527:
54:
1076:
763:
944:
299:
684:
344:, less than about 1000 km long, the size of an average country, have mostly the same weather and thus around the same wind power, unless local conditions favor special winds. Some studies show that wind farms spread over a geographically diverse area will as a whole rarely stop producing power altogether. This is rarely the case for smaller areas with uniform geography such as Ireland, Scotland and Denmark which have several days per year with little wind power.
1061:
700:
397:
4570:
5149:
310:
409:
283:
420:, as the production of renewable electricity from solar sources depends on the amount of sunlight at a given place and time. Solar output varies throughout the day and through the seasons, and is affected by dust, fog, cloud cover, frost or snow. Many of the seasonal factors are fairly predictable, and some solar thermal systems make use of heat storage to produce grid power for a full day.
1098:
31:
1006:
at low output - spinning reserve. Contrary to statements that all wind must be backed by an equal amount of "back-up capacity", intermittent generators contribute to base capacity "as long as there is some probability of output during peak periods". Back-up capacity is not attributed to individual generators, as back-up or operating reserve "only have meaning at the system level".
450:
493:
118:, improved interconnection between different variable sources to smooth out supply, using dispatchable energy sources such as hydroelectricity and having overcapacity, so that sufficient energy is produced even when weather is less favourable. More connections between the energy sector and the building, transport and industrial sectors may also help.
378:
whereas an equivalent-sized power station can fail totally instantaneously and without warning. The total shutdown of wind turbines is predictable via weather forecasting. The average availability of a wind turbine is 98%, and when a turbine fails or is shut down for maintenance it only affects a small percentage of the output of a large wind farm.
3073:
The grid connected photovoltaic (PV) power plants (PVPPs) are booming nowadays. The main problem facing the PV power plants deployment is the intermittency which leads to instability of the grid. This paper investigating the usage of a customized load - cryptocurrency mining rig - to create an added
2983:
In responding to these pressures and events, some miners are providing services and innovations that may help the viability of clean energy infrastructures for energy providers and beyond, including the data and computing industry. The paper finds that if
Bitcoin loses legitimacy as a store of value,
1051:
Steerable flexibility in electricity production is essential to back up variable energy sources. The German example shows that pumped hydro storage, gas plants and hard coal jump in fast. Lignite varies on a daily basis. Nuclear power and biomass can theoretically adjust to a certain extent. However,
1013:
In many countries for many types of variable renewable energy, from time to time the government invites companies to tender sealed bids to construct a certain capacity of solar power to connect to certain electricity substations. By accepting the lowest bid the government commits to buy at that price
641:
refers to incentives to adjust use of electricity, such as higher rates during peak hours. Real-time variable electricity pricing can encourage users to adjust usage to take advantage of periods when power is cheaply available and avoid periods when it is more scarce and expensive. Some loads such as
600:
Some gas, or hydro power plants are partially loaded and then controlled to change as demand changes or to replace rapidly lost generation. The ability to change as demand changes is termed "response". The ability to quickly replace lost generation, typically within timescales of 30 seconds to
2843:
To gain applicable knowledge, this paper evaluates the developed model by means of two use-cases with real-world data, namely AWS computing instances for training
Machine Learning algorithms and Bitcoin mining as relevant DC applications. The results illustrate that for both cases the NPV of the IES
739:
have some advantages over chemical batteries. Along with substantial durability which allows them to be cycled frequently without noticeable life reduction, they also have very fast response and ramp rates. They can go from full discharge to full charge within a few seconds. They can be manufactured
540:
power. Any power generated in excess of demand can displace heating fuels, be converted to storage or sold to another grid. Biofuels and conventional hydro can be saved for later when intermittents are not generating power. Some forecast that “near-firm” renewables (batteries with solar and/or wind)
3175:
The enormous energy demand from
Bitcoin mining is a considerable burden to achieve the climate agenda and the energy cost is the major operation cost. On the other side, with high penetration of renewable resources, the grid makes curtailment for reliability reasons, which reduces both economic and
3132:
Windfarms can hedge electricity price risk by investing in
Bitcoin mining. These findings, which can also be applied to other renewable energy sources, may be of interest to both the energy generator as well as the system regulator as it creates an incentive for early investment in sustainable and
1005:
Additional operating reserve: if additional wind and solar does not correspond to demand patterns, additional operating reserve may be required compared to other generating types, however this does not result in higher capital costs for additional plants since this is merely existing plants running
917:
There is no generally accepted maximum level of penetration, as each system's capacity to compensate for intermittency differs, and the systems themselves will change over time. Discussion of acceptable or unacceptable penetration figures should be treated and used with caution, as the relevance or
774:
between the output of each turbine is imperfect, and the correlations are always imperfect due to the distance between each turbine. Similarly, geographically distant wind turbines or wind farms have lower correlations, reducing overall variability. Since wind power is dependent on weather systems,
2919:
Currently, projects are under development, but the issue of overgenerated wind continues to exist. By harnessing the overgenerated wind for
Bitcoin mining, Wyoming has the opportunity to redistribute the global hashrate, incentivize Bitcoin miners to move their operations to Wyoming, and stimulate
1043:
In countries with a considerable amount of renewable energy, solar energy causes price drops around noon every day. PV production follows the higher demand during these hours. The images below show two weeks in 2022 in
Germany, where renewable energy has a share of over 40%. Prices also drop every
846:
The capacity of power transmission infrastructure may have to be substantially upgraded to support export/import plans. Some energy is lost in transmission. The economic value of exporting variable power depends in part on the ability of the exporting grid to provide the importing grid with useful
929:
Maximum penetration of combined wind and solar is estimated at around 70% to 90% without regional aggregation, demand management or storage; and up to 94% with 12 hours of storage. Economic efficiency and cost considerations are more likely to dominate as critical factors; technical solutions may
855:
Demand and generation can be better matched when sectors such as mobility, heat and gas are coupled with the power system. The electric vehicle market is for instance expected to become the largest source of storage capacity. This may be a more expensive option appropriate for high penetration of
126:
The penetration of intermittent renewables in most power grids is low: global electricity generation in 2021 was 7% wind and 4% solar. However, in 2021 Denmark, Luxembourg and
Uruguay generated over 40% of their electricity from wind and solar. Characteristics of variable renewables include their
786:
Electricity produced from solar energy tends to counterbalance the fluctuating supplies generated from wind. Normally it is windiest at night and during cloudy or stormy weather, and there is more sunshine on clear days with less wind. Besides, wind energy has often a peak in the winter season,
581:
In practice, as the power output from wind varies, partially loaded conventional plants, which are already present to provide response and reserve, adjust their output to compensate. While low penetrations of intermittent power may use existing levels of response and spinning reserve, the larger
511:
Waves are primarily created by wind, so the power available from waves tends to follow that available from wind, but due to the mass of the water is less variable than wind power. Wind power is proportional to the cube of the wind speed, while wave power is proportional to the square of the wave
377:
A wind farm has high technical reliability when the wind blows. That is, the output at any given time will only vary gradually due to falling wind speeds or storms, the latter necessitating shut downs. A typical wind farm is unlikely to have to shut down in less than half an hour at the extreme,
150:
Matching power demand to supply is not a problem specific to intermittent power sources. Existing power grids already contain elements of uncertainty including sudden and large changes in demand and unforeseen power plant failures. Though power grids are already designed to have some capacity in
2872:
Mining and transacting cryptocurrencies, such as bitcoin, do present energy and emissions challenges, but new research shows that there are possible pathways to mitigate some of these issues if cryptocurrency miners are willing to operate in a way to compliment the deployment of more low-carbon
1001:
Transmission capacity: transmission capacity may be more expensive than for nuclear and coal generating capacity due to lower load factors. Transmission capacity will generally be sized to projected peak output, but average capacity for wind will be significantly lower, raising cost per unit of
710:
At times of low load where non-dispatchable output from wind and solar may be high, grid stability requires lowering the output of various dispatchable generating sources or even increasing controllable loads, possibly by using energy storage to time-shift output to times of higher demand. Such
4169:
Grid modernization reduces medium- to long-term curtailment, stagnation of large-scale renewable energy deployment, reduces long-term costs, and enables new business models, such as electric vehicles (EVs), aggregation, demand-side management, and distributed energy resources. It also promotes
1081:
Electricity market in
Germany over two weeks in 2022. With the integration of solar PV, prices drop around noon every day in spite of a higher demand. Prices also drop every night and weekend due to low demand. A high availability of wind power causes the low prices on the right half. In hours
333:
electricity, and if it is too high the turbines will have to be shut down to avoid damage. While the output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local wind speeds vary, as more turbines are connected over larger and larger areas the average power output becomes less variable.
222:
is the ratio of actual electrical generation over a given period of time, usually a year, to actual generation in that time period. Basically, it is the ratio between the how much electricity a plant produced and how much electricity a plant would have produced if were running at its nameplate
630:
is a change in consumption of energy to better align with supply. It can take the form of switching off loads, or absorb additional energy to correct supply/demand imbalances. Incentives have been widely created in the
American, British and French systems for the use of these systems, such as
974:
Estimates of the cost of wind and solar energy may include estimates of the "external" costs of wind and solar variability, or be limited to the cost of production. All electrical plant has costs that are separate from the cost of production, including, for example, the cost of any necessary
596:
All managed grids already have existing operational and "spinning" reserve to compensate for existing uncertainties in the power grid. The addition of intermittent resources such as wind does not require 100% "back-up" because operating reserves and balancing requirements are calculated on a
332:
Wind-generated power is a variable resource, and the amount of electricity produced at any given point in time by a given plant will depend on wind speeds, air density, and turbine characteristics, among other factors. If wind speed is too low then the wind turbines will not be able to make
838:
It is often feasible to export energy to neighboring grids at times of surplus, and import energy when needed. This practice is common in Europe and between the US and Canada. Integration with other grids can lower the effective concentration of variable power: for instance, Denmark's high
562:
All sources of electrical power have some degree of variability, as do demand patterns which routinely drive large swings in the amount of electricity that suppliers feed into the grid. Wherever possible, grid operations procedure are designed to match supply with demand at high levels of
818:
is the largest hydropower producer in the world. The U.S. Pacific
Northwest has been identified as another region where wind energy is complemented well by existing hydropower. Storage capacity in hydropower facilities will be limited by size of reservoir, and environmental and other
1066:
Renewable and conventional energy production in Germany over two weeks in 2022. In hours with low wind and PV production, hard coal and gas fill the gap. Nuclear and biomass show almost no flexibility. PV follows the increased consumption during daytime hours but varies
530:
Energy from sunlight or other renewable energy is converted to potential energy for storage in devices such as electric batteries. The stored potential energy is later converted to electricity that is added to the power grid, even when the original energy source is not
2159:
1014:
per kWh for a fixed number of years, or up to a certain total amount of power. This provides certainty for investors against highly volatile wholesale electricity prices. However they may still risk exchange rate volatility if they borrowed in foreign currency.
908:
Relatively small electric power systems without strong interconnection (such as remote islands) may retain some existing diesel generators but consuming less fuel, for flexibility until cleaner energy sources or storage such as pumped hydro or batteries become
1082:
without PV and wind power, the most expensive substitute set the price. The extreme levels for natural gas in 2022 were caused by Russian's invasion in Ukraine. The low availability of French nuclear power during these months increased the demand for exports.
634:
Certain types of load control allow the power company to turn loads off remotely if insufficient power is available. In France large users such as CERN cut power usage as required by the System Operator - EDF under the encouragement of the EJP tariff.
183:
is the ability of a given power source to increase and decrease output quickly on demand. The concept is distinct from intermittency; dispatchability is one of several ways system operators match supply (generator's output) to system demand (technical
3396:
2900:
One way to invest in Bitcoin that has a positive effect on renewable energy is to encourage mining operations near wind or solar sites. This provides a customer for power that might otherwise need to be transmitted or stored, saving money as well as
1044:
night and weekend due to low demand. In hours without PV and wind power, electricity prices rise. This can lead to demand side adjustments. While industry is dependent on the hourly prices, most private households still pay a fixed tariff. With
794:
The allowable penetration may be increased with further investment in standby generation. For instance some days could produce 80% intermittent wind and on the many windless days substitute 80% dispatchable power like natural gas, biomass and
2594:"Savenkov, M 2009 'On the Truncated Weibull Distribution and its Usefulness in Evaluating the Theoretical Capacity Factor of Potential Wind (or Wave) Energy Sites', University Journal of Engineering and Technology, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 21-25"
668:
Instantaneous demand reduction. Most large systems also have a category of loads which instantly disconnect when there is a generation shortage, under some mutually beneficial contract. This can give instant load reductions or increases.
717:
is the most prevalent existing technology used, and can substantially improve the economics of wind power. The availability of hydropower sites suitable for storage will vary from grid to grid. Typical round trip efficiency is 80%.
782:
with some degree of confidence using weather forecasts, especially from large numbers of turbines/farms. The ability to predict wind output is expected to increase over time as data is collected, especially from newer facilities.
290:
Grid operators use day ahead forecasting to determine which of the available power sources to use the next day, and weather forecasting is used to predict the likely wind power and solar power output available. Although
563:
reliability, and the tools to influence supply and demand are well-developed. The introduction of large amounts of highly variable power generation may require changes to existing procedures and additional investments.
2720:
467:
can improve the match between solar supply and local consumption. The improved capacity factor using thermal storage represents a decrease in maximum capacity, and extends the total time the system generates power.
746:
stores heat. Stored heat can be used directly for heating needs or converted into electricity. In the context of a CHP plant a heat storage can serve as a functional electricity storage at comparably low costs.
384:
Although wind is variable, it is also predictable in the short term. There is an 80% chance that wind output will change less than 10% in an hour and a 40% chance that it will change 10% or more in 5 hours.
154:
Several key terms are useful for understanding the issue of intermittent power sources. These terms are not standardized, and variations may be used. Most of these terms also apply to traditional power plants.
1009:
Balancing costs: to maintain grid stability, some additional costs may be incurred for balancing of load with demand. Although improvements to grid balancing can be costly, they can lead to long term savings.
913:
In the early 2020s wind and solar produce 10% of the world's electricity, but supply in the 40-55% penetration range has already been implemented in several systems, with over 65% planned for the UK by 2030.
791:
In some locations, electricity demand may have a high correlation with wind output, particularly in locations where cold temperatures drive electric consumption, as cold air is denser and carries more energy.
535:
The displaced dispatchable generation could be coal, natural gas, biomass, nuclear, geothermal or storage hydro. Rather than starting and stopping nuclear or geothermal, it is cheaper to use them as constant
619:, which provide immediately available power for an hour or so, which gives time for other generators to be started up in the event of a failure, and greatly reduces the amount of spinning reserve required.
3720:
3642:
631:
favorable rates or capital cost assistance, encouraging consumers with large loads to take them offline whenever there is a shortage of capacity, or conversely to increase load when there is a surplus.
166:
is the extent to which a power source fluctuates. This has two aspects: a predictable variability, such as the day-night cycle, and an unpredictable part (imperfect local weather forecasting). The term
3880:
578:, which may be used to meet regular and unanticipated supply demands. Additionally, the storage of energy to fill the shortfall intermittency or for emergencies can be part of a reliable power supply.
1673:
770:
The variability of production from a single wind turbine can be high. Combining any additional number of turbines, for example, in a wind farm, results in lower statistical variation, as long as the
856:
variable renewables, compared to other sources of flexibility. The International Energy Agency says that sector coupling is needed to compensate for the mismatch between seasonal demand and supply.
1239:
245:: the amount of conventional (dispatchable) generation power that can be potentially removed from the system while keeping the reliability, usually expressed as a percentage of the nominal power.
3074:
value for the owner of the plant and increase the ROI of the project. The developed strategy is able to keep the profitability as high as possible during the fluctuation of the mining network.
751:
Ice can be stored inter seasonally and can be used as a source of air-conditioning during periods of high demand. Present systems only need to store ice for a few hours but are well developed.
274:
Dammed hydroelectricity, biomass and geothermal are dispatchable as each has a store of potential energy; wind and solar without storage can be decreased (curtailed) but are not dispatchable.
754:
Storage of electrical energy results in some lost energy because storage and retrieval are not perfectly efficient. Storage also requires capital investment and space for storage facilities.
362:
At low levels of penetration, the capacity credit of wind is about the same as the capacity factor. As the concentration of wind power on the grid rises, the capacity credit percentage drops.
431:, solar does not produce power at night, little in bad weather and varies between seasons. In many countries, solar produces most energy in seasons with low wind availability and vice versa.
388:
Because wind power is generated by large numbers of small generators, individual failures do not have large impacts on power grids. This feature of wind has been referred to as resiliency.
875:(PE) source in an electric power system, expressed as a percentage. There are several methods of calculation yielding different penetrations. The penetration can be calculated either as:
503:
is the most predictable of all the variable renewable energy sources. The tides reverse twice a day, but they are never intermittent, on the contrary they are completely reliable.
463:
are somewhat matched to summer peak loads in areas with significant cooling demands, such as the south-western United States. Thermal energy storage systems like the small Spanish
4014:
259:
varies with the tides but is completely foreseeable because the orbit of the moon can be predicted exactly, and improved weather forecasts can make wind power more predictable.
843:
with which it has interconnections, is considerably lower as a proportion of the total system. Hydroelectricity that compensates for variability can be used across countries.
990:
The magnitude of the economic impacts is debated and will vary by location, but is expected to rise with higher penetration levels. At low penetration levels, costs such as
4281:
2593:
4129:
1914:
1715:
459:
The impact of intermittency of solar-generated electricity will depend on the correlation of generation with demand. For example, solar thermal power plants such as
3749:
1974:
4421:
3342:
1035:
by 2033. The company, National Grid Electricity System Operator, states that new products and services will help reduce the overall cost of operating the system.
4029:
555:
that is left in the ground. Highly integrated grids favor flexibility and performance over cost, resulting in more plants that operate for fewer hours and lower
1639:
778:
Multiple wind farms spread over a wide geographic area and gridded together produce power more constantly and with less variability than smaller installations.
3926:
3871:
1503:
Institute for Electrical Engineering – Efficient Energy Conversion University of Kassel, Germany and Risø National Laboratory, Technical University of Denmark
642:
desalination plants, electric boilers and industrial refrigeration units, are able to store their output (water and heat). Several papers also concluded that
437:
Standard photovoltaic solar has an annual average capacity factor of 10-20%, but panels that move and track the sun have a capacity factor up to 30%. Thermal
5094:
2285:
1670:
975:
transmission capacity or reserve capacity in case of loss of generating capacity. Many types of generation, particularly fossil fuel derived, will have cost
2207:
1274:
997:
Intermittency may introduce additional costs that are distinct from or of a different magnitude than for traditional generation types. These may include:
1309:
1250:
3446:
2562:
2230:
2701:
2683:
2470:
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is designed to provide six hours of energy storage. This allows the plant to generate about 38 percent of its rated capacity over the course of a year.
206:, such as wind and solar, nameplate power is the source's output under ideal conditions, such as maximum usable wind or high sun on a clear summer day.
151:
excess of projected peak demand to deal with these problems, significant upgrades may be required to accommodate large amounts of intermittent power.
2662:
1121:
905:
or other peaking power plants such as natural gas-fired power plants are capable of accommodating fluctuations from intermittent power more easily.
2733:
2062:
840:
4170:
regional market coordination and power system integration which can unlock billions of dollars in electricity revenue through cross-border trade.
4015:
http://www.claverton-energy.com/what-is-the-cost-per-kwh-of-bulk-transmission-national-grid-in-the-uk-note-this-excludes-distribution-costs.html
3695:
2123:
4390:
4371:
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3655:
2795:"Not All Doom and Gloom: How Energy-Intensive and Temporally Flexible Data Center Applications May Actually Promote Renewable Energy Sources"
612:. Hydroelectric facilities with storage capacity, such as the traditional dam configuration, may be operated as base load or peaking plants.
2649:
5178:
5152:
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526:
295:
have been used operationally for decades, as of 2019 the IEA is organizing international collaboration to further improve their accuracy.
3591:
1783:
4991:
1940:
1495:
1131:
1111:
787:
whereas solar energy has a peak in the summer season; the combination of wind and solar reduces the need for dispatchable backup power.
3176:
environment benefits from renewable energy. Deploying the Bitcoin mining machines at renewable power plants can mitigate both problems.
2248:
1048:, private consomers can also be motivated i.e. to load an electric car when enough renewable energy is available and prices are cheap.
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4569:
4414:
4256:
4207:
2857:
477:
3250:
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2038:
49:. The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy so that it can continue generating electricity even after sunset.
4719:
4313:
2768:
2361:
2014:
885:
the electrical energy generated by a PE source in a given period, divided by the demand of the electric power system in this period.
481:
2721:"How CERN is encouraged to not do atom or quark smashing, during periods of high demand and low power station availablity [
1211:
2385:
691:
so that output can be provided after the sun goes down, and output can be scheduled to meet demand requirements. The 280 MW
484:
have continued to be built. The absence of a reservoir results in both seasonal and annual variations in electricity generated.
4882:
4807:
4678:
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2600:
859:
Electric vehicles can be charged during periods of low demand and high production, and in some places send power back from the
714:
57:
Grids with high penetration of renewable energy sources generally need more flexible generation rather than baseload generation
3616:
3397:"Meteorologically defined limits to reduction in the variability of outputs from a coupled wind farm system in the Central US"
2160:"Meteorologically defined limits to reduction in the variability of outputs from a coupled wind farm system in the Central US"
4232:
3017:
Eid, Bilal; Islam, Md Rabiul; Shah, Rakibuzzaman; Nahid, Abdullah-Al; Kouzani, Abbas Z.; Mahmud, M. A. Parvez (2021-11-01).
1918:
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operations. Using larger amounts of intermittent power may require upgrades or even a redesign of the grid infrastructure.
2304:"A review on the complementarity of renewable energy sources: Concept, metrics, application and future research directions"
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4852:
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4407:
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1116:
616:
591:
918:
significance will be highly dependent on local factors, grid structure and management, and existing generation capacity.
4907:
4867:
4444:
4017:
Electric power transmission costs per kWh transmission / National Grid in the UK (note this excludes distribution costs)
3768:
2537:
921:
For most systems worldwide, existing penetration levels are significantly lower than practical or theoretical maximums.
748:
3950:
Tong, Dan; Farnham, David J.; Duan, Lei; Zhang, Qiang; Lewis, Nathan S.; Caldeira, Ken; Davis, Steven J. (2021-10-22).
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power will be cheaper than existing nuclear by the late 2020s: therefore they say base load power will not be needed.
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4812:
4788:
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4489:
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662:
658:
521:
464:
132:
35:
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International Energy Agency Wind Task Force, "Design and Operation of Power Systems with Large Amounts of Wind Power"
1647:
368:
Site dependent. Sea breezes are much more constant than land breezes. Seasonal variability may reduce output by 50%.
882:
the nominal capacity (installed power) of a PE source divided by the total capacity of the electric power system; or
53:
5173:
5049:
4767:
4737:
4514:
2406:"Executive Summary: Assessment of Parabolic Trough and Power Tower Solar Technology Cost and Performance Forecasts"
2087:
814:
all have high levels of hydroelectric generation, Quebec produces over 90% of its electricity from hydropower, and
341:
128:
3483:"Pieces of a puzzle: solar-wind power synergies on seasonal and diurnal timescales tend to be excellent worldwide"
2282:
879:
the nominal capacity (installed power) of a PE source divided by the peak load within an electric power system; or
582:
overall variations at higher penetrations levels will require additional reserves or other means of compensation.
5188:
5104:
4593:
692:
647:
203:
46:
4026:
298:
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4827:
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2218:
980:
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allow higher penetration levels to be considered in future, particularly if cost considerations are secondary.
638:
571:
1349:
1320:
955:. The reason given is: no info on costs of seasonal variability e.g. of solar and seasonal demand variability.
4047:
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3457:
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Traditional lithium-ion is the most common type used for grid-scale battery storage as of 2020. Rechargeable
5183:
5018:
5008:
4998:
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2478:
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736:
372:
350:
Wind power typically has an annual capacity factor of 25–50%, with offshore wind outperforming onshore wind.
179:
81:
1917:[Can the wind suffice instead of nuclear power in Poland?] (in Polish). atom.edu.pl. Archived from
762:
4939:
4802:
4585:
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3748:
Gross, Robert; Heptonstall, Philip; Anderson, Dennis; Green, Tim; Leach, Matthew; Skea, Jim (March 2006).
1870:
1567:"Variability assessment and forecasting of renewables: A review for solar, wind, wave and tidal resources"
779:
743:
688:
438:
292:
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using non-toxic and environmentally friendly materials, easily recyclable once the service life is over.
5074:
4842:
4837:
4817:
3182:
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1431:"Challenges and solution technologies for the integration of variable renewable energy sources—a review"
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609:
575:
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428:
302:
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Bastian-Pinto, Carlos L.; Araujo, Felipe V. de S.; BrandĂŁo, Luiz E.; Gomes, Leonardo L. (2021-03-01).
2984:
then it may result in lost opportunities to accelerate sustainable energy infrastructures and markets.
1899:
1566:
1430:
190:
is the amount of electricity generated from a particular source as a percentage of annual consumption.
4668:
4430:
4084:
3963:
3872:"Wind and solar produce record 10% of world's electricity, but faster change needed, scientists warn"
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is "guaranteed by the supplier to be available at all times during a period covered by a commitment".
127:
unpredictability, variability, and low operating costs. These, along with renewables typically being
3846:
1875:
889:
The level of penetration of intermittent variable sources is significant for the following reasons:
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4772:
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Nedic, Dusko; Anser Shakoor; Goran Strbac; Mary Black; Jim Watson; Catherine Mitchell (July 2005).
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1833:"The power of multiples: Connecting wind farms can make a more reliable and cheaper power source"
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1411:
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1028:
1002:
energy actually transmitted. However transmission costs are a low fraction of total energy costs.
654:
198:
1848:"Supplying Baseload Power and Reducing Transmission Requirements by Interconnecting Wind Farms"
5064:
4944:
4549:
4367:
4289:
4102:
3997:
3979:
3758:
3671:
3651:
3541:
3170:
3166:
3115:
3056:
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2974:
2826:
2343:
1594:
1506:
1468:
1403:
1193:
1185:
991:
699:
442:
3209:
3019:"Enhanced Profitability of Photovoltaic Plants By Utilizing Cryptocurrency-Based Mining Load"
1951:
1375:
1027:
The operator of the British electricity system has said that it will be capable of operating
356:
Because wind power is not by itself dispatchable wind farms are sometimes built with storage.
17:
5013:
4954:
4658:
4653:
4630:
4539:
4479:
4092:
3987:
3971:
3502:
3419:
3150:
3107:
3046:
3038:
2958:
2816:
2806:
2333:
2259:
2182:
1996:
1880:
1763:
1586:
1458:
1450:
1395:
1177:
683:
567:
460:
269:
101:
93:
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2844:
compared to a stand-alone RES-plant increases, which may lead to a promotion of RES-plants.
1157:
1060:
5044:
5003:
4981:
4862:
4832:
4797:
4757:
4559:
4394:
4033:
3195:
3003:
2939:
2793:
Fridgen, Gilbert; Körner, Marc-Fabian; Walters, Steffen; Weibelzahl, Martin (2021-03-09).
2756:
2737:
2289:
1677:
1537:
1032:
860:
651:
627:
556:
241:
227:
210:
144:
140:
108:
4314:"Zero carbon operation of Great Britain's electricity system by 2025 | National Grid ESO"
4071:
Morse, Richard; Salvatore, Sarah; Slusarewicz, Joanna H.; Cohan, Daniel S. (2022-03-14).
1847:
815:
4282:"UK electricity grid's carbon emissions could turn negative by 2033, says National Grid"
4184:"Renewable Energy Auctions Toolkit | Energy | U.S. Agency for International Development"
4182:
ES, Tetra Tech; order, Inc under USAID’s Scaling Up Renewable Energy task (2021-07-28).
4088:
3967:
3721:"UK city of Nottingham uses vehicle-to-grid (V2G) and IoT to optimise EV fleet charging"
3567:"The European Super Grid : A solution to the EU's energy problems • Eyes on Europe"
3498:
3415:
3263:
Solana: 10 Facts You Didn't Know About the Concentrated Solar Power Plant Near Gila Bend
3103:
3034:
2772:
2329:
2178:
1866:
1582:
1446:
1391:
1173:
957:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
396:
5069:
5059:
4857:
4469:
3992:
3951:
1496:"Realisable Scenarios for a Future Electricity Supply based 100% on Renewable Energies"
872:
703:
552:
548:
136:
115:
3644:
Power System Flexibility for the Energy Transition, Part 1: Overview for policy makers
2702:"UK battery storage market reaches 1GW landmark as new applications continues to grow"
2684:"UK battery storage capacity could reach 70% growth in 2019 as business models evolve"
2499:
2432:
2362:"Average annual capacity factors by technology, 2018 – Charts – Data & Statistics"
2015:"Average annual capacity factors by technology, 2018 – Charts – Data & Statistics"
412:
Seasonal variation of the output of the solar panels at AT&T park in San Francisco
5167:
5089:
4877:
4762:
4742:
4673:
4663:
4620:
4504:
4459:
4153:
4114:
3516:
3162:
3127:
3068:
2970:
2838:
1480:
1415:
1103:
799:
42:
3696:"Is Vehicle-to-Grid Technology the Key to Accelerating the Clean Energy Revolution?"
309:
202:
is the theoretical output registered with authorities for classifying the unit. For
5109:
5084:
4949:
4918:
4732:
4534:
3431:
3275:
3274:
Benitez, Pablo C.; Lilianna E. Dragulescu; G. Cornelis Van Kooten (February 2006).
2194:
1690:
1614:"Energy Transition with Variable and Intermittent Renewable Electricity Generation"
1538:"Variability of Wind Power and other Renewables: Management Options and Strategies"
1136:
775:
there is a limit to the benefit of this geographic diversity for any power system.
730:
722:
449:
417:
408:
282:
2513:
2338:
2303:
1613:
706:
of lithium-ion batteries: the price of batteries declined by 97% in three decades.
401:
4130:"5 New Reports Show Wind And Solar Power Can Cripple Putin, Secure Climate Goals"
3423:
2186:
1454:
1319:(Report). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 4 April 2022. Archived from
1310:
IPCC: Climate Change 2022, Mitigation of Climate Change, Summary for Policymakers
1181:
4934:
4902:
4695:
4683:
4603:
4529:
4519:
4449:
4208:"Feed-In Tariffs vs Reverse Auctions: Setting the Right Subsidy Rates for Solar"
1751:
1045:
976:
771:
500:
256:
89:
4097:
4072:
3975:
3507:
3482:
3300:
3111:
3018:
2811:
2794:
2748:
2650:
Death by 'capacity factor': Is this how wind and solar ultimately win the game?
2000:
1726:
1590:
1463:
30:
4897:
4892:
4705:
4688:
4544:
4036:
The Costs and Impacts of Intermittency, UK Energy Research Council, March 2006
3952:"Geophysical constraints on the reliability of solar and wind power worldwide"
3042:
2405:
2209:
Graham Sinden (1 December 2005). "Characteristics of the UK wind resource" pg4
1093:
894:
833:
322:
233:
114:
Options to absorb large shares of variable energy into the grid include using
85:
4293:
4106:
4027:
http://www.ukerc.ac.uk/component/option,com_docman/task,doc_download/gid,550/
3983:
3545:
3317:
3119:
3060:
3051:
2830:
2541:
2347:
1598:
1472:
1407:
1376:"Designing electricity markets for a high penetration of variable renewables"
1189:
147:. Smaller isolated grids may be less tolerant to high levels of penetration.
4613:
4608:
4494:
4454:
3805:"DIMENSIONS OF ENERGY INSECURITY ON SMALL ISLANDS: THE CASE OF THE MALDIVES"
2914:
2302:
Jurasz, J.; Canales, F.A.; Kies, A.; Guezgouz, M.; Beluco, A. (2020-01-01).
2063:"51MWh vanadium flow battery system ordered for wind farm in northern Japan"
1212:"Flexible Power Plant Operation to Enable High Renewable Energy Penetration"
1097:
898:
537:
318:
97:
4001:
3235:
Australian Sustainable Energy: Zero Carbon Australia Stationary Energy Plan
3147:"Bitcoin Mining to Reduce the Renewable Curtailment: A Case Study of Caiso"
3146:
2954:
1884:
1197:
802:
generation may ramp up or down to incorporate substantial amounts of wind.
476:
In many countries new large dams are no longer being built, because of the
2447:"A solar-powered economy: How solar thermal can replace coal, gas and oil"
2249:"renewable is doable A Smarter Energy Plan for Ontario (brochure version)"
255:
is how accurately the operator can anticipate the generation: for example
4727:
3154:
2962:
1750:
Suchet, Daniel; Jeantet, Adrien; Elghozi, Thomas; Jehl, Zacharie (2020).
811:
726:
4183:
2821:
2663:"Solar and Energy Storage: A Perfect Match - Energy Storage to the Test"
2098:
4648:
4638:
4399:
4364:
Taming the Sun: Innovation to Harness Solar Energy and Power the Planet
1768:
902:
643:
3927:"UK Looks To Triple Solar And More Than Quadruple Offshore Wind Power"
3241:, October 2010, p. 33. Retrieved from BeyondZeroEmissions.org website.
492:
135:, who must make sure supply and demand are matched. Solutions include
92:, as opposed to controllable renewable energy sources, such as dammed
4643:
3650:. Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency. pp. 25, 42.
1989:
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Civil Engineering
1429:
Sinsel, Simon R.; Riemke, Rhea L.; Hoffmann, Volker H. (2020-01-01).
1399:
893:
Power grids with significant amounts of dispatchable pumped storage,
807:
803:
597:
system-wide basis, and not dedicated to a specific generating plant.
1900:"Sustainable Energy - without the hot air. Fluctuations and storage"
1808:
107:
The use of small amounts of intermittent power has little effect on
3792:
http://repa.econ.uvic.ca/publications/Working%20Paper%202006-02.pdf
2915:"Beyond Boom and Bust: An emerging clean energy economy in Wyoming"
2320:
1031:
by 2025, whenever there is enough renewable generation, and may be
2729:- Extract from CERN newsletter indication when to switch of loads
1784:"Volatile but predictable: Forecasting renewable power generation"
698:
682:
525:
491:
448:
407:
395:
326:
308:
297:
281:
52:
29:
2771:. California Energy Commission. November 21, 2005. Archived from
665:. But others argue that Bitcoin mining can never be sustainable.
4598:
829:
4403:
4048:"Will war fast-track the energy transition? | DW | 04.03.2022"
3826:/publications/2019/Jan/Transforming-small-island-power-systems
3371:
2563:"Comparing the Variability of Wind Speed and Wave Height Data"
2500:"Project Description – Keeyask Hydropower Limited Partnership"
1987:
Sharman, Hugh (May 2005). "Why wind power works for Denmark".
937:
725:
can serve as a large capacity, rapid-response storage medium.
4340:. Umweltbundesamt (German environmental agency). 11 June 2013
1275:"The Carbon Trust & DTI Renewables Network Impacts Study"
3280:
Resource Economics and Policy Analysis (REPA) Research Group
1915:"Czy w Polsce wiatr wystarczy zamiast elektrowni atomowych?"
1752:"Defining and Quantifying Intermittency in the Power Sector"
3210:"Can renewable energy make crypto mining greener? | Sifted"
3088:"Hedging renewable energy investments with Bitcoin mining"
1247:
Department of Communications, Energy and Natural Resources
1234:
1232:
4233:"Government hits accelerator on low-cost renewable power"
4257:"Currency Risk Is the Hidden Solar Project Deal Breaker"
3481:
Nyenah, Emmanuel; Sterl, Sebastian; Thiery, Wim (2022).
2124:"Security assessment of future UK electricity scenarios"
766:
Five days of hourly output of five wind farms in Ontario
3301:"Grid-Scale Battery Storage Frequently Asked Questions"
2433:
Spain Pioneers Grid-Connected Solar-Tower Thermal Power
2039:"How Dispatchable Wind Is Becoming a Reality in the US"
1052:
in this case incentives still seem not be high enough.
839:
penetration of VRE, in the context of the German/Dutch/
687:
Construction of the Salt Tanks which provide efficient
994:
and balancing costs are believed to be insignificant.
3251:
Innovation in Concentrating Thermal Solar Power (CSP)
171:
can be used to refer to the unpredictable part, with
3390:
3388:
1282:
Carbon Trust and UK Department of Trade and Industry
608:
will be less efficient than if they were running as
5118:
5028:
4965:
4927:
4781:
4718:
4629:
4584:
4577:
4437:
3617:"How Norway became Europe's biggest power exporter"
987:, which are generally not directly accounted for.
758:
Geographic diversity and complementing technologies
3870:
3445:Lovins, Amory; L. Hunter Lovins (November 1983).
3282:. Department of Economics, University of Victoria
3276:"The Economics of Wind Power with Energy Storage"
2391:(Report). World Energy Council. 2013. p. 21.
2158:Junling Huang; Xi Lu; Michael B. McElroy (2014).
1532:
1530:
1528:
1526:
2858:"Is Bitcoin Inherently Bad For The Environment?"
1633:
1631:
1249:. January 2008. pp. 3–5, 15. Archived from
574:, using mixed renewables to produce electricity
3743:
3741:
2886:"Green Bitcoin Does Not Have to Be an Oxymoron"
1565:Widén, Joakim; Carpman, Nicole (1 April 2015).
847:power at useful times for an attractive price.
601:30 minutes, is termed "spinning reserve".
3318:"The global race to produce hydrogen offshore"
3023:IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity
2955:"Climate change and the legitimacy of Bitcoin"
2799:Business & Information Systems Engineering
1855:Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology
1680:Oklahoma Conference Presentation, October 2006
1666:
1664:
4415:
3903:"Britain urged to hit 65% renewables by 2030"
572:backup or extra infrastructure and technology
8:
3592:"US, Canada expand clean energy cooperation"
2749:http://www.claverton-energy.com/download/42/
2445:Mills, David; Robert G. Morgan (July 2008).
2400:
2398:
1612:Pommeret, Aude; Schubert, Katheline (2019).
1374:Riesz, Jenny; Milligan, Michael (May 2015).
4073:"Can wind and solar replace coal in Texas?"
3672:"System integration of renewables – Topics"
3532:"Air, Water Powerful Partners in Northwest"
4581:
4422:
4408:
4400:
3395:Junling Huang; Michael B. McElroy (2014).
2131:Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research
1950:. www.energyscience.org.au. Archived from
871:Penetration refers to the proportion of a
286:Day ahead prediction and actual wind power
100:, or relatively constant sources, such as
4096:
3991:
3822:"Transforming small-island power systems"
3506:
3233:Wright, matthew; Hearps, Patrick; et al.
3050:
2820:
2810:
2337:
2319:
1874:
1767:
1462:
547:coal and natural gas which produce fewer
84:due to their fluctuating nature, such as
3092:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
2475:Integration of Renewable energy on Farms
1646:. Mechanical Engineering. Archived from
1571:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
1122:Energy security and renewable technology
761:
661:power stations and therefore accelerate
1846:Archer, C. L.; Jacobson, M. Z. (2007).
1148:
570:supply, can be fulfilled by the use of
175:then referring to the predictable part.
3751:The Costs and Impacts of Intermittency
3191:
3180:
2999:
2988:
2935:
2924:
2769:"2005 Integrated Energy Policy Report"
3487:Environmental Research Communications
3145:Shan, Rui; Sun, Yaojin (2019-08-07).
1640:"renewable. rechargeable. remarkable"
305:monthly output over a two-year period
70:intermittent renewable energy sources
7:
3803:Shumais, Mohamed; Mohamed, Ibrahim.
2413:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
1638:Kuntz, Mark T.; Justin Dawe (2005).
1344:
1342:
1340:
604:Generally thermal plants running as
223:capacity for the entire time period.
3847:"Shining a light on a smart island"
3253:, RenewableEnergyFocus.com website.
2095:The British Wind Energy Association
1716:"Wind Powers Has a Capacity Credit"
1132:List of energy storage power plants
1112:Combined cycle hydrogen power plant
798:Areas with existing high levels of
657:, stabilize the grid, increase the
551:may eventually make fossil fuels a
143:, availability of overcapacity and
131:generators, provide a challenge to
5100:Renewable energy commercialization
4077:Renewables: Wind, Water, and Solar
3447:"The Fragility of Domestic Energy"
2725:], by means of the EJP tarrif"
2435:p. 3. Retrieved December 19, 2008.
1948:Institute of Environmental Studies
478:environmental impact of reservoirs
25:
2231:"Wind Systems Integration Basics"
1139:: calculating the cost of back up
659:profitability of renewable energy
472:Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity
416:Intermittency inherently affects
27:Class of renewable energy sources
5148:
5147:
4568:
1975:"Analysis of UK Wind Generation"
1939:Diesendorf, Mark (August 2007).
1350:"Global Electricity Review 2022"
1096:
1074:
1059:
942:
663:transition to sustainable energy
4388:Grid Integration of Wind Energy
4338:"Renewable energies in figures"
4280:Ambrose, Jillian (2020-07-27).
4154:"Accelerating Grid Integration"
3883:from the original on 2022-08-11
2626:"We Don't Need Base Load Power"
2514:"Energy Resources: Tidal power"
2097:. February 2005. Archived from
1494:Czisch, Gregor; Gregor Giebel.
1284:. January 2004 . Archived from
1156:Cartlidge, Edwin (2011-11-18).
934:Economic impacts of variability
824:Connecting grid internationally
737:Flywheel energy storage systems
516:Solutions for their integration
4046:Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche.
3907:reNEWS - Renewable Energy News
3757:. UK Energy Research Council.
2719:Andrews, Dave (May 24, 2009).
576:above the intermittent average
1:
5095:Renewable Energy Certificates
5055:Cost of electricity by source
4977:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
4853:High-voltage shore connection
3530:Harden, Blaine (2007-03-21).
3237:, Energy Research Institute,
2624:Harvey, George (2022-06-28).
2339:10.1016/j.solener.2019.11.087
2258:. August 2007. Archived from
1117:Cost of electricity by source
592:National Grid Reserve Service
18:Intermittent renewable energy
5110:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
4908:Transmission system operator
4868:Mains electricity by country
4445:Automatic generation control
4366:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
3424:10.1016/j.renene.2013.07.022
2953:Rennie, Ellie (2021-11-07).
2477:. March 2008. Archived from
2219:Reliability of Wind Turbines
2187:10.1016/j.renene.2013.07.022
1455:10.1016/j.renene.2019.06.147
1380:WIREs Energy and Environment
1182:10.1126/science.334.6058.922
780:Wind output can be predicted
749:Ice storage air conditioning
5179:Electric power distribution
5135:List of electricity sectors
5130:Electric energy consumption
4848:High-voltage direct current
4823:Electric power transmission
4813:Electric power distribution
4490:Energy return on investment
3343:"Mechanical energy storage"
2283:Gemasolar, energĂa non stop
1618:Cesifo Working Paper Series
566:The capacity of a reliable
522:Electric power transmission
465:Gemasolar Thermosolar Plant
36:Andasol solar power station
5205:
5050:Carbon offsets and credits
4768:Three-phase electric power
4098:10.1186/s40807-022-00069-2
3976:10.1038/s41467-021-26355-z
3901:Ltd, Renews (2020-08-11).
3112:10.1016/j.rser.2020.110520
2913:Moffit, Tim (2021-06-01).
2812:10.1007/s12599-021-00686-z
2751:description of EJP tariff
2665:. RenewableEnergyWorld.com
2001:10.1680/cien.2005.158.2.66
1591:10.1016/j.rser.2014.12.019
925:Maximum penetration limits
827:
733:and stored for later use.
676:
646:mining loads would reduce
589:
519:
441:with storage 56%. Thermal
267:
204:intermittent power sources
122:Background and terminology
5143:
5105:Renewable Energy Payments
4594:Fossil fuel power station
4566:
3133:renewable energy sources.
3043:10.1109/TASC.2021.3096503
2755:December 8, 2008, at the
951:This section needs to be
715:Pumped storage hydropower
693:Solana Generating Station
482:Run of the river projects
62:Variable renewable energy
4888:Single-wire earth return
4828:Electrical busbar system
4485:Energy demand management
3725:Traffic Technology Today
3508:10.1088/2515-7620/ac71fb
3368:"Kinetic energy storage"
2451:RenewableEnergyWorld.com
2386:World Energy Perspective
2088:"Blowing Away the Myths"
1723:Risø National Laboratory
1620:. CESifo Working Paper.
1158:"Saving for a Rainy Day"
711:mechanisms can include:
639:Energy demand management
5019:Residual-current device
5009:Power system protection
4999:Generator interlock kit
4362:Sivaram, Varun (2018).
4318:www.nationalgrideso.com
3565:JUNE, WE (2022-01-27).
3239:University of Melbourne
2920:job growth as a result.
2292:Spanish 26 October 2011
1941:"The Base-Load Fallacy"
1240:"All Island Grid Study"
1127:Ground source heat pump
981:greenhouse gas emission
729:can be created through
615:Grids can contract for
545:Alternatives to burning
216:average capacity factor
4803:Distributed generation
4475:Electric power quality
4261:www.greentechmedia.com
3190:Cite journal requires
2998:Cite journal requires
2934:Cite journal requires
2043:www.greentechmedia.com
1913:Andrzej Strupczewski.
1885:10.1175/2007JAMC1538.1
767:
744:Thermal energy storage
707:
696:
689:thermal energy storage
655:electricity price risk
532:
497:
456:
439:solar parabolic trough
413:
405:
400:Daily solar output at
329:
306:
287:
58:
50:
5075:Fossil fuel phase-out
4843:Electricity retailing
4838:Electrical substation
4818:Electric power system
3956:Nature Communications
3877:www.independent.co.uk
2890:news.bloomberglaw.com
2518:www.darvill.clara.net
765:
702:
686:
529:
495:
452:
429:energy storage system
427:In the absence of an
411:
399:
340:Regions smaller than
312:
303:Erie Shores Wind Farm
301:
285:
80:sources that are not
56:
33:
4431:Electricity delivery
3851:MAN Energy Solutions
3155:10.2139/ssrn.3436872
2963:10.2139/ssrn.3961105
2648:Michael G. Richard:
1813:iea wind forecasting
293:wind power forecasts
5040:Availability factor
4992:Sulfur hexafluoride
4873:Overhead power line
4773:Virtual power plant
4748:Induction generator
4701:Sustainable biofuel
4510:Home energy storage
4500:Grid energy storage
4465:Droop speed control
4089:2022RWWS....9....1M
3968:2021NatCo..12.6146T
3537:The Washington Post
3499:2022ERCom...4e5011N
3416:2014REne...62..331H
3104:2021RSERv.13810520B
3035:2021ITAS...3196503E
2502:. 10 February 2011.
2471:"Solar Air Cooling"
2330:2020SoEn..195..703J
2179:2014REne...62..331H
2140:on January 11, 2007
2067:Energy Storage News
1867:2007JApMC..46.1701A
1583:2015RSERv..44..356W
1464:20.500.11850/373407
1447:2020REne..145.2271S
1392:2015WIREE...4..279R
1174:2011Sci...334..922C
1018:Examples by country
985:habitat destruction
979:such as pollution,
679:Grid energy storage
617:grid battery plants
586:Operational reserve
4914:Transmission tower
4525:Nameplate capacity
4393:2012-05-10 at the
4032:2007-07-06 at the
3879:. 13 August 2020.
2736:2008-04-04 at the
2706:Solar Power Portal
2688:Solar Power Portal
2288:2013-02-06 at the
1809:"IEA wind task 36"
1769:10.3390/en13133366
1676:2007-10-25 at the
841:Scandinavian grids
768:
708:
697:
533:
498:
457:
414:
406:
330:
307:
288:
199:nameplate capacity
59:
51:
5174:Power engineering
5161:
5160:
5065:Environmental tax
4945:Cascading failure
4714:
4713:
4550:Utility frequency
4373:978-0-262-03768-6
3828:. 27 January 2019
3764:978-1-903144-04-6
3657:978-92-9260-089-1
3149:. Rochester, NY.
3052:20.500.11782/2513
2957:. Rochester, NY.
2256:PEMBINA Institute
1898:David JC MacKay.
1861:(11): 1701–1717.
1788:Clean Energy Wire
1644:VRB Power Systems
1168:(6058): 922–924.
992:operating reserve
972:
971:
445:with storage 73%.
443:solar power tower
16:(Redirected from
5196:
5189:Renewable energy
5151:
5150:
5060:Energy subsidies
5014:Protective relay
4955:Rolling blackout
4582:
4572:
4540:Power-flow study
4480:Electrical fault
4424:
4417:
4410:
4401:
4377:
4350:
4349:
4347:
4345:
4334:
4328:
4327:
4325:
4324:
4310:
4304:
4303:
4301:
4300:
4277:
4271:
4270:
4268:
4267:
4253:
4247:
4246:
4244:
4243:
4229:
4223:
4222:
4220:
4219:
4212:Development Asia
4204:
4198:
4197:
4195:
4194:
4179:
4173:
4172:
4166:
4165:
4150:
4144:
4143:
4141:
4140:
4125:
4119:
4118:
4100:
4068:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4058:
4043:
4037:
4024:
4018:
4012:
4006:
4005:
3995:
3947:
3941:
3940:
3938:
3937:
3923:
3917:
3916:
3914:
3913:
3898:
3892:
3891:
3889:
3888:
3874:
3867:
3861:
3860:
3858:
3857:
3843:
3837:
3836:
3834:
3833:
3818:
3812:
3811:
3809:
3800:
3794:
3789:
3783:
3782:
3780:
3779:
3773:
3767:. Archived from
3756:
3745:
3736:
3735:
3733:
3732:
3717:
3711:
3710:
3708:
3707:
3692:
3686:
3685:
3683:
3682:
3668:
3662:
3661:
3649:
3638:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3628:
3621:Power Technology
3613:
3607:
3606:
3604:
3603:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3579:
3578:
3562:
3556:
3555:
3553:
3552:
3527:
3521:
3520:
3510:
3478:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3468:
3463:on June 25, 2008
3462:
3456:. Archived from
3451:
3442:
3436:
3435:
3404:Renewable Energy
3401:
3392:
3383:
3382:
3380:
3379:
3370:. Archived from
3364:
3358:
3357:
3355:
3354:
3345:. Archived from
3339:
3333:
3332:
3330:
3329:
3314:
3308:
3307:
3305:
3297:
3291:
3290:
3288:
3287:
3271:
3265:
3260:
3254:
3248:
3242:
3231:
3225:
3224:
3222:
3221:
3206:
3200:
3199:
3193:
3188:
3186:
3178:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3083:
3077:
3076:
3054:
3014:
3008:
3007:
3001:
2996:
2994:
2986:
2950:
2944:
2943:
2937:
2932:
2930:
2922:
2910:
2904:
2903:
2897:
2896:
2882:
2876:
2875:
2869:
2868:
2856:Rhodes, Joshua.
2853:
2847:
2846:
2824:
2814:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2780:
2765:
2759:
2746:
2740:
2728:
2716:
2710:
2709:
2698:
2692:
2691:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2670:
2659:
2653:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2636:
2621:
2615:
2614:
2612:
2611:
2605:
2599:. Archived from
2598:
2590:
2584:
2583:
2581:
2580:
2574:
2568:. Archived from
2567:
2559:
2553:
2552:
2550:
2549:
2540:. Archived from
2538:"Wind and Waves"
2534:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2524:
2510:
2504:
2503:
2496:
2490:
2489:
2487:
2486:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2457:
2442:
2436:
2430:
2424:
2423:
2421:
2420:
2410:
2402:
2393:
2392:
2390:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2373:
2372:
2358:
2352:
2351:
2341:
2323:
2299:
2293:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2270:
2264:
2253:
2245:
2239:
2238:
2233:. Archived from
2227:
2221:
2216:
2210:
2205:
2199:
2198:
2167:Renewable Energy
2164:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2145:
2139:
2133:. Archived from
2128:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2109:
2103:
2092:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2074:
2059:
2053:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2026:
2025:
2011:
2005:
2004:
1984:
1978:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1963:
1962:
1956:
1945:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1926:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1878:
1852:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1820:
1819:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1796:
1795:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1738:
1737:
1731:
1725:. Archived from
1720:
1714:Giebel, Gregor.
1711:
1705:
1704:
1702:
1701:
1687:
1681:
1668:
1659:
1658:
1656:
1655:
1635:
1626:
1625:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1552:
1542:
1534:
1521:
1520:
1518:
1517:
1511:
1505:. Archived from
1500:
1491:
1485:
1484:
1466:
1435:Renewable Energy
1426:
1420:
1419:
1400:10.1002/wene.137
1371:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1361:
1346:
1335:
1334:
1332:
1331:
1325:
1314:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1296:
1290:
1279:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1262:
1261:
1255:
1244:
1236:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1208:
1202:
1201:
1153:
1106:
1101:
1100:
1078:
1063:
967:
964:
958:
946:
945:
938:
557:capacity factors
549:greenhouse gases
461:Nevada Solar One
404:in San Francisco
360:Capacity credit:
354:Dispatchability:
348:Capacity factor:
270:Renewable energy
94:hydroelectricity
78:renewable energy
45:power plant, in
40:parabolic trough
38:is a commercial
21:
5204:
5203:
5199:
5198:
5197:
5195:
5194:
5193:
5164:
5163:
5162:
5157:
5139:
5123:
5121:
5114:
5045:Capacity factor
5033:
5031:
5024:
5004:Numerical relay
4982:Circuit breaker
4970:
4968:
4961:
4923:
4863:Load management
4833:Electrical grid
4798:Demand response
4791:
4786:
4777:
4758:Microgeneration
4710:
4625:
4573:
4564:
4560:Vehicle-to-grid
4433:
4428:
4395:Wayback Machine
4384:
4374:
4361:
4358:
4356:Further reading
4353:
4343:
4341:
4336:
4335:
4331:
4322:
4320:
4312:
4311:
4307:
4298:
4296:
4279:
4278:
4274:
4265:
4263:
4255:
4254:
4250:
4241:
4239:
4231:
4230:
4226:
4217:
4215:
4206:
4205:
4201:
4192:
4190:
4181:
4180:
4176:
4163:
4161:
4152:
4151:
4147:
4138:
4136:
4128:Vetter, David.
4127:
4126:
4122:
4070:
4069:
4065:
4056:
4054:
4045:
4044:
4040:
4034:Wayback Machine
4025:
4021:
4013:
4009:
3949:
3948:
3944:
3935:
3933:
3925:
3924:
3920:
3911:
3909:
3900:
3899:
3895:
3886:
3884:
3869:
3868:
3864:
3855:
3853:
3845:
3844:
3840:
3831:
3829:
3820:
3819:
3815:
3807:
3802:
3801:
3797:
3790:
3786:
3777:
3775:
3771:
3765:
3754:
3747:
3746:
3739:
3730:
3728:
3719:
3718:
3714:
3705:
3703:
3694:
3693:
3689:
3680:
3678:
3670:
3669:
3665:
3658:
3647:
3640:
3639:
3635:
3626:
3624:
3615:
3614:
3610:
3601:
3599:
3590:
3589:
3585:
3576:
3574:
3564:
3563:
3559:
3550:
3548:
3529:
3528:
3524:
3480:
3479:
3475:
3466:
3464:
3460:
3449:
3444:
3443:
3439:
3399:
3394:
3393:
3386:
3377:
3375:
3366:
3365:
3361:
3352:
3350:
3341:
3340:
3336:
3327:
3325:
3316:
3315:
3311:
3303:
3299:
3298:
3294:
3285:
3283:
3273:
3272:
3268:
3261:
3257:
3249:
3245:
3232:
3228:
3219:
3217:
3208:
3207:
3203:
3189:
3179:
3144:
3143:
3139:
3085:
3084:
3080:
3016:
3015:
3011:
2997:
2987:
2952:
2951:
2947:
2933:
2923:
2912:
2911:
2907:
2894:
2892:
2884:
2883:
2879:
2866:
2864:
2855:
2854:
2850:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2778:
2776:
2767:
2766:
2762:
2757:Wayback Machine
2747:
2743:
2738:Wayback Machine
2718:
2717:
2713:
2708:. 2 April 2020.
2700:
2699:
2695:
2690:. 13 June 2019.
2682:
2681:
2677:
2668:
2666:
2661:
2660:
2656:
2647:
2643:
2634:
2632:
2623:
2622:
2618:
2609:
2607:
2603:
2596:
2592:
2591:
2587:
2578:
2576:
2572:
2565:
2561:
2560:
2556:
2547:
2545:
2536:
2535:
2531:
2522:
2520:
2512:
2511:
2507:
2498:
2497:
2493:
2484:
2482:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2455:
2453:
2444:
2443:
2439:
2431:
2427:
2418:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2403:
2396:
2388:
2384:
2383:
2379:
2370:
2368:
2360:
2359:
2355:
2301:
2300:
2296:
2290:Wayback Machine
2281:
2277:
2268:
2266:
2262:
2251:
2247:
2246:
2242:
2237:on 7 June 2012.
2229:
2228:
2224:
2217:
2213:
2206:
2202:
2162:
2157:
2156:
2152:
2143:
2141:
2137:
2126:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2090:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2072:
2070:
2061:
2060:
2056:
2047:
2045:
2037:
2036:
2032:
2023:
2021:
2013:
2012:
2008:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1973:
1969:
1960:
1958:
1954:
1943:
1938:
1937:
1933:
1924:
1922:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1897:
1896:
1892:
1876:10.1.1.475.4620
1850:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1831:
1830:
1826:
1817:
1815:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1793:
1791:
1782:
1781:
1777:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1735:
1733:
1729:
1718:
1713:
1712:
1708:
1699:
1697:
1689:
1688:
1684:
1678:Wayback Machine
1669:
1662:
1653:
1651:
1637:
1636:
1629:
1611:
1610:
1606:
1564:
1563:
1559:
1550:
1548:
1540:
1536:
1535:
1524:
1515:
1513:
1509:
1498:
1493:
1492:
1488:
1428:
1427:
1423:
1373:
1372:
1368:
1359:
1357:
1348:
1347:
1338:
1329:
1327:
1323:
1312:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1277:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1259:
1257:
1253:
1242:
1238:
1237:
1230:
1221:
1219:
1210:
1209:
1205:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1102:
1095:
1092:
1087:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1079:
1070:
1069:
1068:
1064:
1041:
1033:carbon negative
1025:
1020:
968:
962:
959:
956:
947:
943:
936:
927:
909:cost-effective.
869:
861:vehicle-to-grid
853:
851:Sector coupling
836:
826:
819:considerations.
760:
681:
675:
628:Demand response
625:
623:Demand response
594:
588:
568:renewable power
524:
518:
509:
490:
474:
435:Capacity factor
394:
382:Predictability:
280:
272:
266:
242:Capacity credit
211:Capacity factor
180:Dispatchability
145:sector coupling
141:demand response
124:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5202:
5200:
5192:
5191:
5186:
5184:Energy storage
5181:
5176:
5166:
5165:
5159:
5158:
5156:
5155:
5144:
5141:
5140:
5138:
5137:
5132:
5126:
5124:
5120:Statistics and
5119:
5116:
5115:
5113:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5070:Feed-in tariff
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5036:
5034:
5029:
5026:
5025:
5023:
5022:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4995:
4994:
4989:
4979:
4973:
4971:
4966:
4963:
4962:
4960:
4959:
4958:
4957:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4931:
4929:
4925:
4924:
4922:
4921:
4916:
4911:
4905:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4858:Interconnector
4855:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4820:
4815:
4810:
4808:Dynamic demand
4805:
4800:
4794:
4792:
4782:
4779:
4778:
4776:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4738:Combined cycle
4735:
4730:
4724:
4722:
4716:
4715:
4712:
4711:
4709:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4692:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4635:
4633:
4627:
4626:
4624:
4623:
4618:
4617:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4590:
4588:
4579:
4575:
4574:
4567:
4565:
4563:
4562:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4517:
4515:Load-following
4512:
4507:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4470:Electric power
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4441:
4439:
4435:
4434:
4429:
4427:
4426:
4419:
4412:
4404:
4398:
4397:
4383:
4382:External links
4380:
4379:
4378:
4372:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4351:
4329:
4305:
4272:
4248:
4224:
4199:
4174:
4145:
4120:
4063:
4038:
4019:
4007:
3942:
3918:
3893:
3862:
3838:
3813:
3795:
3784:
3763:
3737:
3712:
3700:POWER Magazine
3687:
3663:
3656:
3641:IRENA (2018).
3633:
3608:
3583:
3571:Eyes on Europe
3557:
3522:
3473:
3437:
3384:
3359:
3334:
3309:
3292:
3266:
3255:
3243:
3226:
3216:. 16 June 2022
3201:
3192:|journal=
3137:
3078:
3009:
3000:|journal=
2945:
2936:|journal=
2905:
2877:
2848:
2805:(3): 243–256.
2785:
2760:
2741:
2711:
2693:
2675:
2654:
2641:
2616:
2585:
2554:
2529:
2505:
2491:
2462:
2437:
2425:
2415:. October 2003
2394:
2377:
2353:
2294:
2275:
2240:
2222:
2211:
2200:
2150:
2114:
2079:
2069:. 20 July 2020
2054:
2030:
2006:
1979:
1967:
1931:
1905:
1890:
1838:
1824:
1800:
1775:
1742:
1706:
1695:www.ecowho.com
1682:
1660:
1627:
1604:
1557:
1522:
1486:
1421:
1386:(3): 279–289.
1366:
1336:
1301:
1266:
1228:
1203:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1141:
1140:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1108:
1107:
1091:
1088:
1080:
1073:
1072:
1071:
1065:
1058:
1057:
1056:
1055:
1054:
1040:
1037:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1011:
1010:
1007:
1003:
970:
969:
963:September 2019
950:
948:
941:
935:
932:
926:
923:
911:
910:
906:
887:
886:
883:
880:
873:primary energy
868:
865:
852:
849:
825:
822:
821:
820:
796:
792:
759:
756:
723:flow batteries
704:Learning curve
677:Main article:
674:
671:
624:
621:
606:peaking plants
587:
584:
553:stranded asset
517:
514:
508:
505:
489:
486:
473:
470:
447:
446:
432:
393:
390:
386:
385:
379:
369:
363:
357:
351:
345:
342:synoptic scale
338:Intermittence:
279:
276:
265:
262:
261:
260:
253:predictability
249:Foreseeability
246:
238:
224:
207:
191:
185:
176:
137:energy storage
133:grid operators
123:
120:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5201:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5172:
5171:
5169:
5154:
5146:
5145:
5142:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5127:
5125:
5117:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5090:Pigouvian tax
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5037:
5035:
5027:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4987:Earth-leakage
4985:
4984:
4983:
4980:
4978:
4975:
4974:
4972:
4964:
4956:
4953:
4952:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4932:
4930:
4928:Failure modes
4926:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4878:Power station
4876:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4763:Rankine cycle
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4743:Cooling tower
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4725:
4723:
4721:
4717:
4707:
4704:
4702:
4699:
4697:
4694:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4666:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4636:
4634:
4632:
4628:
4622:
4619:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4596:
4595:
4592:
4591:
4589:
4587:
4586:Non-renewable
4583:
4580:
4576:
4571:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4513:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4505:Grid strength
4503:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4460:Demand factor
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4436:
4432:
4425:
4420:
4418:
4413:
4411:
4406:
4405:
4402:
4396:
4392:
4389:
4386:
4385:
4381:
4375:
4369:
4365:
4360:
4359:
4355:
4339:
4333:
4330:
4319:
4315:
4309:
4306:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4276:
4273:
4262:
4258:
4252:
4249:
4238:
4234:
4228:
4225:
4213:
4209:
4203:
4200:
4189:
4188:www.usaid.gov
4185:
4178:
4175:
4171:
4159:
4158:www.usaid.gov
4155:
4149:
4146:
4135:
4131:
4124:
4121:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4067:
4064:
4053:
4049:
4042:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4028:
4023:
4020:
4016:
4011:
4008:
4003:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3946:
3943:
3932:
3928:
3922:
3919:
3908:
3904:
3897:
3894:
3882:
3878:
3873:
3866:
3863:
3852:
3848:
3842:
3839:
3827:
3823:
3817:
3814:
3806:
3799:
3796:
3793:
3788:
3785:
3774:on 2009-03-18
3770:
3766:
3760:
3753:
3752:
3744:
3742:
3738:
3726:
3722:
3716:
3713:
3701:
3697:
3691:
3688:
3677:
3673:
3667:
3664:
3659:
3653:
3646:
3645:
3637:
3634:
3622:
3618:
3612:
3609:
3597:
3593:
3587:
3584:
3572:
3568:
3561:
3558:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3538:
3533:
3526:
3523:
3518:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3493:(5): 055011.
3492:
3488:
3484:
3477:
3474:
3459:
3455:
3448:
3441:
3438:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3398:
3391:
3389:
3385:
3374:on 2022-02-19
3373:
3369:
3363:
3360:
3349:on 2022-02-19
3348:
3344:
3338:
3335:
3323:
3319:
3313:
3310:
3302:
3296:
3293:
3281:
3277:
3270:
3267:
3264:
3259:
3256:
3252:
3247:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3230:
3227:
3215:
3211:
3205:
3202:
3197:
3184:
3177:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3138:
3134:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3082:
3079:
3075:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3013:
3010:
3005:
2992:
2985:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2949:
2946:
2941:
2928:
2921:
2916:
2909:
2906:
2902:
2891:
2887:
2881:
2878:
2874:
2863:
2859:
2852:
2849:
2845:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2789:
2786:
2775:on 2019-06-01
2774:
2770:
2764:
2761:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2745:
2742:
2739:
2735:
2732:
2726:
2724:
2715:
2712:
2707:
2703:
2697:
2694:
2689:
2685:
2679:
2676:
2664:
2658:
2655:
2651:
2645:
2642:
2631:
2630:CleanTechnica
2627:
2620:
2617:
2606:on 2015-02-22
2602:
2595:
2589:
2586:
2575:on 2012-06-17
2571:
2564:
2558:
2555:
2544:on 2012-09-13
2543:
2539:
2533:
2530:
2519:
2515:
2509:
2506:
2501:
2495:
2492:
2481:on 2011-07-06
2480:
2476:
2472:
2466:
2463:
2452:
2448:
2441:
2438:
2434:
2429:
2426:
2414:
2407:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2387:
2381:
2378:
2367:
2363:
2357:
2354:
2349:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2298:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2284:
2279:
2276:
2265:on 2008-08-27
2261:
2257:
2250:
2244:
2241:
2236:
2232:
2226:
2223:
2220:
2215:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2201:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2161:
2154:
2151:
2136:
2132:
2125:
2118:
2115:
2104:on 2007-07-10
2100:
2096:
2089:
2083:
2080:
2068:
2064:
2058:
2055:
2044:
2040:
2034:
2031:
2020:
2016:
2010:
2007:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1980:
1976:
1971:
1968:
1957:on 2008-07-08
1953:
1949:
1942:
1935:
1932:
1921:on 2011-09-04
1920:
1916:
1909:
1906:
1901:
1894:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1849:
1842:
1839:
1835:. 2007-11-21.
1834:
1828:
1825:
1814:
1810:
1804:
1801:
1789:
1785:
1779:
1776:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1743:
1732:on 2009-03-18
1728:
1724:
1717:
1710:
1707:
1696:
1692:
1686:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1672:
1667:
1665:
1661:
1650:on 2009-01-15
1649:
1645:
1641:
1634:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1608:
1605:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1558:
1546:
1539:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1523:
1512:on 2014-07-01
1508:
1504:
1497:
1490:
1487:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1441:: 2271–2285.
1440:
1436:
1432:
1425:
1422:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1370:
1367:
1355:
1351:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1337:
1326:on 2022-08-07
1322:
1318:
1311:
1305:
1302:
1291:on 2010-09-19
1287:
1283:
1276:
1270:
1267:
1256:on 2009-03-18
1252:
1248:
1241:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1217:
1213:
1207:
1204:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1152:
1149:
1143:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1109:
1105:
1104:Energy portal
1099:
1094:
1089:
1077:
1062:
1053:
1049:
1047:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1023:Great Britain
1022:
1017:
1015:
1008:
1004:
1000:
999:
998:
995:
993:
988:
986:
982:
978:
977:externalities
966:
954:
949:
940:
939:
933:
931:
924:
922:
919:
915:
907:
904:
900:
896:
892:
891:
890:
884:
881:
878:
877:
876:
874:
866:
864:
862:
857:
850:
848:
844:
842:
835:
831:
823:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
800:hydroelectric
797:
793:
790:
789:
788:
784:
781:
776:
773:
764:
757:
755:
752:
750:
745:
741:
738:
734:
732:
728:
724:
719:
716:
712:
705:
701:
694:
690:
685:
680:
672:
670:
666:
664:
660:
656:
653:
649:
645:
640:
636:
632:
629:
622:
620:
618:
613:
611:
607:
602:
598:
593:
585:
583:
579:
577:
573:
569:
564:
560:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
539:
528:
523:
515:
513:
506:
504:
502:
496:Types of tide
494:
487:
485:
483:
479:
471:
469:
466:
462:
455:
454:Dish Stirling
451:
444:
440:
436:
433:
430:
426:
423:
422:
421:
419:
410:
403:
402:AT&T Park
398:
391:
389:
383:
380:
376:
374:
370:
367:
364:
361:
358:
355:
352:
349:
346:
343:
339:
336:
335:
334:
328:
324:
320:
316:
311:
304:
300:
296:
294:
284:
277:
275:
271:
263:
258:
254:
250:
247:
244:
243:
239:
236:
235:
230:
229:
228:Firm capacity
225:
221:
217:
213:
212:
208:
205:
201:
200:
195:
194:Nominal power
192:
189:
186:
182:
181:
177:
174:
170:
165:
161:
160:Intermittency
158:
157:
156:
152:
148:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
121:
119:
117:
112:
110:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
55:
48:
44:
43:solar thermal
41:
37:
32:
19:
5085:Net metering
5032:and policies
4950:Power outage
4919:Utility pole
4883:Pumped hydro
4789:distribution
4784:Transmission
4733:Cogeneration
4554:
4535:Power factor
4363:
4342:. Retrieved
4332:
4321:. Retrieved
4317:
4308:
4297:. Retrieved
4286:The Guardian
4285:
4275:
4264:. Retrieved
4260:
4251:
4240:. Retrieved
4236:
4227:
4216:. Retrieved
4214:. 2021-11-10
4211:
4202:
4191:. Retrieved
4187:
4177:
4168:
4162:. Retrieved
4160:. 2022-02-17
4157:
4148:
4137:. Retrieved
4133:
4123:
4080:
4076:
4066:
4055:. Retrieved
4051:
4041:
4022:
4010:
3959:
3955:
3945:
3934:. Retrieved
3931:OilPrice.com
3930:
3921:
3910:. Retrieved
3906:
3896:
3885:. Retrieved
3876:
3865:
3854:. Retrieved
3850:
3841:
3830:. Retrieved
3825:
3816:
3798:
3787:
3776:. Retrieved
3769:the original
3750:
3729:. Retrieved
3727:. 2021-01-18
3724:
3715:
3704:. Retrieved
3702:. 2020-11-09
3699:
3690:
3679:. Retrieved
3675:
3666:
3643:
3636:
3625:. Retrieved
3623:. 2021-04-19
3620:
3611:
3600:. Retrieved
3598:. 2021-06-30
3595:
3586:
3575:. Retrieved
3570:
3560:
3549:. Retrieved
3535:
3525:
3490:
3486:
3476:
3465:. Retrieved
3458:the original
3454:The Atlantic
3453:
3440:
3407:
3403:
3376:. Retrieved
3372:the original
3362:
3351:. Retrieved
3347:the original
3337:
3326:. Retrieved
3324:. 2021-02-12
3321:
3312:
3295:
3284:. Retrieved
3279:
3269:
3258:
3246:
3229:
3218:. Retrieved
3213:
3204:
3183:cite journal
3174:
3140:
3131:
3095:
3091:
3081:
3072:
3026:
3022:
3012:
2991:cite journal
2982:
2948:
2927:cite journal
2918:
2908:
2899:
2893:. Retrieved
2889:
2880:
2871:
2865:. Retrieved
2861:
2851:
2842:
2822:10419/287421
2802:
2798:
2788:
2777:. Retrieved
2773:the original
2763:
2744:
2722:
2714:
2705:
2696:
2687:
2678:
2667:. Retrieved
2657:
2652:, 2015-10-06
2644:
2633:. Retrieved
2629:
2619:
2608:. Retrieved
2601:the original
2588:
2577:. Retrieved
2570:the original
2557:
2546:. Retrieved
2542:the original
2532:
2521:. Retrieved
2517:
2508:
2494:
2483:. Retrieved
2479:the original
2474:
2465:
2454:. Retrieved
2450:
2440:
2428:
2417:. Retrieved
2412:
2380:
2369:. Retrieved
2365:
2356:
2311:
2308:Solar Energy
2307:
2297:
2278:
2267:. Retrieved
2260:the original
2255:
2243:
2235:the original
2225:
2214:
2203:
2170:
2166:
2153:
2142:. Retrieved
2135:the original
2130:
2117:
2106:. Retrieved
2099:the original
2094:
2082:
2071:. Retrieved
2066:
2057:
2046:. Retrieved
2042:
2033:
2022:. Retrieved
2018:
2009:
1995:(2): 66–72.
1992:
1988:
1982:
1970:
1959:. Retrieved
1952:the original
1947:
1934:
1923:. Retrieved
1919:the original
1908:
1893:
1858:
1854:
1841:
1827:
1816:. Retrieved
1812:
1803:
1792:. Retrieved
1790:. 2016-08-15
1787:
1778:
1762:(13): 3366.
1759:
1755:
1745:
1734:. Retrieved
1727:the original
1722:
1709:
1698:. Retrieved
1694:
1691:"firm power"
1685:
1652:. Retrieved
1648:the original
1643:
1621:
1617:
1607:
1574:
1570:
1560:
1549:. Retrieved
1544:
1514:. Retrieved
1507:the original
1502:
1489:
1438:
1434:
1424:
1383:
1379:
1369:
1358:. Retrieved
1356:. 2022-03-29
1353:
1328:. Retrieved
1321:the original
1316:
1304:
1293:. Retrieved
1286:the original
1281:
1269:
1258:. Retrieved
1251:the original
1246:
1220:. Retrieved
1218:. 2022-06-15
1215:
1206:
1165:
1161:
1151:
1137:Spark spread
1050:
1046:smart meters
1042:
1026:
1012:
996:
989:
973:
960:
952:
928:
920:
916:
912:
888:
870:
858:
854:
845:
837:
816:Hydro-Québec
785:
777:
769:
753:
742:
735:
731:electrolysis
720:
713:
709:
667:
637:
633:
626:
614:
603:
599:
595:
580:
565:
561:
543:
534:
510:
499:
475:
458:
434:
425:Variability:
424:
418:solar energy
415:
387:
381:
371:
366:Variability:
365:
359:
353:
347:
337:
331:
289:
273:
252:
248:
240:
232:
226:
219:
215:
209:
197:
193:
187:
178:
172:
169:intermittent
168:
163:
159:
153:
149:
129:asynchronous
125:
113:
106:
82:dispatchable
73:
69:
65:
61:
60:
5080:Load factor
4935:Black start
4903:Transformer
4604:Natural gas
4555:Variability
4530:Peak demand
4520:Merit order
4450:Backfeeding
3962:(1): 6146.
3573:(in French)
3410:: 331–340.
2731:bulletin 46
2314:: 703–724.
2173:: 331–340.
1577:: 356–375.
1067:seasonally.
1029:zero-carbon
867:Penetration
772:correlation
648:curtailment
501:Tidal power
488:Tidal power
392:Solar power
373:Reliability
257:tidal power
220:load factor
188:Penetration
164:variability
90:solar power
34:The 150 MW
5168:Categories
5122:production
4967:Protective
4898:Super grid
4893:Smart grid
4720:Generation
4654:Geothermal
4545:Repowering
4344:25 October
4323:2019-07-09
4299:2020-11-03
4266:2022-05-19
4242:2022-05-19
4218:2022-05-19
4193:2022-05-19
4164:2022-03-31
4139:2022-03-31
4057:2022-03-31
3936:2022-03-31
3912:2020-09-08
3887:2020-09-08
3856:2020-09-08
3832:2020-09-08
3778:2010-07-22
3731:2021-02-12
3706:2021-02-12
3681:2021-05-21
3627:2022-03-31
3602:2022-03-31
3596:IHS Markit
3577:2022-03-31
3551:2023-08-08
3467:2008-10-20
3378:2022-02-19
3353:2022-02-19
3328:2021-02-12
3286:2008-10-20
3220:2022-06-27
3098:: 110520.
3029:(8): 1–5.
2895:2022-01-16
2867:2022-01-16
2779:2006-04-21
2669:2011-03-08
2635:2022-11-21
2610:2014-11-30
2579:2012-06-04
2548:2012-06-04
2523:2022-03-31
2485:2008-10-17
2456:2008-10-17
2419:2016-11-07
2371:2021-02-10
2321:1904.01667
2269:2008-10-17
2144:2008-10-20
2108:2008-10-16
2073:2020-08-10
2048:2020-08-10
2024:2021-02-10
1961:2008-10-18
1925:2009-11-26
1818:2019-07-25
1794:2021-02-10
1736:2008-10-16
1700:2021-02-10
1654:2008-10-20
1551:2008-10-15
1516:2008-10-15
1360:2022-03-31
1330:2004-04-22
1295:2009-04-22
1260:2008-10-15
1222:2022-11-21
1144:References
895:hydropower
834:super grid
828:See also:
590:See also:
531:available.
520:See also:
507:Wave power
323:Tamil Nadu
278:Wind power
268:See also:
234:firm power
102:geothermal
86:wind power
5030:Economics
4753:Micro CHP
4631:Renewable
4614:Petroleum
4609:Oil shale
4495:Grid code
4455:Base load
4294:0261-3077
4115:247454828
4107:2198-994X
3984:2041-1723
3546:0190-8286
3517:249227821
3214:sifted.eu
3163:219382864
3128:228861639
3120:1364-0321
3069:237245955
3061:1558-2515
2971:244155800
2839:233664180
2831:2363-7005
2348:0038-092X
1871:CiteSeerX
1599:1364-0321
1481:198480155
1473:0960-1481
1416:167079952
1408:2041-8396
1317:ipecac.ch
1190:0036-8075
899:reservoir
610:base load
538:base load
319:Muppandal
315:wind farm
98:bioenergy
5153:Category
4940:Brownout
4728:AC power
4438:Concepts
4391:Archived
4083:(1): 1.
4030:Archived
4002:34686663
3881:Archived
3322:BBC News
2753:Archived
2734:Archived
2286:Archived
1756:Energies
1674:Archived
1198:22096185
1090:See also
812:Manitoba
727:Hydrogen
512:height.
173:variable
4969:devices
4679:Thermal
4674:Osmotic
4669:Current
4649:Biomass
4639:Biofuel
4621:Nuclear
4578:Sources
4085:Bibcode
3993:8536784
3964:Bibcode
3495:Bibcode
3432:3527948
3412:Bibcode
3171:3436872
3100:Bibcode
3031:Bibcode
2979:3961105
2901:carbon.
2873:energy.
2326:Bibcode
2195:3527948
2175:Bibcode
1863:Bibcode
1579:Bibcode
1443:Bibcode
1388:Bibcode
1170:Bibcode
1162:Science
1039:Germany
953:updated
903:pondage
673:Storage
644:Bitcoin
264:Sources
184:loads).
116:storage
104:power.
4664:Marine
4644:Biogas
4370:
4292:
4237:GOV.UK
4134:Forbes
4113:
4105:
4052:DW.COM
4000:
3990:
3982:
3761:
3654:
3544:
3515:
3430:
3169:
3161:
3126:
3118:
3067:
3059:
2977:
2969:
2862:Forbes
2837:
2829:
2346:
2193:
1873:
1597:
1547:. 2005
1479:
1471:
1414:
1406:
1196:
1188:
983:, and
810:, and
808:Brazil
804:Norway
795:Hydro.
76:) are
5021:(GFI)
4910:(TSO)
4696:Solar
4684:Tidal
4659:Hydro
4111:S2CID
3808:(PDF)
3772:(PDF)
3755:(PDF)
3648:(PDF)
3513:S2CID
3461:(PDF)
3450:(PDF)
3428:S2CID
3400:(PDF)
3304:(PDF)
3159:S2CID
3124:S2CID
3065:S2CID
2967:S2CID
2835:S2CID
2604:(PDF)
2597:(PDF)
2573:(PDF)
2566:(PDF)
2409:(PDF)
2389:(PDF)
2316:arXiv
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1851:(PDF)
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1499:(PDF)
1477:S2CID
1412:S2CID
1354:Ember
1324:(PDF)
1313:(PDF)
1289:(PDF)
1278:(PDF)
1254:(PDF)
1243:(PDF)
897:with
652:hedge
327:India
218:, or
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4787:and
4706:Wind
4689:Wave
4599:Coal
4368:ISBN
4346:2022
4290:ISSN
4103:ISSN
3998:PMID
3980:ISSN
3759:ISBN
3652:ISBN
3542:ISSN
3196:help
3167:SSRN
3116:ISSN
3057:ISSN
3004:help
2975:SSRN
2940:help
2827:ISSN
2344:ISSN
1977:2011
1624:: 2.
1622:7442
1595:ISSN
1469:ISSN
1404:ISSN
1216:IESR
1194:PMID
1186:ISSN
832:and
830:HVDC
109:grid
88:and
74:IRES
4093:doi
3988:PMC
3972:doi
3676:IEA
3503:doi
3420:doi
3151:doi
3108:doi
3096:138
3047:hdl
3039:doi
2959:doi
2817:hdl
2807:doi
2723:sic
2366:IEA
2334:doi
2312:195
2183:doi
2019:IEA
1997:doi
1993:158
1881:doi
1764:doi
1587:doi
1545:IEA
1459:hdl
1451:doi
1439:145
1396:doi
1178:doi
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