574:, a diode or simple logic components such as flip-flops, or logic gates with multiple inputs. The use of standard cells allows the chip's design to be split into logical and physical levels. A fabless company would normally only work on the logical design of a chip, determining how cells are connected and the functionality of the chip, while following design rules from the foundry the chip will be made in, while the physical design of the chip, the cells themselves, are normally done by the foundry and it comprises the physics of the transistor devices and how they are connected to form a logic gate. Standard cells allow chips to be designed and modified more quickly to respond to market demands, but this comes at the cost of lower transistor density in the chip and thus larger die sizes.
105:
817:, and so on. Verification such as that done by emulators can be carried out in FPGAs or special processors, and emulation replaced simulation. Simulation was initially done by simulating logic gates in chips but later on, RTLs in chips were simulated instead. Simulation is still used when creating analog chip designs. Prototyping platforms are used to run software on prototypes of the chip design while it is under development using FPGAs but are slower to iterate on or modify and can't be used to visualize hardware signals as they would appear in the finished design.
955:, usually involving no more than ten transistors and few connections. An iterative trial-and-error process and "overengineering" of device size was often necessary to achieve a manufacturable IC. Reuse of proven designs allowed progressively more complicated ICs to be built upon prior knowledge. When inexpensive computer processing became available in the 1970s, computer programs were written to simulate circuit designs with greater accuracy than practical by hand calculation. The first circuit simulator for analog ICs was called
36:
742:
stage to decide how the chip will operate functionally. This step is where an IC's functionality and design are decided. IC designers will map out the functional requirements, verification testbenches, and testing methodologies for the whole project, and will then turn the preliminary design into a system-level specification that can be simulated with simple models using languages like C++ and MATLAB and emulation tools. For pure and new designs, the system design stage is where an
314:
837:
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581:(PDK) may be provided by the foundry and it may include the standard cell library as well as the specifications of the cells, and tools to verify the fabless company's design against the design rules specified by the foundry as well as simulate it using the foundry's cells. PDKs may be provided under non-disclosure agreements. Macros/Macrocells/Macro blocks,
967:
design styles – top-down and bottom-up. The top-down design style makes use of optimization-based tools similar to conventional digital flows. Bottom-up procedures re-use “expert knowledge” with the result of solutions previously conceived and captured in a procedural description, imitating an expert's decision. An example are cell generators, such as
93:
597:(IC) development process starts with defining product requirements, progresses through architectural definition, implementation, bringup and finally production. The various phases of the integrated circuit development process are described below. Although the phases are presented here in a straightforward fashion, in reality there is
844:
RTL is only a behavioral model of the actual functionality of what the chip is supposed to operate under. It has no link to a physical aspect of how the chip would operate in real life at the materials, physics, and electrical engineering side. For this reason, the next step in the IC design process,
741:
The initial chip design process begins with system-level design and microarchitecture planning. Within IC design companies, management and often analytics will draft a proposal for a design team to start the design of a new chip to fit into an industry segment. Upper-level designers will meet at this
300:
damage to the tiny components are also of concern. Finally, the physical layout of certain circuit subblocks is typically critical, in order to achieve the desired speed of operation, to segregate noisy portions of an IC from quiet portions, to balance the effects of heat generation across the IC, or
723:
Once a design is mature and has reached mass production it must be sustained. The process must be continually monitored and problems dealt with quickly to avoid a significant impact on production volumes. The goal of sustaining is to maintain production volumes and continually reduce costs until the
710:
Productization is the task of taking a design from engineering into mass production manufacturing. Although a design may have successfully met the specifications of the product in the lab during the bringup phase there are many challenges that product engineers face when trying to mass-produce those
656:
The micro-architecture is a step closer to the hardware. It implements the architecture and defines specific mechanisms and structures for achieving that implementation. The result of the micro-architecture phase is a micro-architecture specification which describes the methods used to implement the
643:
defines the fundamental structure, goals and principles of the product. It defines high level concepts and the intrinsic value proposition of the product. Architecture teams take into account many variables and interface with many groups. People creating the architecture generally have a significant
979:
A challenge most critical to analog IC design involves the variability of the individual devices built on the semiconductor chip. Unlike board-level circuit design which permits the designer to select devices that have each been tested and binned according to value, the device values on an IC can
984:
can vary from 20 to 100. In the latest CMOS processes, β of vertical PNP transistors can even go below 1. To add to the design challenge, device properties often vary between each processed semiconductor wafer. Device properties can even vary significantly across each individual IC due to doping
966:
As many functional constraints must be considered in analog design, manual design is still widespread today, in contrast to digital design which is highly automated, including automated routing and synthesis. As a result, modern design flows for analog circuits are characterized by two different
989:. The underlying cause of this variability is that many semiconductor devices are highly sensitive to uncontrollable random variances in the process. Slight changes to the amount of diffusion time, uneven doping levels, etc. can have large effects on device properties.
792:
To reduce the number of functionality bugs, a separate hardware verification group will take the RTL and design testbenches and systems to check that the RTL actually is performing the same steps under many different conditions, classified as the domain of
916:: The design is modified, where possible, to make it as easy and efficient as possible to produce. This is achieved by adding extra vias or adding dummy metal/diffusion/poly layers wherever possible while complying to the design rules set by the foundry.
566:
Note that the second step, RTL design, is responsible for the chip doing the right thing. The third step, physical design, does not affect the functionality at all (if done correctly) but determines how fast the chip operates and how much it costs.
852:
The main steps of physical design are listed below. In practice there is not a straightforward progression - considerable iteration is required to ensure all objectives are met simultaneously. This is a difficult problem in its own right, called
247:
is the design, test, and verification of the instructions that the IC is to carry out. Artificial
Intelligence has been demonstrated in chip design for creating chip layouts which are the locations of standard cells and macro blocks in a chip.
233:
for what can and cannot be manufactured are also extremely complex. Common IC processes of 2015 have more than 500 rules. Furthermore, since the manufacturing process itself is not completely predictable, designers must account for its
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are performed starting from very simple tests such as ensuring that the device will power on to much more complicated tests which try to stress the part in various ways. The result of the bringup phase is documentation of
785:, RTL designers will break a functional description into hardware models of components on the chip working together. Each of the simple statements described in the system design can easily turn into thousands of lines of
99:
of a simple CMOS Operational
Amplifier (inputs are to the left and the compensation capacitor is to the right). The metal layer is coloured blue, green and brown are N- and P-doped Si, the polysilicon is red and vias are
198:. Digital design focuses on logical correctness, maximizing circuit density, and placing circuits so that clock and timing signals are routed efficiently. Analog IC design also has specializations in power IC design and
242:
in the IC design process. The design of some processors has become complicated enough to be difficult to fully test, and this has caused problems at large cloud providers. In short, the design of an IC using
824:
caused the results of a division to be wrong by at most 61 parts per million, in cases that occurred very infrequently. No one even noticed it until the chip had been in production for months. Yet
951:
Before the advent of the microprocessor and software based design tools, analog ICs were designed using hand calculations and process kit parts. These ICs were low complexity circuits, for example,
226:. Fidelity of analog signal amplification and filtering is usually critical, and as a result analog ICs use larger area active devices than digital designs and are usually less dense in circuitry.
959:(Simulation Program with Integrated Circuits Emphasis). Computerized circuit simulation tools enable greater IC design complexity than hand calculations can achieve, making the design of analog
585:
and IP blocks have greater functionality than standard cells, and are used similarly. There are soft macros and hard macros. Standard cells are usually placed following standard cell rows.
1315:
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stage, is to map the RTL into actual geometric representations of all electronics devices, such as capacitors, resistors, logic gates, and transistors that will go on the chip.
577:
Foundries supply libraries of standard cells to fabless companies, for design purposes and to allow manufacturing of their designs using the foundry's facilities. A
781:. Using digital design components like adders, shifters, and state machines as well as computer architecture concepts like pipelining, superscalar execution, and
715:
must be ramped up to production volumes with an acceptable yield. The goal of the productization phase is to reach mass production volumes at an acceptable cost.
644:
amount of experience dealing with systems in the area for which the architecture is being created. The work product of the architecture phase is an architectural
746:
and operation is planned out, and in most chips existing instruction sets are modified for newer functionality. Design at this stage is often statements such as
510:
design: This step creates the user functional specification. The user may use a variety of languages and tools to create this description. Examples include a
1122:
1066:
870:: The RTL of the chip is assigned to gross regions of the chip, input/output (I/O) pins are assigned and large objects (arrays, cores, etc.) are placed.
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After a design is created, taped-out and manufactured, actual hardware, 'first silicon', is received which is taken into the lab where it goes through
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code, which is why it is extremely difficult to verify that the RTL will do the right thing in all the possible cases that the user may throw at it.
665:
In the implementation phase the design itself is created using the micro-architectural specification as the starting point. This involves low level
548:(RTL) description. The RTL describes the exact behavior of the digital circuits on the chip, as well as the interconnections to inputs and outputs.
562:, layout and floor planning, figuring out which gates to use, defining places for them, and wiring (clock timing synthesis, routing) them together.
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is necessary since the substrate silicon is conductive and often forms an active region of the individual components. The two common methods are
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761:. At later stages in the design process, each of these innocent looking statements expands to hundreds of pages of textual documentation.
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288:. Attention must be given to power dissipation of transistors and interconnect resistances and current density of the interconnect,
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363:
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nature. The complexity of modern IC design, as well as market pressure to produce designs rapidly, has led to the extensive use of
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222:. Analog design is more concerned with the physics of the semiconductor devices such as gain, matching, power dissipation, and
769:
Upon agreement of a system design, RTL designers then implement the functional models in a hardware description language like
104:
1242:
Tokuda, T.; Korematsu, J.; Shimazu, Y.; Sakashita, N.; Kengaku, T.; Fugiyama, T.; Ohno, T.; Tomisawa, O. (December 7, 1988).
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vary widely which are uncontrollable by the designer. For example, some IC resistors can vary ±20% and β of an integrated
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626:
551:
1287:
828:
was forced to offer to replace, for free, every chip sold until they could fix the bug, at a cost of $ 475 million (US).
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Modern ICs are enormously complicated. An average desktop computer chip, as of 2015, has over 1 billion transistors. The
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device layout to cancel variations in devices which must match closely (such as the transistor differential pair of an
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Logic/placement refinement: Iterative logical and placement transformations to close performance and power constraints.
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981:
920:
882:
475:
1443:
Basu, Joydeep (2019-10-09). "From Design to Tape-out in SCL 180 nm CMOS Integrated
Circuit Fabrication Technology".
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Making devices large so that statistical variations become an insignificant fraction of the overall device property.
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Final checking: Since errors are expensive, time-consuming and hard to spot, extensive error checking is the rule,
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since ICs contain very tiny devices compared to discrete components, where such concerns are less of an issue.
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1141:"FYI: Today's computer chips are so advanced, they are more 'mercurial' than precise – and here's the proof"
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Segmenting large devices, such as resistors, into parts and interweaving them to cancel variations.
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RTL design: This step converts the user specification (what the user wants the chip to do) into a
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693:. Bringup is the process of powering, testing and characterizing the design in the lab. Numerous
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Engineer using an early IC-designing workstation to analyze a section of a circuit design cut on
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Using the ratios of resistors, which do match closely, rather than absolute resistor value.
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797:. Many techniques are used, none of them perfect but all of them useful – extensive
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302:
199:
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1155:"Now Google is using AI to design chips, far faster than human engineers can do the job"
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876:: The gates in the netlist are assigned to nonoverlapping locations on the die area.
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864:: The RTL is mapped into a gate-level netlist in the target technology of the chip.
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Integrated circuit design involves the creation of electronic components, such as
1175:
1288:"Processors to Emulate Processors: The Palladium II | the CPU Shack Museum"
614:
257:
1343:
J. Lienig, J. Scheible (2020). "Chap. 3.3: Mask Data: Layout Post
Processing".
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Some design techniques used to reduce the effects of the device variation are:
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Using devices with matched geometrical shapes so they have matched variations.
886:
666:
571:
265:
235:
215:
1400:
J. Lienig, J. Scheible (2020). "Chap. 4.6: Analog and
Digital Design Flows".
1248:
IEEE Transactions on
Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems
1243:
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IEEE Transactions on
Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems
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may be used during chip development to establish new connections in a chip.
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A tiny error here can make the whole chip useless, or worse. The famous
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534:
410:
109:
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702:(how well the part performs to spec) and errata (unexpected behavior).
523:
273:
92:
1386:
https://www-group.slac.stanford.edu/ais/publicDocs/presentation137.pdf
1176:"Inside Intel: here's what goes into making a cutting-edge gaming CPU"
486:
Plan for next generation chip using production information if possible
1259:
1194:
1123:"Analog IC: Understanding Its Importance, Functions and Applications"
1013:
952:
674:
538:
203:
1457:
1316:"Cadence Strikes Back at Synopsys with New Circuit Simulation Tool"
554:: This step takes the RTL, and a library of available logic gates (
515:
503:
Roughly saying, digital IC design can be divided into three parts.
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can be defined some high level product goals must be defined. The
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are usually generated by a cross functional team that addresses
519:
179:
673:, entering schematics and verification. This phase ends with a
558:
library), and creates a chip design. This step involves use of
925:
checking that the manufacturing rules were followed faithfully
749:
462:
276:. A method to isolate the individual components formed in the
174:
IC design. Digital IC design is to produce components such as
29:
1513:
Electronic Design
Automation For Integrated Circuits Handbook
272:
of these components onto a piece of semiconductor, typically
895:: The wires that connect the gates in the netlist are added.
166:
IC design can be divided into the broad categories of
1403:
Fundamentals of Layout Design for
Electronic Circuits
1346:
Fundamentals of Layout Design for
Electronic Circuits
202:
IC design. Analog IC design is used in the design of
934:
and mask generation: the design data is turned into
840:
Physical design steps within the digital design flow
921:
making sure the mapping to logic was done correctly
321:A typical IC design cycle involves several steps:
1244:"A macrocell approach for VLSI processor design"
1527:, one of the main enablers of modern IC design.
625:, and much more. This phase should result in a
1395:
1393:
348:System simulation, emulation, and verification
570:A standard cell normally represents a single
8:
305:of connections to circuitry outside the IC.
1067:Integrated circuit layout design protection
27:Engineering process for electronic hardware
601:and these steps may occur multiple times.
1456:
1195:"Inside Intel: From Silicon to the World"
737:Microarchitecture and system-level design
80:Learn how and when to remove this message
103:
91:
43:This article includes a list of general
1113:
898:Postwiring optimization: Performance (
342:Analogue design, simulation, and layout
328:Feasibility study and die size estimate
147:, or ICs. ICs consist of miniaturized
1210:
1208:
7:
1515:, by Lavagno, Martin, and Scheffer,
1274:"Cadence Introduces Palladium XP II"
1025:The three largest companies selling
885:: Clock signal wiring is (commonly,
336:Architectural or system-level design
474:Yield analysis / warranty analysis
1489:"Developments of Multi-CAD Models"
1174:Jacob Ridley (December 26, 2022).
49:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
364:automatic test pattern generation
317:Major steps in the IC design flow
1215:Chen, Wai-Kai (3 October 2018).
1051:
461:Datasheet generation (usually a
34:
1330:"The First Emulators of Spring"
1406:. Springer. pp. 151–159.
1349:. Springer. pp. 102–110.
1129:– via www.quarktwin.com.
1121:Parker Brakus (May 17, 2022).
889:) introduced into the design.
758:IEEE floating-point arithmetic
143:techniques required to design
135:, encompassing the particular
18:Integrated circuit development
1:
1467:10.1080/09747338.2019.1657787
1302:"Transaction-based Emulation"
627:product requirements document
345:Digital design and simulation
296:in metallic interconnect and
1525:electronic design automation
1182:– via www.pcgamer.com.
1077:Electronic design automation
1027:electronic design automation
914:Design for manufacturability
908:Design for manufacturability
369:Design for manufacturability
1097:Multi-project wafer service
1567:
669:and partitioning, writing
418:Layout-to-mask preparation
389:Physical verification and
1523:A survey of the field of
1496:IC CAD Market Trends 2015
1445:IETE Journal of Education
1412:10.1007/978-3-030-39284-0
1355:10.1007/978-3-030-39284-0
1082:Power network design (IC)
1072:Electronic circuit design
910:) violations are removed.
406:(layout post-processing)
117:Integrated circuit design
1262:– via IEEE Xplore.
531:Transaction Level Models
398:Co-simulation and timing
356:Digital design synthesis
975:Coping with variability
795:functional verification
552:Physical circuit design
546:register transfer level
508:Electronic system-level
450:Device characterization
445:Post silicon validation
133:electronics engineering
64:more precise citations.
1551:Electronic engineering
841:
318:
282:p-n junction isolation
240:automated design tools
113:
101:
940:mask data preparation
839:
813:-like code checking,
700:characterization data
426:Photomask fabrication
404:Mask data preparation
325:System specification
316:
149:electronic components
107:
95:
930:Chip finishing with
453:Tweak (if necessary)
409:Chip finishing with
384:Parasitic extraction
286:dielectric isolation
131:, is a sub-field of
121:semiconductor design
1541:Integrated circuits
1276:. 18 February 2024.
1193:Shimpi, Anand Lal.
423:Reticle fabrication
145:integrated circuits
1290:. 21 October 2016.
1059:Electronics portal
842:
807:hardware emulation
652:Micro-architecture
621:, customer needs,
619:market opportunity
595:integrated circuit
579:Process design kit
360:Design for testing
319:
301:to facilitate the
212:phase locked loops
153:electrical network
114:
102:
1546:Electronic design
1421:978-3-030-39284-0
1364:978-3-030-39284-0
1254:(12): 1272–1277.
1228:978-1-4200-0596-7
1218:The VLSI Handbook
1199:www.anandtech.com
783:branch prediction
493:Focused ion beams
430:Wafer fabrication
331:Function analysis
290:contacts and vias
208:linear regulators
90:
89:
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16:(Redirected from
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1332:. 13 April 2021.
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1304:. 24 March 2024.
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904:signal integrity
822:Pentium FDIV bug
799:logic simulation
724:product reaches
589:Design lifecycle
583:Macrocell arrays
560:IC layout editor
481:Failure analysis
458:Chip deployment
375:Physical design
294:Electromigration
161:photolithography
155:on a monolithic
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51:inline citations
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883:Clock insertion
862:Logic synthesis
847:physical design
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748:encodes in the
744:Instruction set
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447:and integration
381:Place and route
353:Circuit design
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270:interconnection
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176:microprocessors
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194:) and digital
151:built into an
141:circuit design
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633:Architecture
615:requirements
611:architecture
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605:Requirements
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252:Fundamentals
245:EDA software
228:
182:, memories (
165:
128:
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120:
116:
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112:, circa 1979
76:
67:
48:
887:clock trees
756:implements
726:end of life
623:feasibility
476:reliability
309:Design flow
258:transistors
236:statistical
216:oscillators
125:chip design
97:Layout view
62:introducing
1535:Categories
1458:1908.10674
1108:References
1029:tools are
936:photomasks
902:), noise (
765:RTL design
719:Sustaining
667:definition
609:Before an
572:logic gate
471:Production
266:capacitors
224:resistance
70:March 2019
45:references
1475:201657819
1430:215840278
1373:215840278
1127:Quarktwin
987:gradients
874:Placement
677:reaching
599:iteration
435:Packaging
303:placement
278:substrate
262:resistors
129:IC design
1180:PC Gamer
1045:See also
1031:Synopsys
535:Simulink
440:Die test
411:tape out
268:and the
110:rubylith
100:crosses.
1035:Cadence
1021:Vendors
953:op-amps
932:Tapeout
893:Routing
771:Verilog
691:bringup
685:Bringup
679:tapeout
524:SystemC
518:model,
499:Summary
468:Ramp up
391:signoff
274:silicon
204:op-amps
168:digital
58:improve
1519:
1473:
1428:
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1371:
1361:
1225:
1037:, and
1014:op amp
1008:Using
969:PCells
923:, and
752:format
675:design
539:MATLAB
537:, and
190:, and
172:analog
47:, but
1492:(PDF)
1471:S2CID
1453:arXiv
1426:S2CID
1369:S2CID
1160:ZDNet
961:ASICs
957:SPICE
826:Intel
777:, or
695:tests
465:file)
231:rules
196:ASICs
192:flash
180:FPGAs
137:logic
1517:ISBN
1416:ISBN
1359:ISBN
1223:ISBN
811:lint
779:VHDL
671:code
637:The
593:The
520:VHDL
362:and
284:and
218:and
170:and
139:and
1463:doi
1408:doi
1351:doi
1256:doi
982:BJT
938:in
787:RTL
754:or
750:MP3
516:C++
463:PDF
298:ESD
188:ROM
184:RAM
127:or
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1447:.
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514:/
512:C
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77:(
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68:(
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20:)
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