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Lampe, 2007). Resnick (2001) suggests that with the help of new technologies (e.g. distribution lists, photo directories, search) new forms of social capital occurs in online social network sites. Ellison, Steinfield and Lampe (2007) suggest that intensity of
Facebook use is positively associated with individualsâ perceived bridging social capital: for undergraduate students, there is a âstrong association between use of Facebook and the three types of social capital, with the strongest relationship being to bridging social capital.
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of social interaction (although this was more widely dispersed). Thy claim, that âInternet use does not appear to weaken the fabric of neighborhoods and communities.â Ellison, Steinfield and Lampe (2007) claim that online interactions do not necessarily remove people from their offline world, but support relationships, especially when life changes move them away from each other. They say, that
Internet âseems well-suited to social software applications because it enables users to maintain such ties cheaply and easilyâ.
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properties of inherently ambiguous concepts such as "community", "network" and "organization" is correspondingly problematic. Third, few long-standing surveys were designed to measure "social capital", leaving contemporary researchers to compile indexes from a range of approximate items, such as measures of trust in government, voting trends, memberships in civic organizations, hours spent volunteering. New surveys currently being tested will hopefully produce more direct and accurate indicators.
286:
Depending on the definition of social capital and the context, some indicators may be more appropriate than others. Once it has been decided which how social capital is to be measured, for example by measuring civic engagement through household surveys, cultural factors may be taken into account in designing the survey instrument. Newspaper readership may be a better indicator of civic engagement in Italy (Putnam, 1993) than in India because of the varying literacy rates.
221:
interests or goals for whom electronic communication is a primary form of interaction" and have created new forms of collaboration. "The most skilled and experienced members of the community provide leadership and help integrate contributions from the community as a whole. This way, virtual communities can use the voluntary motivations that exist in a community to assign the right person to the right task more effectively than traditional forms".
320:) affect various aspects of communities, including communications, social capital, friendships and trust. Internet has the most influence on communities due to its interactive nature and wide usage. According to Katz, Rice, Aspden (2001) âInternet has unique, even transformational qualities as a communication channel, including relative anonymity and the ability to easily link with others who have similar interests, values, and beliefsâ.
22:
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Intensity of
Facebook use was positively associated with individualsâ perceived bonding social capital (Ellison, Steinfield and Lampe, 2007). But they also found, that bonding social capital was also predicted by high self-esteem, satisfaction with university life, as with use of Facebook. Therefore,
433:
The Net is particularly suited to the development of multiple weak ties (Castells, 1999), thus expanding sociability beyond the socially defined boundaries of self-recognition. Internet supports weak ties between individuals, which can the foundation for bridging social capital (Ellison, Steinfieldm,
399:
Connections formed online sometimes are transformed to off-line personal relationships. Parks and Floyd (1996) report that 60% of their random sample âreported that they had formed a personal relationship of some kind with someone they had first contacted through a newsgroupâ, and that ârelationships
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Internet usage is generally not associated with decline in social contact. For example, Katz, Rice, Aspden (2001) found that
Internet users were more likely to communicate with others through other media (especially telephone) more than do nonusers, and Internet use was associated with greater levels
308:
The rate of networking (defined as various forms of strategic alliances and joint ventures) generally reflects the levels of social capital and trust that exists (Rosenfeld, 1997). Robert Putnam (1993) found that stock of social capital predicts economic performance. There is some evidence suggesting
224:
According to
Benkler, we can "see a thickening of the preexisting relations with friends and family, in particular with those who were hard to reach earlier". "Also, we are beginning to see the emergence of a greater scope for limited-purpose, loose relationships. Although these may not fit the ideal
437:
According to
Williams (2006), because of the low costs of communication, there might be more of the bridging function online than offline. "The social capital created by these networks generates broader identities and generalized reciprocity". Williams (2006) suggested Internet Social Capital Scales
406:
issues are commonly reported in popular media. According to Gross and
Acquisti (2005), âmany individuals in a person's online extended network would hardly be defined as actual friends by that person; in fact many may be complete strangers. And yet, personal and often sensitive information is freely
367:
Positive
Internet usage on relationships between family members and friends were found. For example, Bargh and McKenna (2004) wrote that âInternet, mainly through e-mail, has facilitated communication and thus close ties between family and friends, especially those too far away to visit in person on
304:
Business 'cluster' is âused to represent concentrations of firms that are able to produce synergy because of their geographic proximity and interdependenceâ (Rosenfeld, 1997). Steinfield, C. et al. (2010) found, that âthe amount of perceived social capital significantly predicted market exposureâ of
277:
Temple and
Johnson (1998), extending the earlier work of Adelman and Morris (1967), use ethnic diversity, social mobility, and the prevalence of telephone services in several sub-Saharan African countries as proxies for the density of social networks. They combine several related items into an index
244:
sites due to the social interaction which may have positive influence in the society of the individuals who belong to the group by facilitating coordinated actions (Putnam et al., 1993). Simply put, social capital is âthe ability of people to work together for some common purposeâ (Rosenfeld, 1997).
199:
is built of trust, rules, norms and networks, it can be said that the social capital of communities has grown. The lower entrance barriers to the community have made it easier to be a part of many different communities. This goes hand in hand with Don
Tapscott's theory of how the digital society has
358:
Galston (1999) suggested an approach to analyze virtual communities based on entry and exist costs: âwhen barriers to leaving old groups and joining new ones are relatively low, exit will tend to be the preferred option; as these costs rise, the exercise of voice becomes more likely.â He suggested,
426:
Some researchers claim that social capital can be increased by Internet usage. For example, Ellison, Heino, & Gibbs (2006) claim that âInternet facilitates new connections, in that it provides people with an alternative way to connect with others who share their interests or relational goalsâ.
375:
Cummings, Lee and Kraut (2006) found that students who move off to college âcommunicating with these friends prevents the relationships from declining as swiftly as they otherwise would. Communication seems to inject energy into a relationship and prevents it from going dormant.â Email and instant
335:
Kavanaugh and Patterson (2001) did not find that increased Internet usage increased community involvement and attachment. According to Gilleard, C. et al. (2007), âownership and use of domestic information and communication technology reduces the sense of attachment to the local neighborhood among
312:
At the institutional level, disciplinary climate and academic norms established by the school community and the mutual trust between home and school are major forms of social capital. These forms of social capital are found to contribute to student learning outcomes in East Asian countries such as
253:
A number of innovative ways have been employed to measure social capital, however, there is not a one true way of measuring it. First, the most comprehensive definitions of social capital are multidimensional, incorporating different levels and units of analysis. Second, any attempt to measure the
228:
The heightened individual capacity that actually is a driving social force have raised concerns by many that the Internet is further fragmenting the community, making people spend their time in front of their computer instead of socializing with each other. Empirical studies show, however, that we
220:
describes a virtual community as "an aggregation of individuals or business partners who interact around a shared interest, where the interaction is at least partially supported and/or mediated by technology and guided by some protocols or norms". Virtual communities consist of "people with shared
215:
is a group of people who may or may not meet one another face to face, who exchange words and ideas through the mediation of computer bulletin board systems and other digital networks". Along with the fact that computer usage has spread, the use of virtual communities have grown. Rheingold defines
207:
From birth to death, people are shaped by the communities to which they belong, affecting everything from how they talk to whom they talk with. Just like the telephone and the television changed the way people interact socially, computers have transformed communication and at the same time created
184:
is "a body of people or things viewed collectively". According to Steven Brintgregates of people who share common activities and/or beliefs and who are bound together principally by relations of affect, loyalty, common values, and/or personal concern â i.e., interest in the personalities and life
415:
Internet usage can cause multiple effects for social capital, and its effects are not yet clear. For example, Pigg & Crank (2004) suggest that studies of relationship between online networks and social capital is still too much in their infancy to reach any useful conclusions. Although it is
395:
Social networks provide possibilities to create new relationships, and to maintain existing ones. According to Lampe, Ellison, Steinfield (2007), users of a popular social network Facebook mainly use the network to learn more about people they meet offline, and are less inclined to initiate new
273:
Narayan and Pritchett (1997) construct a measure of social capital in rural Tanzania, using data from the Tanzania Social Capital and Poverty Survey (SCPS). This large-scale survey asked individuals about the extent and characteristics of their associational activity, and their trust in various
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ICT helps to create friendships. âWhen Internet-formed relationships get close enough (i.e., when sufficient trust has been established), people tend to bring them into their âreal worldââthat is, the traditional face-to-face and telephone interaction sphereâ (Bargh, McKenna, 2004.) âInternet
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is often mentioned in popular media as a possible cause for negative effects. But according to Bargh and McKenna (2004), anonymity also associated with positive effects: âresearch has found that the relative anonymity aspect encourages self-expression, and the relative absence of physical and
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play increasingly larger role for Internet users. According to Castells (1999), âsocial networks substitute for communities, with locally based communities being one of the many possible alternatives for the creation and maintenance of social networks, and the Internet providing another such
285:
How we measure social capital depends on how we define it. The most comprehensive definitions of social capital are multidimensional, incorporating different levels and units of analysis. Trust, civic engagement, and community involvement are generally seen as ways to measure social capital.
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institutions and individuals. They match this measure of social capital with data on household income in the same villages (both from the SCPS and from an earlier household survey, the Human Resources Development Survey). They find that village-level social capital raises household incomes.
346:
Pigg and Crank (2004) suggest how Internet can facilitate interaction within members of community. They suggest a concept of âreciprocity transactionâ, that implies that âone person provides something of value to another in expectation that, at some point in time, the other person will act
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suggested to evaluate communities according to physical features: size, location and the boundaries that confined them. When commuting became a way of life and cheaper transportation made it easier for people to join multiple communities to satisfy different needs, the strength and type of
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For example, Nie (2001) claims that social capital can be decreased: âInternet use may actually reduce interpersonal interaction and communicationâ. He also claims, that âInternet users do not become more sociable; rather, they already display a higher degree of social connectivity and
281:
Measuring social capital may be difficult, but it is not impossible, and several excellent studies have identified useful proxies for social capital, using different types and combinations of qualitative, comparative and quantitative research methodologies (Woolcock and Narayan, 2000).
379:
Hampton and Wellman (2001) found that, in a wired community, many neighbors got to know each other better through the use of a local computer network. But according to Katz (2001), âuse of the Internet per se is not associated with different levels of awareness of one's neighborsâ.
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similarlyâ. It is suggested that ICT supports reciprocity transaction by providing social support or valuable information not available to public, and share meaning. Shared presence combined with depth of information provides shared meaning (Miranda and Saunders, 2003).
449:
Friends use the Internet to maintain ties. âInternet is particularly useful for keeping contact among friends who are socially and geographically dispersed. ... Distance still matters: communication is lower with distant than nearby friendsâ (Hampton, Wellman, 1999).
331:
For example, Bargh and McKenna (2004) claim that âInternet use does not appear to weaken the fabric of neighborhoods and communitiesâ. Galston (1999) claims, that Internet is âcapable of promoting a kind of socialization and moral learning through mutual adjustmentâ.
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for a sample of 29 market economies. They used these measures as proxies for the strength of civic associations in order to test two different propositions on the effects of social capital on economic growth, the "Olson effects" (associations stifle growth through
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Singapore, Korea, and Hong Kong. They have been shown to have a significant impact, not only on creating a learning and caring school climate, but also on improving the quality of schooling and reducing inequality of learning outcomes between social-class groups.
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that âexit will be the predominant response to dissatisfactionâ. Also, âvirtual communities do not promote the development of voice; because they emphasize personal choice, they do not acknowledge the need for authorityâ, and do not foster mutual obligation.
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participationâ. Hampton, Wellman (1999) claims, that âincreased connectivity and involvement not only can expose people to more contact and more information, it can reduce commitment to communityâ, because âimmersiveness can turn people away from communityâ.
257:
Measuring social capital may be difficult, but it is not impossible, and several excellent studies have identified useful proxies for social capital, using different types and combinations of qualitative, comparative and quantitative research methodologies .
327:
supports and accelerates ways how people operate at the centers of partial, personal communities, and switching rapidly and frequently between different groups (Wellman, 1996). Internet usage is associated with positive and negative aspects for communities.
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Internet-based communications is usually cheaper than phone, fax and letter-based communications, and are regarded as cheap to keep up with family and friends abroad (Foley, 2004), to keep up with business friends (e.g. Molony, 2009).
270:) and "Putnam effects" (associations facilitate growth by increasing trust). Inglehart (1997) has done the most extensive work on the implications of the WVS's results for general theories of modernization and development.
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virtual communities as "social aggregations that emerge from the Net when enough people carry on those public discussions long enough, with sufficient human feeling, to form webs of personal relationships in cyberspace".
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that social relationships play an important role in the survival of small businesses (Granovetter, 1984), yet the relative contribution of other factors, such as managerial skills and environmental context are unknown.
296:(2000) suggested a social capital concepts of bonding and bridging. Bonding is viewed as relations among members of the same community. Bridging is viewed as relationships between members among different communities.
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Measuring social capital among the poor, particularly studying the same households over time, is difficult because the poor are often involved in informal work, may not have a long-term address or may move.
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connections: âFacebook members seem to be using Facebook as a surveillance tool for maintaining previous relationships, and as a âsocial searchâ tool by which they investigate people they've met offlineâ.
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individuals 50 and older in England.â But they continue that âdomestic information and communication technology may be more liberating of neighborhood boundedness than destructive of social capital.â
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facilitates new connections, in that it provides people with an alternative way to connect with others who share their interests or relational goalsâ (Ellison, Heino, & Gibbs, 2006).
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Ellison, N.B., Steinfieldm, C., Lampe, C., 2007. The Benefits of Facebook ââFriends:ââ Social Capital and College Studentsâ Use of Online Social Network Sites.
438:(ICST) to measure social capital bridging and bonding. Ellison, Steinfield and Lampe (2007) assessed social capital bonding by using ICST, and found, that â
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nonverbal interaction cues (e.g., attractiveness) facilitates the formation of relationships on other, deeper bases such as shared values and beliefs.â
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Internet usage can both increase and decrease social capital: âpeople engage in social and asocial activities when onlineâ (Hampton, Wellman, 1999).
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is indeed implicated in studentsâ efforts to develop and maintain bridging social capital at college, although we cannot assess causal direction.â
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Hampton, Wellman (1999) state that Internet supplements network capital âby extending existing levels of face-to-face and telephone contact.â
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Pigg, K.E., Crank, L. D., 2004. Building Community Social Capital: The Potential and Promise of Information and Communications Technologies.
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Reduction of communication costs increase the frequency and duration of communication, and increase social capital's bonding and bridging.
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high self-esteem, and satisfaction with university life are likely causes of perceived bonding social capital, and heavier Facebook use.
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Community and Communication in the Third Age: The Impact of Internet and Cell Phone Use on Attachment to Place in Later Life in England
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Does the Internet Increase, Decrease, or Supplement Social Capital? - Social Networks, Participation, and Community Commitment
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of "social capability", and show that this can explain significant amounts of variation in national economic growth rates.
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company performance in a knowledge-intensive business cluster. Social capital strengthens regional production networks.
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are using the Internet and communities at the expense of television, and that is an exchange that promotes social ties.
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Knack, Stephen & Keefer, Philip, 1997. Does Social Capital Have an Economic Payoff? A Cross-Country Investigation,
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Molony, T., 2009. Carving a Niche: ICT, Social Capital, and Trust in the Shift from Personal to Impersonal Trading,
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Lampe, C., Ellison N., Steinfield, C., 2006. A Face(book) in the Crowd: Social Searching vs. Social Browsing'.
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Andrade, A. E., 2009. The Value of Extended Networks: Social Capital in an ICT Intervention in Rural Peru.
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generally thought that Internet affects social capital, âmechanisms are unclearâ (Hampton, Wellman, 1999).
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Hampton, K., Wellman, B., 1999. Netville Online and Offline: Observing and Surveying a Wired Suburb.
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and publicly provided.â Therefore, users potentially expose themselves to physical and cyber risks.
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that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
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Social capital, ICT use and company performance: Findings from the Medicon Valley Biotech Cluster
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Rosenfeld, A. A., 1997. Bringing Business Clusters into the Mainstream of Economic Development.
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Freitag, M. (2003). Beyond Tocqueville: The Origins of Social Capital in Switzerland. European
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model of virtual communities, they are effective and meaningful to their participants".
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The Social Construction of Meaning: An Alternative Perspective on Information Sharing
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The Impact of Community Computer Networks on Social Capital and Community Involvement
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Trust, rules, norms and networks create social capital (Barr, 2000), Narayan (1997).
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Granovetter, Mark. 1984. Small is bountiful: labor markets and establishment size.
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Jahnke, I., 2009. Dynamics of social roles in a knowledge management community.
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Nie, N. H., 2001. Sociability, Interpersonal Relations, and the Internet.
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Knack and Keefer (1997) used indicators of trust and civic norms from the
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Foley, P., 2004. Does the Internet help to overcome social exclusion?
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Katz, J.E., Rice, R.E., Aspden, P., 2001. The Internet, 1995-2000.
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is a concept built from the premise that some value emanates from
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Online communities: Designing usability, supporting sociability
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Galston, W. A., 2000. Does the Internet Strengthen Community?
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Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community
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Information Revelation and Privacy in Online Social Networks
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relationships among people seemed more promising criteria.
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personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
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Voices of the Poor, Poverty and Social Capital in Tanzania
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The Internet and Social Life. Annual Review of Psychology
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Making Democracy Work Civic Traditions in Modern Italy
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Wikinomics: How mass collaboration changes everything
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Workshop on Privacy in the Electronic Society (WPES)
200:changed collaboration and innovation to a world of
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363:Influences on family, friends and neighbors
50:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1136:, (2004), Vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 58â73.
1127:Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication
973:Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication
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168:Learn how and when to remove this message
103:Learn how and when to remove this message
1056:Kavanaugh, A.L., Patterson, S.J., 2001.
1081:Miranda, S. M., Saunders, C. S., 2003.
945:Bargh, J. A., McKenna, J. Y. A., 2004.
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400:that begin on line rarely stay thereâ.
1094:Information Technology for Development
940:Information Technology for Development
1121:Parks, M. R., & Floyd, K., 1996.
1039:, Vol. 43, Issue 3, pp. 475â492.
996:, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 217 â 232.
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1134:The Journal of Community Informatics
1089:, Vol. 14, Issue 1, pp. 87â106.
978:EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica Inc., 2011.
796:Ellison, Steinfield and Lampe (2007)
143:move details into the article's body
1112:, Vol. 45, No. 3, pp. 420â435.
1105:. World Bank, Washington D.C., USA.
1053:, Vol. 45, No. 3, pp. 405â419.
1003:, Vol. 89, No. 3, pp. 193â202.
1069:The Quarterly Journal of Economics
987:Electronic Journal of e-government
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1118:, 2011, Accessed 5 February 2011.
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31:This article has multiple issues.
1096:, Vol. 15 (4), pp. 283â301.
958:. Yale University Press. London.
942:, Vol. 15 (2), pp. 108â132.
493:Oxford English Dictionary (2001)
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1190:Steinfield, C., et al., 2010.
980:EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica Online
975:, Vol. 12, pp. 1143â1168.
835:Cummings, Lee and Kraut (2006)
755:Kavanaugh and Patterson (2001)
544:EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica (2011)
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1216:American Behavioral Scientist
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1123:Making friends in cyberspace
1087:Information Systems Research
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1021:, Vol. 49, pp. 323â334.
1019:American Sociological Review
968:. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
949:, Vol. 55, pp. 573â590.
411:Influences on social capital
384:Influences on social network
1210:Wellman, B., et al., 2001.
1044:Computers in Human Behavior
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982:, Accessed 5 February 2011.
776:Miranda and Saunders (2003)
654:Woolcock and Narayan (2000)
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844:Hampton and Wellman (2001)
1207:. Atlantic books. London.
1186:10.1080/09654319708720381
1178:European Planning Studies
1116:Oxford English Dictionary
874:Gross and Acquisti (2005)
707:Katz, Rice, Aspden (2001)
684:Steinfield, et al. (2010)
300:Influences on communities
732:Bargh and McKenna (2004)
645:Adelman and Morris(1967)
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1173:. Simon & Schuster.
892:Hampton, Wellman (1999)
618:Knack and Keefer (1997)
955:The Wealth of Networks
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1201:Tapscott, D. (2007).
1167:Putnam, R. D., 2000.
1006:Gilleard, C., et al.
1001:National Civic Review
767:Pigg and Crank (2004)
1078:, November 4â8, 2006
961:Castells, M., 2010.
588:Putnam et al. (1993)
470:Online participation
1237:Virtual communities
1157:. Princeton Press.
994:Sociological Review
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952:Benkler, Y., 2006.
263:World Values Survey
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1153:Putnam, R., 1993.
1139:Preece, J. (2000)
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42:talk page
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