resources online.

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large-scale study demonstrated how post-secondary physics students recalled less than 30% of material covered in a traditional lecture-style class. Similarly, other studies illustrate how students construct different understandings from explanation in isolation versus having a first experience with the material. A first, experience with the material provides students with a "need to know", which allows learners to reflect on prior experiences with the content, which can help learners construct meaning from instruction.

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integration. Yet, in another study it was found that providing feedback right after the error can deprive the learner of the opportunity to develop evaluative skills. Wise and O'Neill bring these two, seemingly contradictory findings, and argue that it does not only prove the importance of the role of feedback, but that points out a timing feature of feedback: immediate feedback in the short term promotes more rapid problem-solving, but delaying feedback can result in better retention and

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as the group works on a task. According to Vygotsky, students develop higher-level thinking skills when scaffolding occurs with an adult expert or with a peer of higher capabilities. Conversely, Piaget believes that students discard their ideas when paired with an adult or student of more expertise. Instead, students should be paired with others who have different perspectives. Conflicts would then take place between students allowing them to think constructively at a higher level.

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contingent scaffolding. The type and amount of support needed is dependent on the needs of the students during the time of instruction. Unfortunately, applying scaffolding correctly and consistently can be difficult when the classroom is large and students have various needs. Scaffolding can be applied to a majority of the students, but the teacher is left with the responsibility to identify the need for additional scaffolding.

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collaborating with fellow students to foster learning. Even with instructors implementing a positive social space online, a research study found that students' perceptions of incompetence to other classmates is not affected by positive online social spaces, but this was found to be less of a problem in face to face courses.

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better defined by the instructor's approach. Instructionists and constructionists approach giving guidance within their own instructional frameworks. Scaffolding involves presenting learners with proper guidance that moves them towards their learning goals. Providing guidance is a method of moderating the

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As the research in this area progresses, studies are showing that when students learn about complex topics with computer-based learning environments (CBLEs) without scaffolding they demonstrated poor ability to regulate their learning, and failure to gain a conceptual understanding of the topic. As a

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These tools can provide students with the necessary information (i.e. concept or theory, task instructions, learning goals, learning objectives) and practice (i.e. ready-to-be-solved problems) they need to master new content and skills. Handouts are helpful tools for explanations and worked examples.

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There are a wide variety of scaffolding strategies that teachers employ. One approach to looking at the application of scaffolding is to look at a framework for evaluating these strategies. This model was developed based on the theoretical principles of scaffolding to highlight the use of scaffolding

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Instructional scaffolding can be thought of as the strategies that a teacher uses to help learners bridge a cognitive gap or progress in their learning to a level they were previously unable to accomplish. These strategies evolve as the teachers evaluate the learners initial level of ability and then

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There have been several attempts to move beyond the minimal guidance versus fully guided instruction controversy. These are often developed by introducing the variable of learner expertise and using that to suggest adapting instructional styles depending on the level of expertise of the learner, with

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new understandings by building on their prior knowledge through the support delivered by more capable individuals. Several peer-reviewed studies have shown that when there is a deficiency in guided learning experiences and social interaction, learning and development are obstructed. Moreover, several

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These four types are structures that appropriately support students' learning in online environments. Other scaffolding approaches that were addressed by the researchers included: technical support, content support, argumentation template, questioning and modelling. These terms were rarely used, and

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If instead we entertain the possibility that instruction and discovery are not oil and water, that instruction and discovery coexist and can work together, we may find a solution to this impasse in the field. Perhaps our way out of the instructivist-constructivist impasse thus involves not a “middle

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In this approach, the role of the teacher may change from what has been described as "sage on the stage" to "guide on the side" with one example of this change in practice being that teachers will not tend to answer questions from students directly, but instead will ask questions back to students to

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Instructionism are educational practices characterized for being instructor-centered. Some authors see instructionism as a highly prescriptive practice that mostly focuses on the formation of skills, that is very product-oriented and is not interactive; or that is a highly structured, systematic and

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Reciprocal scaffolding, a method first coined by Holton and Thomas, is a method that involves a group of two or more collaboratively working together. In this situation, the group can learn from each other's experiences and knowledge. The scaffolding is shared by each member and changes constantly

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An online learning environment warrants many factors for scaffolding to be successful; this includes basic knowledge of the use of technology, social interactions and reliance on students' individual motivation and initiative for learning. Collaboration is key to instructional scaffolding and

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How new information is presented to the learner is a critical component for effective instruction. The use of materials such as visual images, graphic organizers, animated videos, audio files and other technological features can make explanations more engaging, motivating and meaningful for student

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as means to support learning, and how it can be used more effectively. The difference in the use of guidance is found in the philosophical assumptions regarding the nature of the learner, but they also differ in their views around the quantity, the context and the timing of guidance. An example of

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If, in managing the talk, teachers apply 'constructive power' and exploit students' responses as occasions for joint exploration, rather than simply evaluating them, then the classroom talk becomes dialogic. The pedagogic orientation of this talk becomes 'participation orientation', in contrast to

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Online classes do not require movement need to a different city or long distances in order to attend the program of one's choice. Online learning allows a flexible schedule. Assessments are completed at the learner's pace. It makes it easier for introverted students to ask questions or drop their

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metacognitive scaffolding can be used to encourage students in reflecting and help build a sense of a community among learners. Specifically, Reingold, Rimor and Kalay recommend using metacognitive scaffolding to support students working on a common task. They believe this can support learners to

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When students who are not physically present in the classroom receive instruction, instructors need to adapt to the environment and their scaffolding needs to be adjusted to fit the new learning medium. It can be challenging to find a way to adjust the verbal and visual elements of scaffolding to

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views knowledge as a "function of how the individual creates meaning from his or her own experiences". Constructivists advocate that learning is better facilitated in a minimally guided environment where learners construct important information for themselves. According to constructivism, minimal

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Constructivists pay close attention to the context of guidance because they believe instruction plays a major role in knowledge retention and transfer. Research studies demonstrate how the context of isolated explanations can have an effect on student-learning outcomes. For example, Hake's (1998)

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Minimal guidance is regarded as controversial and has been described as a caricature that does not exist in practice, and that critics have combined too many different approaches some of which may include more guidance, under the label of minimal guidance. However, there is some evidence that in

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Research has demonstrated that higher level of guidance has a greater effect on scaffolded learning, but is not a guarantee of more learning. The efficacy of higher amount of guidance is dependent on the level of detail and guidance applicability. Having multiple types of guidance (i.e. worked

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In writing instruction, support is typically presented in verbal form (discourse). The writing tutor engages the learner's attention, calibrates the task, motivates the student, identifies relevant task features, controls for frustration, and demonstrates as needed. Through joint activities, the

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The support and guidance provided to the learner are compared to the scaffolds in building construction where the scaffolds provide both "adjustable and temporal" support to the building under construction. The support and guidance provided to learners facilitate internalization of the knowledge

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According to the National Centre for Biotechnology Information research paper, teacher-student interactions are not what they used to be. Social relationships among teachers and their students are weakened due to online learning. Teachers tend to have low expectations from their students during

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Instructors can use a variety of scaffolds to accommodate different levels of knowledge. The context of learning (i.e. novice experience, complexity of the task) may require more than one scaffold strategy in order for the student to master new content. The following table outlines a few common

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Learner support in scaffolding is known as guidance. While it takes on various forms and styles, the basic form of guidance is any type of interaction from the instructor that is intended to aid and/or improve student learning. While this a broad definition, the role and amount of guidance is

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is the support given to a student by an instructor throughout the learning process. This support is specifically tailored to each student; this instructional approach allows students to experience student-centered learning, which tends to facilitate more efficient learning than teacher-centered

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In contrast with contingent or soft scaffolding, embedded or hard scaffolding is planned in advance to help students with a learning task that is known in advance to be difficult. For example, when students are discovering the formula for the Pythagorean Theorem in math class, the teacher may

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Students who had more desire to master the content than to receive higher grades were more successful in the online courses. A study by Artino and Stephens found that graduate students were more motivated in online courses than undergraduate students but suggests that academic level may

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As technology changes, so does the form of support provided to online learners. Instructors have the challenge of adapting scaffolding techniques to this new medium, but also the advantage of using new web-based tools such as wikis and blogs as platforms to support and discuss with students.

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is that it does not align with human cognitive architecture making it an inefficient approach to learning for beginner learners in particular. In this strand of criticism, minimal guidance approaches are contrasted with fully guided approaches to instruction which better match inherent human

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Constructivist instructors, in contrast, approach instruction from the approach of guided discovery with a particular emphasis on transfer. The concept of transfer focuses on a learner's ability to apply learned tasks in a context other than the one in which it was learned. This results in

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Silliman and Wilkinson distinguish two types of scaffolding: 'supportive scaffolding' that characterises the IRF (Initiation-Response-Follow-up) pattern; and 'directive scaffolding' that refers to IRE (Initiation-Response-Evaluation). Saxena (2010) develops these two notions theoretically by

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The instructor's role in creating a social space for online interaction has been found to increase students' confidence in understanding the content and goals of the course. If an instructor does not create this space, a student misses out on critical thinking, evaluating material and

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require learners to solve authentic problems or "acquire knowledge in information-rich settings". An example of an application of constructivist learning is science instruction, where students are asked to discover the principles of science by imitating the steps and actions of researchers.

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in the classroom would be when a teacher circulates the room and converses with his or her students. The teacher may question their approach to a difficult problem and provide constructive feedback to the students. According to Van Lier, this type of scaffolding can also be referred to as

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suggests that immediate feedback on errors is a great strategy to promote learning. As the learner is able to integrate the feedback from short-term memory into the overall learning- and problem-solving task, the longer the wait on feedback and the harder it is for the learner to make this

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Any combination of scaffolding means with scaffolding intention can be construed as a scaffolding strategy, however, whether a teaching strategy qualifies as good scaffolding generally depends upon its enactment in actual practice and more specifically upon whether the strategy is applied

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Technical scaffolding is a newer approach in which computers replace the teachers as the experts or guides, and students can be guided with web links, online tutorials, or help pages. Educational software can help students follow a clear structure and allows students to plan properly.

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Guiding has a key role in both constructivism and 'instructivism'. For instructivists, the timing of guidance is immediate, either at the beginning or when the learner makes a mistake, whereas in constructivism it can be delayed. It has been found that immediate feedback can lead to

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of learning strategies should not be used because it impedes the natural processes learners use to recall prior experiences. In this view, for learners to construct knowledge they should be provided with the goals and minimal information and support. Applications that promote

557:. An MKO may help a student using scaffolding, with the goal being that the student can eventually lead themselves to the answer on their own, without the help of anyone else. The MKO may use a gradual reduction of assistance in order to facilitate this, as described earlier. 298:

identify hints or cues to help the student reach an even higher level of thinking. In both situations, the idea of "expert scaffolding" is being implemented: the teacher in the classroom is considered the expert and is responsible for providing scaffolding for the students.

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stands for 'More Knowledgeable Other'. The MKO is a person who has a higher understanding of an idea or concept and can bridge this cognitive gap. This includes teachers, parents, and as stated before, peers. MKOs are central part of the process of learning in the ZPD, or

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are guiding tools that can act as a "need to know" for students. Worked examples provide students with straightforward goals, step-by-step instructions as well as ready-to-solve problems that can help students develop a stronger understanding from instruction.

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One of the consequences of this reconceptualization is abandoning the rigid explicit instruction versus minimal guidance dichotomy and replacing it with a more flexible approach based on differentiating specific goals of various learner activities in complex

464:. It is the idea that learners, regardless of their level of expertise, will learn best through discovering and/or constructing information for themselves in contrast to more teacher-led classrooms which in contrast are described as more passive learning. 886:

metacognitive scaffolding: prompts students to think about what they are learning throughout the process and assists students reflecting on what they have learnt (self-assessment). This is the most common research area and is thought to not only promote

243:. Helped by their parents when they first start learning to speak, young children are provided with informal instructional formats within which their learning is facilitated. A scaffolding format investigated by Bruner and his postdoctoral student 247:, whose scaffolding processes are described in detail, is joint picture-book reading. By contrast, bed-time stories and read-alouds are examples of book-centered parenting events without scaffolding interaction. Scaffolding is inspired by 179:: The task should ensure that learners use the developing skills that need to be mastered. The task should also be engaging and interesting to keep learners involved. This task should be neither too difficult nor too easy for the learner. 340:

Traditional teachers tend to give a higher level of deductive, diadactic instruction, with each piece of a complex task being broken down. This teacher-centered approach, consequently, tends to increase the cognitive load for students.

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is essential for scaffolding to be effective; a study has shown that procrastinators are at a disadvantage in online distance learning and are not able to be scaffolded in the same degree as if there was an in-person instructor.

190:: After choosing the task, the teacher needs to anticipate errors the learners are likely to commit when working on the task. Anticipation of errors enables the scaffolder to properly guide the learners away from ineffective directions. 131:

learning skills and knowledge. Teachers help the students master a task or a concept by providing support. The support can take many forms such as outlines, recommended documents, storyboards, or key questions.

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Hadwin, A. F.; Wozney, L.; Pantin, O. (2005). "Scaffolding the appropriation of self-regulatory activity: A socio-cultural analysis of changes in teacher-student discourse about a graduate research portfolio".

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for educational purposes. It highlights two components of an instructor's use of scaffolding. The first is the instructors intentions and the second refers to the means by which the scaffolding is carried out.

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scaffolding can help in group discussions. In a 2012 study, a significant increase in active participation and meaningful negotiations was found within the scaffolded groups as opposed to the non-scaffolded

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A safe approach is to offer three options. The teacher designs two options based on what most students may like to do. The third choice is a blank check -- students propose their own product or performance.

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contribute to the amount of technological support needed for positive learning outcomes, finding that undergraduate students needed less support than graduate students when navigating an online course.

533:. Other attempts at synthesis include using pedagogies more associated with martial arts instruction that apply explicit instruction as a means of fostering student discovery through repeated practice. 5439:

Cho, Moon-Heum; Cho, YoonJung (April 2014). "Instructor scaffolding for interaction and students' academic engagement in online learning: Mediating role of perceived online class goal structures".

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Cox, B. E. (1994). "Young children's regulatory talk: Evidence of emerging metacognitive control over literary products and processes". In Ruddell, R. B.; Ruddell, M. R.; Singer, H. (eds.).

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Belland, Brian; Glazewski, Krista D.; Richardson, Jennifer C. (2008). "A scaffolding framework to support the construction of evidence-based arguments among middle school students".

4625: 216:(expert) might need to manage and control for frustration and loss of interest that could be experienced by the learner. Encouragement is also an important scaffolding component. 891:

but also students' ability to plan ahead. Reingold, Rimor and Kalay have listed seven mechanisms of metacognitive scaffolding that encourage students' metacognition in learning.

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Mathan, S.; Koedinger, K. R. (2003). "Recasting the feedback debate: Benefits of tutoring error detection and correction skills". In Hoppe, U.; Verdejo, F.; Kay, J. (eds.).

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Artino, Anthony; Stephens, Jason (December 2009). "Academic motivation and self-regulation: A comparative analysis of undergraduate and graduate students learning online".

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Online education is cost-effective and reduces travel expenses for both the learning institution and students. It improves technology literacy for teachers and students.

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The third feature of scaffolding is that the scaffold, the support and guidance provided by the expert, is gradually removed as the learner becomes more proficient.

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certain domains, and under certain circumstances, a minimal guidance approach can lead to successful learning if sufficient practice opportunities are built in.

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prompt further thinking. This change in teaching style has also been described as being a "facilitator of learning" instead of being a "dispenser of knowledge".

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Hake, R. R. (1998). "Interactive engagement versus traditional methods: A six-thousand-student survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics course".

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With traditional power dynamics in the classroom, the teacher is the authority. In order to engage in meaningful student talk, we need to break this hierarchy.

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result, researchers have recently begun to emphasize the importance of embedded conceptual, procedural, strategic, and metacognitive scaffolding in CBLEs.

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Encourage students to interact with a new problem or task (i.e. hands-on task that allows students to interact with materials and develop a "need to know")

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of a learner. In scaffolding, learners can only be moved toward their learning goals if cognitive load is held in check by properly administered support.

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as it does not take in consideration the process of gradual acquisition of a skill, which also relates to the amount of guidance being given. Research on

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are being first introduced to students. These supports may include resource, compelling task, templates and guides, and/or guidance on the development of

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Wise, A. F.; O'Neill, D. K. (2009). "Beyond More Versus Less: A Reframing of the Debate on Instructional Guidance". In Tobias, S.; Duffy, T. M. (eds.).

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Landry, S. H.; Miller-Loncar, C. L.; Smith, K. E.; Swank, P. R. (2002). "The role of early parenting in children's development of executive processes".

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Cazden, C. B. (1983). "Adult assistance to language development: Scaffolds, models, and direct instruction". In Parker, R. P.; Davis, F. A. (eds.).

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Huang, H.; Wu, C.; Chen, N. (2012). "The effectiveness of using procedural scaffolding in a paper-plus-smartphone collaborative learning context".

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Saxena, M. (2010). "Reconceptualising teachers' directive and supportive scaffolding in bilingual classrooms within the neo-Vygotskyan approach".

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more expert learners generally requiring less direct instruction. For example, despite providing many of the criticisms of minimal guidance,

502:. Further more specific criticisms include the following: minimal guidance is inefficient compared to explicit instruction due to a lack of 4900: 3025: 35: 151:. To do that the expert needs to be aware of the learner's current level of knowledge and then work to a certain extent beyond that level. 5474:

Tuckman, Bruce (Summer 2005). "Relations of academic procrastination, rationalizations, and performance in a web course with deadlines".

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environments, and web-based learning environments. This challenges traditional learning design conceptions of scaffolding for educators.

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The first feature is the interaction between the learner and the expert. This interaction should be collaborative for it to be effective.

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it was argued that these areas had unclear structure to guide students, especially in online learning, and were inadequately justified.

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of scaffolds during the learning task: Scaffolds could be organized in "simple skill acquisition or they may be dynamic and generative".

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Hannafin, M. J.; Land, S.; Oliver, K. (1999). "Open learning environments: Foundations, methods and models". In Reigeluth, C.M. (ed.).

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These tools organize information in a way that helps learners understand new and complex content. Examples of advanced organizers are:

3885: 5023:"The social and technological dimensions of scaffolding and related theoretical concepts for learning, education, and human activity" 5972: 5698: 5690: 5667: 5659: 5156: 5092: 4795: 4770: 4738: 3934: 3367: 3334: 3147: 3085: 2966: 2599: 2545: 2447: 2385: 2153: 2017: 1952: 1920: 1786: 1630: 1596: 1461: 1428: 1397: 1042: 68: 4867: 4846: 6013: 5071: 5027: 4790:. Current Perspectives on Cognition, Learning & Instruction. Greenwich, Conn.: Information Age Publishing. pp. 303–328. 2719:

Hrepic, Z.; Zollman, D. A.; Rebello, N. S. (2007). "Comparing students' and experts' understanding of the content of a lecture".

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Some ingredients of scaffolding are predictability, playfulness, focus on meaning, role reversal, modeling, and nomenclature.

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Silliman, E.; Wilkinson, L. C. (1994). "Discourse scaffolds for classroom intervention". In Wallach, G.; Butler, K. (eds.).

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Trafton, J. G.; Reiser, B. J. (1993). "The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition".

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In Vygotsky's words, "what the child is able to do in collaboration today he will be able to do independently tomorrow".

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Nassaji, H.; Wells, G. (2000). "What's the use of 'triadic dialogue'? An investigation of teacher-student interaction".

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things influence the ZPD of students, ranging from the collaboration of peers to technology available in the classroom.

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Saxena, M. (2009). "Negotiating conflicting ideologies and linguistic otherness: codeswitching in English classrooms".

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Beed, P.; Hawkins, M.; Roller, C. (1991). "Moving learners towards independence: the power of scaffolded instruction".

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The recent spread of technology used in education has opened up the learning environment to include AI-based methods,

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Nesbit, J. C.; Adesope, O. O. (2013). "Concept maps for learning: Theory, research and design". In Schraw, G. (ed.).

3232:"Co-Lab: Research and development of an on-line learning environment for collaborative scientific discovery learning" 1872:"A Vygotskian perspective on literacy acquisition: Talk and action in the child's construction of literate awareness" 4357: 4762: 4730: 3729: 2915:"Inventing to prepare for learning: The hidden efficiency of original student production in statistics instruction" 2676: 1206: 1034: 506:, minimal guidance leads to reduced opportunities for student practice, and minimal guidance happens inevitably in 4692: 3981:"Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction" 5063: 4872: 3985: 3518: 2439: 1691: 1350: 745:

are graphical tools for organizing, representing and displaying the relationships between knowledge and concepts.

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Hoffman, B.; Ritchie, D. (March 1997). "Using multimedia to overcome the problems with problem-based learning".

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learning. This learning process promotes a deeper level of learning than many other common teaching strategies.

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Jumaat, N. F.; Tasir, Z. (2014). "Instructional Scaffolding in Online Learning Environment: A Meta-analysis".

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can be lost without proper guidance from an instructor creating and initiating an online social space.

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A 2014 review of the types of scaffolding used in online learning identified four main types of scaffolding:

529:

does also suggest a role for less direct guidance from the teacher as learners become more expert due to the

2326:"Peer Scaffolding of Knowledge Building Through Collaborative Groups with Differential Learning Experiences" 1687:"Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development: Instructional Implications and Teachers' Professional Development" 982: 707: 408: 402:

guidance in the form of process or task related information should be provided to learners upon request and

4195:"A systematic review of the implementation of learner-centred pedagogy in low- and middle-income countries" 6011:

Wertsch, J. V.; Stone, C. (1984). "A social interactional analysis of learning disabilities remediation".

3994: 3943: 3542: 2736: 2631: 2537: 2485: 1653: 1006: 988: 973: 967: 946: 867: 507: 457: 449: 877:

conceptual scaffolding: helps students decide what to consider in learning and guide them to key concepts

5476: 4999: 3791: 3169: 1299: 888: 699: 503: 364: 101: 3839: 3101:

Jonassen, D. H. (1991). "Objectivism versus constructivism: do we need a new philosophical paradigm?".

1321:

Schetz, K.; Stremmel, A. (1994). "Teacher-assisted computer implementation: a Vygotskian perspective".

883:

strategic scaffolding: helps students find alternative strategies and methods to solve complex problems

345:

constructivist instructors, unlike classical ones, giving a higher level of guidance than instruction.

108:. Instructional scaffolding could be employed through modeling a task, giving advice, and/or providing 1802:

Bodrova, E.; Leong, D. J. (1998). "Scaffolding emergent writing in the zone of proximal development".

4841: 4757:

Renkl, A. (2005). "The worked-out examples principle in multimedia learning". In Mayer, R. E. (ed.).

4668: 3178: 3074:

Artificial intelligence in education: Shaping the future of learning through intelligent technologies

2783: 2728: 2693: 1553: 387: 289:

According to Saye and Brush, there are two levels of scaffolding: soft and hard. An example of soft

240: 3999: 3948: 2741: 2636: 2490: 4200: 3271: 1060: 5520: 3623: 2099:"The impact of scaffolding and student achievement levels in a problem-based learning environment" 6054: 5935: 5892: 5859: 5802: 5747: 5642: 5561: 5501: 5456: 5341: 5299: 5257: 5205: 5044: 4574: 4562: 4475: 4415: 4338: 4235: 4174: 4115: 4028: 3910: 3473: 3212: 3120: 3050: 3042: 2942: 2934: 2862: 2846: 2799: 2754: 2657: 2354: 2269: 2212: 2119: 2078: 1811: 1755: 1718: 1547:

Research Synthesis on Effective Teaching Principles and the Design of Quality Tools for Educators

1527: 1367: 1126: 855:

construct a successful interactive and collaborative learning environment for distance learning.

461: 430: 403: 256: 209: 4910: 4599:"Does Visual Scaffolding Facilitate Students' Mathematics Learning? Evidence From Early Algebra" 3231: 592:

contingently and whether it is also part of a process of fading and transfer of responsibility.

159:

needed to complete the task. This support is weaned gradually until the learner is independent.

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Carroll, W. (1994). "Using worked examples as instructional support in the algebra classroom".

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Opening Dialogue: Understanding the Dynamics of Language and Learning in the English Classroom

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Demonstrate the task students are expected to complete on their own (i.e. science experiment)

6081: 6022: 5964: 5919: 5884: 5835: 5786: 5731: 5618: 5588: 5553: 5485: 5448: 5368: 5333: 5291: 5233: 5181: 5172:

Hill, J.; Hannafin, M. (1997). "Cognitive strategies and learning from the World Wide Web".

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Yelland, Nicola; Masters, Jennifer (2007). "Rethinking scaffolding in the information age".

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are commonly implemented in mathematics and science classes and include three key features:

4877: 4598: 4438:"Instruction, repetition, discovery: restoring the historical educational role of practice" 2438:. University of Texas Press Slavic series. Translated by Emerson, C.; Holquist, M. Austin: 680:

Provide step-by-step instructions (i.e. illustrate steps to solving a mathematical problem)

5910: 970: – Situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together 728:: One or more read-to-be solved problems are given for the student to practice the skill. 722:: A worked example, that demonstrates how the student can solve the problem, is provided. 448:

Minimal guidance is a general term applied to a variety of pedagogical approaches such as

205: 3230:

van Joolingen, W. R.; de Jong, T.; Lazonder, A. W.; Savelsbergh, E.; Manlove, S. (2005).

1246:

Graves, M.; Braaten, S. (1996). "Scaffolding reading experiences for inclusive classes".

5387: 4501: 4194: 3808: 2787: 2732: 2697: 1647: 584: 6085: 4972:"Student-centered learning and interactive multimedia: Status, issues, and implication" 1224: 994: 783:

Explanations are ways in which instructors present and explain new content to learners.

752: 648: 570: 526: 486: 378: 334: 3757:

Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools: Kindergarten through Grade Twelve

3675: 2899: 1773:

Luria, A. R. (1983). "The development of writing in the child". In Martlew, M. (ed.).

1414: 976: – method of devising teaching activities that directly address learning outcomes 880:

procedural scaffolding: helps students use appropriate tools and resources effectively

262:

A construct that is critical for scaffolding instruction is Vygotsky's concept of the

6104: 5565: 5460: 4479: 4437: 4342: 4307: 4239: 4178: 3929: 3216: 3019:

Anderson, John R.; Corbett, Albert T.; Koedinger, Kenneth R.; Pelletier, Ray (1995).

2684: 2216: 1759: 1546: 1371: 1159:

Palincsar, A. S. (1986). "The role of dialogue in providing scaffolded instruction".

1000: 538:

ground” compromise but an alternative conceptualization of instruction and discovery.

229: 105: 6058: 5983: 5896: 5863: 5646: 5505: 5345: 5303: 5261: 5209: 5048: 4566: 4419: 4119: 4047: 3477: 3124: 3054: 2946: 2866: 2803: 2758: 2661: 2358: 2273: 2123: 2082: 1978: 1871: 1722: 1531: 912:

In addition to the four scaffolding guidelines outlined, recent research has shown:

595: 5022: 4663: 4541:

2014 International Conference on Teaching and Learning in Computing and Engineering

4151: 4134: 4032: 3914: 2884:

Miller, C.; Lehman, J.; Koedinger, K. (1999). "Goals and learning in microworlds".

1989: 1815: 1026: 638: 631:

Advanced organizers are tools that present new information or concepts to learners.

510:

as a result of the teacher having to manage too many student projects at one time.

248: 236: 5372: 5114: 3648: 2309: 1172: 991: – Branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human learning 424:

Instructionism is often contrasted with constructivism. Both of them use the term

167:

For scaffolding to be effective teachers need to pay attention to the following:

116: 5592: 5557: 5544:

Cho, Moon-Heum; Shen, Demei (Summer 2013). "Self-regulation in online learning".

5452: 4084:

Schmidt, Henk G.; Loyens, Sofie M. M.; Van Gog, Tamara; Paas, Fred (2007-04-26).

2325: 2232:"The Metaphor of Scaffolding: Its Utility for the Field of Learning Disabilities" 2008:

Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). "Thinking and speech". In Rieber, R.; Carton, A. (eds.).

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Prompts are a physical or verbal cue to aid recall of prior or assumed knowledge.

6003: 5489: 5295: 5149:

Instructional design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory

5003: 3311: 2585: 2342: 1453: 1434: 1303: 841:

placing materials in a specific location that prompts positive student reaction.

742: 290: 6026: 5040: 4462: 3038: 2979: 2620:"Why Minimally Guided Teaching Techniques Do Not Work: A Reply to Commentaries" 2249: 2183: 1751: 1575: 1334: 6042: 5888: 5839: 5814: 5759: 5677: 5622: 5337: 5276: 5237: 5201: 5133: 4522: 4453: 4403: 4326: 4103: 4008: 3898: 3855: 3461: 3252: 2930: 2834: 2750: 2645: 2499: 2200: 2115: 2047: 1962: 1895: 1775:

The psychology of written language: Developmental and educational perspectives

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Ninio, A.; Bruner, J. (1978). "The achievement and antecedents of labelling".

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Scott, David M.; Smith, Cameron; Chu, Man-Wai; Friesen, Sharon (2018-05-02).

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Interaction in the Language Curriculum: Awareness, Autonomy, and Authenticity

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Handouts are a supplementary resource used to support teaching and learning.

643: 233: 140:

There are three essential features of scaffolding that facilitate learning.

5497: 5277:"Agent-based learning environments for investigating teaching and learning" 4812: 4548: 4024: 3877:

Hmelo-Silver, Cindy E.; Duncan, Ravit Golan; Chinn, Clark A. (2007-04-26).

3824: 2457: 1523: 16:

Support given to a student by an instructor throughout the learning process

6067: 6050: 5790: 5735: 4727:

Rousing minds to life: Teaching, learning, and schooling in social context

2417: 2265: 6093: 5007: 4386:

Kalyuga, Slava; Ayres, Paul; Chandler, Paul; Sweller, John (2003-01-01).

3734: 3707: 3680: 3653: 3574: 3392: 2189:

International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology

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Teaching Early Reading and Phonics: Creative Approaches to Early Literacy

1736:

Rodgers, E. M. (2004). "Interactions that scaffold reading performance".

1705: 1686: 1307: 1232: 766: 670:

Instructors demonstrate desired behaviour, knowledge or task to students.

109: 89: 5939: 5923: 5905: 5806: 5772: 5751: 4308:"Rethinking the Boundaries of Cognitive Load Theory in Complex Learning" 4222: 4161: 835:

words, statements and questions that help the learner respond correctly.

485:

One strand of criticism of the minimal guidance approach originating in

5717: 5185: 4703: 3190: 3165:"Epistemology, practical work and academic skills in science education" 3116: 3046: 2938: 2914: 2850: 2818: 2066: 2012:. Vol. 1. Translated by Minick, N. New York: Plenum. p. 211. 1831: 1130: 1097: 93: 4213: 3649:"The Teacher as a Guide: Letting Students Navigate Their Own Learning" 3199: 3020: 2705: 1942: 1848: 1390:

Literature Circles: Voice and choice in the student-centered classroom

4901:"Prompting as a Tool to Support Behavioral and Academic Independence" 3957: 3519:"Active learning vs. passive learning: What's the best way to learn?" 2374:

Language learning disabilities in school-age children and adolescents

1832:"Teaching writing: a multilayered participatory scaffolding practice" 1287:"The use of scaffolds for teaching higher-level cognitive strategies" 945:

Due to the distance learning that encompasses an online environment,

495: 491: 4192:

Sakata, Nozomi; Bremner, Nicholas; Cameron, Leanne (December 2022).

4046:

Clark, Richard E.; Kirschner, Paul A.; Sweller, John (Spring 2012).

3928:

Brunstein, Angela; Betts, Shawn; Anderson, John R. (November 2009).

3300:"Instructionism and Constructivism: Reconciling Two Very Good Ideas" 2795: 3755: 3597:"Who's the better teacher, Sage on the Stage or Guide on the Side?" 3164: 1576:"Design Principles for Teaching Effective Writing: An Introduction" 1573:

Fidalgo, Raquel; Harris, Karen R.; Braaksma, Martine (2017-01-01),

1003: – Self-awareness about thinking, higher-order thinking skills 5951: 5818: 5763: 4502:"Scaffolding in Teacher–Student Interaction: A Decade of Research" 3441:

Kirschner, Paul A.; Sweller, John; Clark, Richard E. (June 2006).

3268:

Handbook of research for educational communications and technology

3058: 2950: 2870: 2399: 2397: 1661: 1142: 594: 583: 581:

These groups highlight the ways in which the instructor scaffolds

569: 567:

These groups highlight the instructors intentions for scaffolding

97: 4253:

Sakata, Nozomi; Bremner, Nicholas; Cameron, Leanne (2022-11-04).

4133:

Bremner, Nicholas; Sakata, Nozomi; Cameron, Leanne (2022-10-01).

3840:"Examining the Efficacy of Inquiry-based Approaches to Education" 3415:"8 Things to Look For in a Student-Centered Learning Environment" 829:

body movements such as pointing, nodding, finger or foot tapping.

88:

Instructional scaffolding provides sufficient support to promote

3547: 4135:"The outcomes of learner-centred pedagogy: A systematic review" 3360:

Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse learners

147:

The second is that learning should take place in the learner's

5413:"Revolution of Online Education: Advantages And Disadvantages" 4500:

van de Pol, Janneke; Volman, Monique; Beishuizen, Jos (2010).

18: 5521:"Top Advantages And Disadvantages of Online Learning of 2024" 3930:"Practice enables successful learning under minimal guidance" 1685:

Shabani, Karim; Khatib, Mohamad; Ebadi, Saman (2010-11-16).

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Santrock, J. (2004). "6: Cognitive Development Approaches".

702:

is a step-by-step demonstration of a complex problem or task

3792:"Student Learning: What Has Instruction Got to Do With It?" 3492:"Three benefits of a student-centered learning environment" 1619:

Learners with Mild Disabilities: a characteristics approach

1009: – Sociological theory regarding shared understandings 481:

Minimal guidance in education: criticisms and controversies

2618:

Sweller, J.; Kirschner, P. A.; Clark, R. E. (2007-04-26).

1649:

How People Learn: Brain, Mind, and Experience & School

3703:"Tools for Teaching: How to Transform Direct Instruction" 3388:"Giving Students More Authority in Classroom Discussions" 997: – Information repository with multiple applications 921:

experience their work as part of a community of learners.

115:

These supports are gradually removed as students develop

4356:

Bokhove, C.; Campbell, R. (2020). "Adapting teaching.".

2406:

Journal of Applied Linguistics and Professional Practice

3570:"Student-Centered Learning: It Starts With the Teacher" 2995:

15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society

1154: 1152: 42: 5718:"The role of oral language in early writing processes" 3327:

Research on Direct Instruction: 25 years beyond DISTAR

2436:

The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin

514:

Minimal guidance in education: synthesis and solutions

5656:

Developing literacy: Young children's use of language

4965: 4963: 4636:, Faculty Development and Instructional Design Center 3730:"Student-Centered Learning Environments: How and Why" 2429: 2427: 1279: 1277: 239:. He used the term to describe young children's oral 4495: 4493: 4491: 4489: 978:

Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

4305:Kalyuga, Slava; Singh, Anne-Marie (December 2016). 3624:"Teacher-Centered Versus Learner-Centered Learning" 5151:. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. pp. 115–140. 5113:Reingold, R.; Rimor, R.; Kalay, A. (Summer 2008). 4306: 4193: 4085: 3878: 3790: 2469: 2467: 2324: 2182: 2097: 2046: 1977: 1894: 1830: 1574: 1285: 1096: 429:application of instructionism in the classroom is 5174:Educational Technology Research & Development 4282:"PBL or Direct/Explicit Instruction: What Works?" 2176: 2174: 1617:Raymond, E. (2000). "Cognitive Characteristics". 4139:International Journal of Educational Development 3789:Lee, Hee Seung; Anderson, John R. (2013-01-03). 2139: 2137: 2135: 2133: 1581:Design Principles for Teaching Effective Writing 5906:"Vygotsky and the social dynamic of classrooms" 5392:University of St. Augustine for Health Sciences 4626:"Instructional Scaffolding to Improve Learning" 3104:Educational Technology Research and Development 2587:Constructivist Instruction: Success or Failure? 2054:Educational Technology Research and Development 2045:Saye, John W.; Brush, Thomas (September 2002). 1200: 1198: 1031:The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences 822:There are different types of prompts, such as: 2819:"What's so good about problem-based learning?" 1646:Bransford, J.; Brown, A.; Cocking, R. (2000). 119:learning strategies, thus promoting their own 4759:The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning 8: 3329:. Seattle: Educational Achievement Systems. 2579: 2577: 3014: 3012: 2721:Journal of Science Education and Technology 2575: 2573: 2571: 2569: 2567: 2565: 2563: 2561: 2559: 2557: 2434:Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). Holquist, M. (ed.). 2181:Holton, Derek; Clarke, David (2006-03-15). 2096:Simons, Krista D.; Klein, James D. (2007). 1450:A Topical Approach To Life-Span Development 285:Levels and types in the educational setting 6073:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 4579:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3304:International Journal of Special Education 3293: 3291: 3289: 1212:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 228:was first introduced in the late 1950s by 208:and can also support emotional responses ( 6068:"The role of tutoring in problem solving" 5985:Vygotsky and the social formation of mind 5687:Theoretical models and process of reading 5284:Journal of Educational Computing Research 4970:Hannafin, M.; Hill, J.; Land, S. (1997). 4752: 4750: 4461: 4221: 4160: 4150: 3998: 3947: 3198: 2740: 2635: 2489: 2331:Journal of Educational Computing Research 2032:(Original works published in 1934, 1960). 1944:Literacy lessons designed for individuals 1704: 1207:"The role of tutoring in problem solving" 933:Downfalls in online learning environments 69:Learn how and when to remove this message 4260:British Educational Research Association 3762:California State Department of Education 3358:Kameenui, E. J.; Carnine, D. W. (1998). 2323:Lai, Ming; Law, Nancy (September 2006). 1893:Goouch, Kathy; Lambirth, Andrew (2011), 904:Benefits in online learning environments 611: 204:issues: Scaffolding is not limited to a 6066:Wood, D.; Bruner, J.; Ross, G. (1978). 5959:Teale, W. H.; Sulzby, E., eds. (1986). 4048:"The Case for Fully Guided Instruction" 3844:Alberta Journal of Educational Research 2515:English Teaching: Practice and Critique 1205:Wood, D.; Bruner, J.; Ross, G. (1976). 1018: 716:: A principle or theory is introduced. 5961:Emergent literacy: Writing and reading 5434: 5432: 5317:Puntambekar, S.; Hubscher, R. (2005). 5122:Journal of Interactive Online Learning 5108: 5106: 5104: 4592: 4590: 4572: 4365:(2nd ed.). Sage. pp. 75–83. 3776:Education Resources Information Center 4543:. Kuching, Malaysia. pp. 74–77. 4534: 4532: 4431: 4429: 3543:"Inquiry-based Learning: Explanation" 3436: 3434: 3381: 3379: 2613: 2611: 2040: 2038: 1383: 1381: 926:ideas, which boost their confidence. 7: 5873:"Extending the scaffolding metaphor" 4811:Cañas, Alberto J.; Novak, Joseph D. 4725:Tharp, R. G.; Gallimore, R. (1988). 3647:Bracey Sutton, Bonnie (1997-07-01). 3325:Adams, G. L.; Engelmann, S. (1996). 3026:The Journal of the Learning Sciences 1980:Vygotsky and Multicultural Education 1284:Rosenshine, B.; Meister, C. (1992). 310:Directive and supportive scaffolding 36:research paper or scientific journal 5778:Research in the Teaching of English 5723:Research in the Teaching of English 4899:Webster, Jerry (13 November 2015). 4359:The Early Career Framework Handbook 3809:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143833 3362:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. 3138:Steffe, L.; Gale, J., eds. (1995). 3021:"Cognitive Tutors: Lessons Learned" 1545:Ellis, E.; Worthington, L. (1994). 1419:(Rev. ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: 6086:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1976.tb00381.x 5388:"16 Advantages to Learning Online" 3979:Mayer, Richard E. (January 2004). 3517:Rodriguez, Brittany (2018-09-06). 2913:Swartz, D. L.; Martin, T. (2004). 1225:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1976.tb00381.x 850:Scaffolding mediated by technology 212:). For example, during a task the 14: 5904:Smagorinsky, P. 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(2004). 1739:Journal of Literacy Research 757:Hierarchal/chronological map 555:Zone of Proximal Development 383:intelligent-tutoring systems 264:zone of proximal development 253:zone of proximal development 149:zone of proximal development 5611:Education Tech Research Dev 5490:10.2466/pr0.96.3c.1015-1021 5296:10.2190/PH2K-6P09-K8EC-KRDK 3797:Annual Review of Psychology 3728:Bogdan, Paul (2011-03-29). 3240:Computers in Human Behavior 3140:Constructivism in education 2775:American Journal of Physics 2343:10.2190/gw42-575w-q301-1765 1896:"Talk, Reading and Writing" 1477:Kurt, Serhat (2021-03-03). 748:Types of concept maps are: 394:Constructivism and guidance 328:Guidance and cognitive load 6127: 6027:10.1177/002221948401700401 5041:10.1207/s15327809jls1303_6 4763:Cambridge University Press 4731:Cambridge University Press 3676:"Guide on the Side(lines)" 3039:10.1207/s15327809jls0402_2 2980:10.1037/0022-0663.86.3.360 2250:10.1177/002221949803100404 1752:10.1207/s15548430jlr3604_4 1479:"Scaffolding in Education" 1335:10.1207/s15566935eed0501_2 1103:Oxford Review of Education 1035:Cambridge University Press 726:3. Solution to the problem 416:Instructivism and guidance 202:consideration of emotional 5889:10.1007/s11251-005-1279-2 5623:10.1007/s11423-007-9074-1 5361:Computers & Education 5338:10.1207/s15326985ep4001_1 5238:10.1007/s11251-005-1274-7 4873:University of Westminster 4523:10.1007/s10648-010-9127-6 4454:10.1007/s11251-017-9443-z 4404:10.1207/S15326985EP3801_4 4327:10.1007/s10648-015-9352-0 4104:10.1080/00461520701263350 4009:10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.14 3986:The American Psychologist 3899:10.1080/00461520701263368 3856:10.11575/ajer.v64i1.56439 3674:Jones, Dan (2015-05-22). 3462:10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1 3253:10.1016/j.chb.2004.10.039 3163:Kirschner, P. A. (1992). 2931:10.1207/s1532690xci2202_1 2919:Cognition and Instruction 2835:10.1207/s1532690Xci2201_3 2823:Cognition and Instruction 2751:10.1007/s10956-007-9048-4 2646:10.1080/00461520701263426 2440:University of Texas Press 2201:10.1080/00207390500285818 2116:10.1007/s11251-006-9002-5 1692:English Language Teaching 1589:10.1163/9789004270480_002 1516:10.1207/s15326942dn2101_2 1364:10.1017/S0305000900001896 1351:Journal of Child Language 531:expertise reversal effect 454:student-centered learning 82:Instructional scaffolding 5990:Harvard University Press 5326:Educational Psychologist 4813:"What is a Concept Map?" 4392:Educational Psychologist 4092:Educational Psychologist 3886:Educational Psychologist 3450:Educational Psychologist 2624:Educational Psychologist 2378:Pearson Higher Education 1913:10.4135/9781473914728.n8 1583:, BRILL, pp. 3–12, 1161:Educational Psychologist 1115:10.1080/0305498960220101 609:scaffolding strategies: 51:overly technical phrases 43:help improve the article 5982:Wertsch, J. V. (1985). 5840:10.1023/A:1002967414942 5085:10.4324/9780203764411-2 4837:"Kinds of Concept Maps" 3310:(3): 90–98 – via 3183:1992Sc&Ed...1..273K 2500:10.1093/applin/21.3.376 2298:Computers and Education 1941:Clay, Marie M. (2006). 983:Distributed scaffolding 720:2. Step-by-step example 708:instructional materials 615:Instructional scaffolds 603:Examples of scaffolding 565:Scaffolding intentions: 409:constructivist learning 5275:Baylor, A. L. (2002). 4976:Contemporary Education 4933:"Prompting and Fading" 4549:10.1109/LaTiCE.2014.22 2538:Teachers College Press 1654:National Academy Press 1483:Educational Technology 1292:Educational Leadership 1248:Educational Leadership 1007:Social constructionism 989:Educational psychology 974:Constructive alignment 968:Collaborative learning 868:collaborative learning 599: 588: 574: 540: 522: 508:project-based learning 470: 458:project-based learning 446: 6111:Educational practices 5877:Instructional Science 5828:Instructional Science 5791:10.58680/rte199115477 5736:10.58680/rte198315718 5477:Psychological Reports 5226:Instructional Science 4442:Instructional Science 3170:Science and Education 2532:Nystrand, M. (1997). 2418:10.1558/japl.v7i2.169 2144:Van Lier, L. (1996). 2104:Instructional Science 1413:Vygotsky, L. (1986). 889:higher-order thinking 598: 587: 573: 535: 527:cognitive load theory 517: 487:cognitive load theory 466: 440: 221:Theory of scaffolding 163:Effective scaffolding 5693:. pp. 733–756. 4842:King Saud University 4669:University of Geneva 3298:Johnson, G. (2009). 3272:Simon & Schuster 1781:. pp. 237–277. 1706:10.5539/elt.v3n4p237 1625:. pp. 169–201. 1554:University of Oregon 1456:. pp. 200–225. 1416:Thought and language 1388:Daniels, H. (1994). 1167:(1 & 2): 73–98. 714:1. Problem formation 618:Description of tool 323:The role of guidance 241:language acquisition 5924:10.58680/ej20076248 5062:Reiser, B. (2004). 5021:Pea, R. D. (2004). 4706:on 27 December 2016 4664:"Advance Organizer" 4597:Alibali, Martha W. 4463:20.500.11850/226164 4201:Review of Education 2788:1998AmJPh..66...64H 2733:2007JSEdT..16..213H 2698:2005PhT....58k..36W 2594:. pp. 82–105. 2477:Applied Linguistics 2148:. London: Longman. 1907:, pp. 90–100, 1621:. Needham Heights: 1061:The Reading Teacher 625:Advanced organizers 379:working memory load 358:Context of guidance 45:by rewriting it in 5546:Distance Education 5186:10.1007/BF02299682 4286:Education Rickshaw 3191:10.1007/BF00430277 3117:10.1007/BF02296434 3080:. pp. 13–20. 2067:10.1007/BF02505026 1652:. Washington, DC: 600: 589: 579:Scaffolding means: 575: 462:discovery learning 431:direct instruction 404:direct instruction 390:in the long term. 372:Timing of guidance 349:Amount of guidance 257:executive function 226:Scaffolding theory 136:Essential features 47:encyclopedic style 34:is written like a 5999:978-0-674-94350-6 5988:. Cambridge, MA: 5662:. pp. 3–17. 4913:on 1 January 2017 4880:on 13 August 2016 4691:Coffey, Heather. 4558:978-1-4799-3592-5 4372:978-1-5297-2457-8 4214:10.1002/rev3.3365 4056:American Educator 3771:978-0-8011-1033-7 2887:Cognitive Science 2706:10.1063/1.2155756 1905:SAGE Publications 1870:Dorn, L. (1996). 1849:10.1111/lit.12068 1671:978-0-309-07036-2 1623:Allyn & Bacon 847: 846: 79: 78: 71: 6118: 6097: 6062: 6007: 5978: 5965:Ablex Publishing 5955: 5900: 5883:(5–6): 541–557. 5867: 5822: 5767: 5712: 5681: 5650: 5597: 5596: 5587:(3–4): 146–151. 5576: 5570: 5569: 5541: 5535: 5534: 5532: 5531: 5525:Mission Graduate 5516: 5510: 5509: 5484:(4): 1015–1021. 5471: 5465: 5464: 5436: 5427: 5426: 5424: 5423: 5408: 5402: 5401: 5399: 5398: 5383: 5377: 5376: 5356: 5350: 5349: 5323: 5314: 5308: 5307: 5281: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5232:(5–6): 413–450. 5220: 5214: 5213: 5169: 5163: 5162: 5144: 5138: 5137: 5119: 5110: 5099: 5098: 5068: 5059: 5053: 5052: 5018: 5012: 5011: 4967: 4958: 4957: 4955: 4954: 4948: 4942:. Archived from 4937: 4929: 4923: 4922: 4920: 4918: 4909:. Archived from 4896: 4890: 4889: 4887: 4885: 4876:. Archived from 4864: 4858: 4857: 4855: 4854: 4845:. Archived from 4833: 4827: 4826: 4824: 4823: 4808: 4802: 4801: 4783: 4777: 4776: 4754: 4745: 4744: 4722: 4716: 4715: 4713: 4711: 4702:. 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Keith 1023: 979: 612: 450:inquiry learning 269: 175:of the learning 74: 67: 63: 60: 54: 27: 26: 19: 6126: 6125: 6121: 6120: 6119: 6117: 6116: 6115: 6101: 6100: 6065: 6010: 6000: 5981: 5975: 5963:. 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Newark, DE: 5682: 5668: 5658:. Newark, DE: 5651: 5617:(4): 401–422. 5604: 5601: 5599: 5598: 5571: 5552:(3): 290–301. 5536: 5511: 5466: 5428: 5403: 5378: 5367:(2): 250–259. 5351: 5309: 5290:(3): 249–270. 5267: 5215: 5164: 5157: 5139: 5128:(2): 139–151. 5100: 5093: 5054: 5035:(3): 423–451. 5013: 4959: 4924: 4891: 4859: 4828: 4803: 4796: 4778: 4771: 4746: 4739: 4717: 4683: 4655: 4617: 4586: 4557: 4528: 4517:(3): 271–296. 4485: 4448:(1): 133–153. 4425: 4378: 4371: 4348: 4321:(4): 831–852. 4297: 4272: 4245: 4184: 4125: 4076: 4038: 3971: 3942:(4): 790–802. 3920: 3869: 3830: 3803:(1): 445–469. 3781: 3770: 3760:. Sacramento: 3747: 3720: 3693: 3666: 3639: 3628:KnowledgeWorks 3614: 3587: 3560: 3534: 3509: 3483: 3430: 3405: 3375: 3368: 3350: 3335: 3317: 3285: 3258: 3247:(4): 671–688. 3222: 3177:(3): 273–299. 3155: 3148: 3130: 3093: 3086: 3064: 3033:(2): 167–207. 3008: 2985: 2974:(3): 360–367. 2956: 2925:(2): 129–184. 2905: 2894:(3): 305–336. 2876: 2809: 2764: 2727:(3): 213–224. 2711: 2667: 2630:(2): 115–121. 2607: 2600: 2553: 2546: 2524: 2505: 2484:(3): 376–406. 2463: 2448: 2423: 2412:(2): 163–184. 2393: 2386: 2380:. p. 27. 2364: 2337:(2): 123–144. 2315: 2304:(3): 362–382. 2288: 2279: 2244:(4): 344–364. 2222: 2195:(2): 127–143. 2170: 2161: 2154: 2129: 2088: 2034: 2018: 2000: 1968: 1953: 1933: 1921: 1885: 1862: 1821: 1794: 1787: 1765: 1746:(4): 501–532. 1728: 1677: 1670: 1638: 1631: 1609: 1597: 1565: 1537: 1494: 1469: 1462: 1440: 1429: 1405: 1398: 1377: 1340: 1313: 1273: 1238: 1194: 1148: 1087: 1068:(9): 648–655. 1050: 1043: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1011: 1010: 1004: 998: 995:Knowledge base 992: 986: 980: 971: 963: 960: 934: 931: 923: 922: 918: 905: 902: 893: 892: 884: 881: 878: 851: 848: 845: 844: 843: 842: 836: 830: 816: 808: 807: 798: 790: 789: 780: 772: 771: 770: 769: 761: 758: 755: 739: 731: 730: 700:worked example 695: 687: 686: 685: 684: 681: 678: 667: 659: 658: 657: 656: 651: 646: 641: 628: 620: 619: 616: 544: 541: 515: 512: 482: 479: 438: 435: 417: 414: 399:Constructivism 395: 392: 373: 370: 359: 356: 350: 347: 335:cognitive load 329: 326: 324: 321: 311: 308: 286: 283: 222: 219: 218: 217: 198: 191: 180: 164: 161: 156: 155: 152: 145: 137: 134: 77: 76: 31: 29: 22: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6123: 6112: 6109: 6108: 6106: 6095: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6080:(2): 89–100. 6079: 6075: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6016: 6015: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5986: 5980: 5976: 5974:9780893913014 5970: 5966: 5962: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5834:(2): 97–115. 5833: 5829: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5792: 5788: 5785:(1): 97–123. 5784: 5780: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5700:9780872074385 5696: 5692: 5688: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5669:9780872075313 5665: 5661: 5657: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5612: 5607: 5606: 5602: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5582: 5575: 5572: 5567: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5540: 5537: 5526: 5522: 5515: 5512: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5478: 5470: 5467: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5435: 5433: 5429: 5418: 5417:India TV News 5414: 5407: 5404: 5393: 5389: 5382: 5379: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5355: 5352: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5320: 5313: 5310: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5278: 5271: 5268: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5219: 5216: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5168: 5165: 5160: 5158:9780805828597 5154: 5150: 5143: 5140: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5116: 5109: 5107: 5105: 5101: 5096: 5094:9780203764411 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5073: 5065: 5058: 5055: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5029: 5024: 5017: 5014: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4966: 4964: 4960: 4949:on 2018-11-23 4945: 4941: 4934: 4928: 4925: 4912: 4908: 4907: 4902: 4895: 4892: 4879: 4875: 4874: 4869: 4863: 4860: 4849:on 2014-07-29 4848: 4844: 4843: 4838: 4832: 4829: 4818: 4817:Cmap Software 4814: 4807: 4804: 4799: 4797:9781623962333 4793: 4789: 4782: 4779: 4774: 4772:9780521838733 4768: 4764: 4761:. 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Cambridge: 4728: 4721: 4718: 4705: 4701: 4699: 4694: 4687: 4684: 4672: 4670: 4665: 4659: 4656: 4645:on 2013-06-26 4641: 4637: 4635: 4627: 4621: 4618: 4606: 4605: 4600: 4593: 4591: 4587: 4582: 4576: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4535: 4533: 4529: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4511: 4503: 4496: 4494: 4492: 4490: 4486: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4464: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4432: 4430: 4426: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4382: 4379: 4374: 4368: 4361: 4360: 4352: 4349: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4315: 4309: 4301: 4298: 4287: 4283: 4276: 4273: 4262: 4261: 4256: 4249: 4246: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4224: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4202: 4196: 4188: 4185: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4129: 4126: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4088: 4080: 4077: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4057: 4049: 4042: 4039: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3987: 3982: 3975: 3972: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3936: 3931: 3924: 3921: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3893:(2): 99–107. 3892: 3888: 3887: 3881: 3873: 3870: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3834: 3831: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3793: 3785: 3782: 3777: 3773: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3758: 3751: 3748: 3737: 3736: 3731: 3724: 3721: 3710: 3709: 3704: 3697: 3694: 3683: 3682: 3677: 3670: 3667: 3656: 3655: 3650: 3643: 3640: 3629: 3625: 3618: 3615: 3604: 3603: 3598: 3591: 3588: 3577: 3576: 3571: 3564: 3561: 3550: 3549: 3544: 3538: 3535: 3524: 3520: 3513: 3510: 3499: 3498: 3493: 3487: 3484: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3444: 3437: 3435: 3431: 3420: 3419:Getting Smart 3416: 3409: 3406: 3395: 3394: 3389: 3382: 3380: 3376: 3371: 3369:9780133821857 3365: 3361: 3354: 3351: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3336:9780675210140 3332: 3328: 3321: 3318: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3294: 3292: 3290: 3286: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3262: 3259: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3241: 3233: 3226: 3223: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3201: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3171: 3166: 3159: 3156: 3151: 3149:9780805810950 3145: 3141: 3134: 3131: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3105: 3097: 3094: 3089: 3087:9781586033569 3083: 3079: 3076:. Amsterdam: 3075: 3068: 3065: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3027: 3022: 3015: 3013: 3009: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2989: 2986: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2968: 2960: 2957: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2909: 2906: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2888: 2880: 2877: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2813: 2810: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2776: 2768: 2765: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2743: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2715: 2712: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2692:(11): 36–41. 2691: 2687: 2686: 2685:Physics Today 2678: 2671: 2668: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2614: 2612: 2608: 2603: 2601:9780415994248 2597: 2593: 2589: 2588: 2580: 2578: 2576: 2574: 2572: 2570: 2568: 2566: 2564: 2562: 2560: 2558: 2554: 2549: 2547:9780807735749 2543: 2539: 2535: 2528: 2525: 2521:(2): 167–187. 2520: 2516: 2509: 2506: 2501: 2497: 2492: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2478: 2470: 2468: 2464: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2449:9780292715271 2445: 2441: 2437: 2430: 2428: 2424: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2400: 2398: 2394: 2389: 2387:9780675221535 2383: 2379: 2375: 2368: 2365: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2327: 2319: 2316: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2292: 2289: 2283: 2280: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2238: 2233: 2226: 2223: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2185: 2177: 2175: 2171: 2165: 2162: 2157: 2155:9780582248793 2151: 2147: 2140: 2138: 2136: 2134: 2130: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2100: 2092: 2089: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2055: 2049: 2041: 2039: 2035: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2019:9780306424410 2015: 2011: 2004: 2001: 1991: 1987: 1984:, Routledge, 1982: 1981: 1972: 1969: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1954:9780325009162 1950: 1947:. Heinemann. 1946: 1945: 1937: 1934: 1924: 1922:9781849204217 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1889: 1886: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1866: 1863: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1833: 1825: 1822: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1798: 1795: 1790: 1788:9780471102915 1784: 1780: 1776: 1769: 1766: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1740: 1732: 1729: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1707: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1693: 1688: 1681: 1678: 1673: 1667: 1663: 1662:10.17226/9853 1659: 1655: 1651: 1650: 1642: 1639: 1634: 1632:9780205200641 1628: 1624: 1620: 1613: 1610: 1600: 1598:9789004270473 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1577: 1569: 1566: 1555: 1548: 1541: 1538: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1498: 1495: 1484: 1480: 1473: 1470: 1465: 1463:9780072880168 1459: 1455: 1451: 1444: 1441: 1436: 1432: 1430:9780262220293 1426: 1422: 1418: 1417: 1409: 1406: 1401: 1399:9781551380483 1395: 1391: 1384: 1382: 1378: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1352: 1344: 1341: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1317: 1314: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1288: 1280: 1278: 1274: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1242: 1239: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1219:(2): 89–100. 1218: 1214: 1213: 1208: 1201: 1199: 1195: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1155: 1153: 1149: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1099: 1091: 1088: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1062: 1054: 1051: 1046: 1044:9780521845540 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1022: 1019: 1013: 1008: 1005: 1002: 1001:Metacognition 999: 996: 993: 990: 987: 984: 981: 975: 972: 969: 966: 965: 961: 959: 955: 951: 948: 943: 939: 932: 930: 927: 919: 915: 914: 913: 910: 903: 901: 897: 890: 885: 882: 879: 876: 875: 874: 871: 869: 865: 861: 856: 849: 840: 837: 834: 831: 828: 825: 824: 823: 820: 817: 815: 814: 810: 809: 806: 802: 799: 797: 796: 792: 791: 788: 784: 781: 779: 778: 774: 773: 768: 765: 762: 759: 756: 754: 751: 750: 749: 746: 744: 740: 738: 737: 733: 732: 729: 727: 723: 721: 717: 715: 711: 709: 703: 701: 696: 694: 693: 689: 688: 682: 679: 676: 675: 674: 671: 668: 666: 665: 661: 660: 655: 652: 650: 647: 645: 642: 640: 639:Venn diagrams 637: 636: 635: 632: 629: 627: 626: 622: 621: 617: 614: 613: 610: 606: 604: 597: 593: 586: 582: 580: 572: 568: 566: 562: 558: 556: 551: 542: 539: 534: 532: 528: 521: 513: 511: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 488: 480: 478: 474: 469: 465: 463: 459: 455: 451: 445: 444: 436: 434: 432: 427: 422: 415: 413: 410: 405: 400: 393: 391: 389: 384: 380: 371: 369: 366: 357: 355: 348: 346: 342: 338: 336: 327: 322: 320: 316: 309: 307: 303: 299: 295: 292: 284: 282: 279: 276: 272: 265: 260: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 235: 231: 230:Jerome Bruner 227: 220: 215: 211: 207: 203: 199: 196: 192: 189: 185: 181: 178: 174: 170: 169: 168: 162: 160: 153: 150: 146: 143: 142: 141: 135: 133: 130: 126: 122: 118: 113: 111: 107: 106:social skills 103: 99: 95: 91: 86: 83: 73: 70: 62: 52: 49:and simplify 48: 44: 38: 37: 32:This article 30: 21: 20: 6077: 6071: 6018: 6012: 6002:– via 5984: 5960: 5950:– via 5918:(2): 61–66. 5915: 5909: 5880: 5876: 5831: 5827: 5817:– via 5782: 5776: 5762:– via 5727: 5721: 5686: 5655: 5614: 5610: 5584: 5580: 5574: 5549: 5545: 5539: 5528:. Retrieved 5524: 5514: 5481: 5475: 5469: 5444: 5440: 5420:. Retrieved 5416: 5406: 5395:. Retrieved 5391: 5381: 5364: 5360: 5354: 5329: 5325: 5312: 5287: 5283: 5270: 5229: 5225: 5218: 5180:(4): 37–64. 5177: 5173: 5167: 5148: 5142: 5125: 5121: 5076: 5070: 5057: 5032: 5026: 5016: 5006:– via 4982:(2): 94–99. 4979: 4975: 4951:. Retrieved 4944:the original 4939: 4927: 4915:. Retrieved 4911:the original 4904: 4894: 4882:. Retrieved 4878:the original 4871: 4862: 4851:. Retrieved 4847:the original 4840: 4831: 4820:. Retrieved 4816: 4806: 4787: 4781: 4758: 4726: 4720: 4708:. Retrieved 4704:the original 4696: 4686: 4674:. Retrieved 4671:EduTech Wiki 4667: 4658: 4647:. Retrieved 4640:the original 4632: 4620: 4608:. Retrieved 4602: 4540: 4514: 4508: 4445: 4441: 4398:(1): 23–31. 4395: 4391: 4381: 4358: 4351: 4318: 4312: 4300: 4289:. Retrieved 4285: 4275: 4264:. Retrieved 4258: 4248: 4223:10871/130832 4205: 4199: 4187: 4162:10871/130378 4142: 4138: 4128: 4098:(2): 91–97. 4095: 4091: 4079: 4068:. Retrieved 4060: 4054: 4041: 3993:(1): 14–19. 3990: 3984: 3974: 3939: 3933: 3923: 3890: 3884: 3872: 3850:(1): 35–54. 3847: 3843: 3833: 3800: 3796: 3784: 3774:– via 3756: 3750: 3739:. Retrieved 3733: 3723: 3712:. Retrieved 3706: 3696: 3685:. Retrieved 3679: 3669: 3658:. Retrieved 3652: 3642: 3631:. Retrieved 3627: 3617: 3606:. Retrieved 3600: 3590: 3579:. Retrieved 3573: 3563: 3552:. Retrieved 3546: 3537: 3526:. Retrieved 3522: 3512: 3501:. Retrieved 3495: 3486: 3456:(2): 75–86. 3453: 3449: 3422:. Retrieved 3418: 3408: 3397:. Retrieved 3391: 3359: 3353: 3326: 3320: 3307: 3303: 3270:. New York: 3267: 3261: 3244: 3238: 3225: 3174: 3168: 3158: 3139: 3133: 3108: 3102: 3096: 3073: 3067: 3057:– via 3030: 3024: 2994: 2988: 2971: 2965: 2959: 2949:– via 2922: 2918: 2908: 2891: 2885: 2879: 2869:– via 2829:(1): 61–79. 2826: 2822: 2812: 2782:(1): 64–74. 2779: 2773: 2767: 2724: 2720: 2714: 2689: 2683: 2670: 2627: 2623: 2590:. New York: 2586: 2536:. New York: 2533: 2527: 2518: 2514: 2508: 2481: 2475: 2435: 2409: 2405: 2373: 2367: 2334: 2330: 2318: 2301: 2297: 2291: 2286:Piaget, 1928 2282: 2241: 2235: 2225: 2192: 2188: 2164: 2145: 2107: 2103: 2091: 2061:(3): 77–96. 2058: 2052: 2009: 2003: 1993:, retrieved 1979: 1971: 1943: 1936: 1926:, retrieved 1900: 1888: 1879: 1875: 1865: 1843:(1): 23–31. 1840: 1836: 1824: 1807: 1803: 1797: 1777:. New York: 1774: 1768: 1743: 1737: 1731: 1696: 1690: 1680: 1648: 1641: 1618: 1612: 1602:, retrieved 1580: 1568: 1557:. Retrieved 1540: 1510:(1): 15–41. 1507: 1503: 1497: 1486:. Retrieved 1482: 1472: 1452:. New York: 1449: 1443: 1433:– via 1415: 1408: 1389: 1355: 1349: 1343: 1329:(1): 18–26. 1326: 1322: 1316: 1306:– via 1298:(7): 26–33. 1295: 1291: 1254:(5): 14–16. 1251: 1247: 1241: 1216: 1210: 1164: 1160: 1141:– via 1106: 1102: 1090: 1065: 1059: 1053: 1033:. New York: 1030: 1021: 956: 952: 944: 940: 936: 928: 924: 911: 907: 898: 894: 872: 857: 853: 838: 832: 826: 821: 818: 812: 811: 803: 800: 794: 793: 785: 782: 777:Explanations 776: 775: 763: 747: 743:Concept maps 741: 736:Concept maps 735: 734: 725: 724: 719: 718: 713: 712: 705: 697: 691: 690: 672: 669: 663: 662: 633: 630: 624: 623: 607: 602: 601: 590: 578: 576: 564: 563: 559: 549: 546: 543:Applications 536: 523: 518: 484: 475: 471: 467: 447: 443: 441: 425: 423: 419: 397: 375: 361: 352: 343: 339: 331: 317: 313: 304: 300: 296: 288: 280: 277: 273: 261: 249:Lev Vygotsky 237:psychologist 225: 224: 213: 201: 194: 187: 184:anticipation 183: 176: 172: 166: 157: 139: 114: 87: 81: 80: 65: 59:January 2024 56: 33: 6004:Archive.org 5730:(1): 1–30. 5332:(1): 1–12. 5079:: 273–304. 4917:31 December 4884:31 December 4710:31 December 4676:31 December 4610:31 December 3595:Hill, Jon. 3312:Archive.org 3111:(3): 5–14. 1882:(2): 15–40. 1810:(2): 1–18. 1454:McGraw-Hill 1435:Archive.org 1109:(1): 5–16. 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