2525:
it makes little sense to test hypotheses relating national ethnic diversity to civil war outbreak without any explicit reference to how many different ethnic groups actually hold power in the state. This suggests that ethnic, linguistic and religious cleavages can matter, depending on the extent to which the various groups have ability and influence to mobilize on either side of a forming conflict. Themes explored in
Cederman's later work criticizing the use of ethnic fractionalization measures as input variables to predict civil war outbreak relate to these indices not accounting for the geographical distribution of ethnic groups within countries, as this can affect their access to regional resources and commodities, which in turn can lead to conflict. A third theme explored by Cederman is that ethnolinguistic fractionalization does not quantify the extent to which there is pre-existing economic inequality between ethnic groups within countries. In a 2011 article, Cederman and fellow researchers describe finding that “in highly unequal societies, both rich and poor groups fight more often than those groups whose wealth lies closer to the country average”, going against the opportunity-based explanation for civil war outbreak.
2471:
ethnic group comprises a majority of the population, increased the risk of civil war. A country characterized by ethnic dominance has nearly twice the chance of a civil war. However, the combined effects of ethnic and religious fractionalization, i.e. the greater chance that any two randomly chosen people will be from separate ethnic or religious groups, the less chance of a civil war, were also significant and positive, as long as the country avoided ethnic dominance. The study interpreted this as stating that minority groups are more likely to rebel if they feel that they are being dominated, but that rebellions are more likely to occur the more homogeneous the population and thus more cohesive the rebels. These two factors may thus be seen as mitigating each other in many cases.
158:
3190:
other scholars disagree. Knaus and
Stewart are extremely skeptical as to the effectiveness of interventions, holding that they can only work when they are performed with extreme caution and sensitivity to context, a strategy they label 'principled incrementalism'. Few interventions, for them, have demonstrated such an approach. Other scholars offer more specific criticisms; Dube and Naidu, for instance, show that US military aid, a less conventional form of intervention, seems to be siphoned off to paramilitaries thus exacerbating violence. Weinstein holds more generally that interventions might disrupt processes of 'autonomous recovery' whereby civil war contributes to state-building.
3003:
3140:
115:
2567:
Walter argues that when these issues are properly reversed, they act as political and legal restraints on executive power forcing the established government to better serve the people. Additionally, these political and legal restraints create a standardized avenue to influence government and increase the commitment credibility of established peace treaties. It is the strength of a nation's institutionalization and good governance—not the presence of democracy nor the poverty level—that is the number one indicator of the chance of a repeat civil war, according to Walter.
2939:
3172:(2000) about 2/3rds of the 138 intrastate conflicts between the end of World War II and 2000 saw international intervention, with the United States intervening in 35 of these conflicts. While intervention has been practiced since the international system has existed, its nature changed substantially. It became common for both the state and opposition group to receive foreign support, allowing wars to continue well past the point when domestic resources had been exhausted. Superpowers, such as the European
99:
2536:, which tested numerous variables for their relationship to civil war outbreak with different datasets, including that utilized by Fearon and Laitin. Bleaney concluded that neither ethnoreligious diversity, as measured by fractionalization, nor another variable, ethnic polarization, defined as the extent to which individuals in a population are distributed across different ethnic groups, were "a sufficient measure of diversity as it affects the probability of conflict."
2321:
2999:, respectively. The Western process of forming effective and impersonal bureaucracies, developing efficient tax systems, and integrating national territory continued into the 20th century. Nevertheless, Western states that survived into the latter half of the 20th century were considered "strong" by simple reason that they had managed to develop the institutional structures and military capability required to survive predation by their fellow states.
3081:
2947:
2746:
2728:, divides the modern history of civil wars into the pre-19th century, 19th century to early 20th century, and late 20th century. In 19th-century Europe, the length of civil wars fell significantly, largely due to the nature of the conflicts as battles for the power center of the state, the strength of centralized governments, and the normally quick and decisive intervention by other states to support the government. Following
2451:
civil war of about 1%. The study interpreted these three factors as proxies for earnings forgone by rebellion, and therefore that lower forgone earnings encourage rebellion. Phrased another way: young males (who make up the vast majority of combatants in civil wars) are less likely to join a rebellion if they are getting an education or have a comfortable salary, and can reasonably assume that they will prosper in the future.
2809:
2313:, noting that the Conventions are "so general, so vague, that many of the delegations feared that it might be taken to cover any act committed by force of arms". Accordingly, the commentaries provide for different 'conditions' on which the application of the Geneva Convention would depend; the commentary, however, points out that these should not be interpreted as rigid conditions. The conditions listed by the
3207:
2227:
2851:, led to several civil wars. However, a bi-polar world, divided between the two ideologies, did not develop, largely due to the dominance of monarchists through most of the period. The monarchists would thus normally intervene in other countries to stop democratic movements taking control and forming democratic governments, which were seen by monarchists as being both dangerous and unpredictable. The
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56:
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commodity. The authors of the study interpreted this as being the result of the ease by which primary commodities may be extorted or captured compared to other forms of wealth; for example, it is easy to capture and control the output of a gold mine or oil field compared to a sector of garment manufacturing or hospitality services.
3189:
The effectiveness of intervention is widely debated, in part because the data suffers from selection bias; as Fortna has argued, peacekeepers select themselves into difficult cases. When controlling for this effect, Forta holds that peacekeeping is resoundingly successful in shortening wars. However,
2594:
High levels of population dispersion and, to a lesser extent, the presence of mountainous terrain, increased the chance of conflict. Both of these factors favor rebels, as a population dispersed outward toward the borders is harder to control than one concentrated in a central region, while mountains
2524:
used by Fearon, Laitin and other political scientists is flawed. ELF, Cederman states, measures diversity on a country's population-wide level and makes no attempt to determine the number of ethnic groups in relation to what role they play in the power of the state and its military. Cederman believes
3272:
Using a separate statistical evaluation than used above for interventions, civil wars that included pro- or anti-communist forces lasted 141% longer than the average non-Cold War conflict, while a Cold War civil war that attracted superpower intervention resulted in wars typically lasting over three
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and an official economic policy, they were in actuality far weaker than the
Western states they were modeled after. In Western states, the structure of governments closely matched states' actual capabilities, which had been arduously developed over centuries. The development of strong administrative
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In a state torn by civil war, the contesting powers often do not have the ability to commit or the trust to believe in the other side's commitment to put an end to war. When considering a peace agreement, the involved parties are aware of the high incentives to withdraw once one of them has taken an
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James Fearon and David Laitin find that ethnic and religious diversity does not make civil war more likely. They instead find that factors that make it easier for rebels to recruit foot soldiers and sustain insurgencies, such as "poverty—which marks financially & bureaucratically weak states and
2450:
and economic growth rate all had significant effects on reducing the chance of civil war. Specifically, a male secondary school enrollment 10% above the average reduced the chance of a conflict by about 3%, while a growth rate 1% higher than the study average resulted in a decline in the chance of a
2193:
Civil wars since the end of World War II have lasted on average just over four years, a dramatic rise from the one-and-a-half-year average of the 1900–1944 period. While the rate of emergence of new civil wars has been relatively steady since the mid-19th century, the increasing length of those wars
3302:
According to
Barbara F. Walter, post-2003 civil wars are different from previous civil wars in that most are situated in Muslim-majority countries; most of the rebel groups espouse radical Islamist ideas and goals; and most of these radical groups pursue transnational rather than national aims. She
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the rebellion was fought over and thus increase the opportunity cost of restarting the conflict. Alternatively, elapsed time may represent the gradual process of healing of old hatreds. The study found that the presence of a diaspora substantially reduced the positive effect of time, as the funding
2479:
David Keen, a professor at the
Development Studies Institute at the London School of Economics is one of the major critics of greed vs. grievance theory, defined primarily by Paul Collier, and argues the point that a conflict, although he cannot define it, cannot be pinpointed to simply one motive.
2566:
suggests that most contemporary civil wars are actually repeats of earlier civil wars that often arise when leaders are not accountable to the public, when there is poor public participation in politics, and when there is a lack of transparency of information between the executives and the public.
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Most proxies for "grievance"—the theory that civil wars begin because of issues of identity, rather than economics—were statistically insignificant, including economic equality, political rights, ethnic polarization and religious fractionalization. Only ethnic dominance, the case where the largest
3056:
may be included. Neither did imperial powers make territorial integration a priority, and may have discouraged nascent nationalism as a danger to their rule. Many newly independent states thus found themselves impoverished, with minimal administrative capacity in a fragmented society, while faced
2969:
Following World War II, the major
European powers divested themselves of their colonies at an increasing rate: the number of ex-colonial states jumped from about 30 to almost 120 after the war. The rate of state formation leveled off in the 1980s, at which point few colonies remained. More states
2761:
Civil wars in the 19th century and in the early 20th century tended to be short; civil wars between 1900 and 1944 lasted on average one and a half years. The state itself formed the obvious center of authority in the majority of cases, and the civil wars were thus fought for control of the state.
2257:
defines civil war as "armed combat taking place within the boundaries of a recognized sovereign entity between parties that are subject to a common authority at the outset of the hostilities." The intensity at which a civil disturbance becomes a civil war is contested by academics. Some political
3193:
On average, a civil war with interstate intervention was 300% longer than those without. When disaggregated, a civil war with intervention on only one side is 156% longer, while when intervention occurs on both sides the average civil war is longer by an additional 92%. If one of the intervening
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in diplomatic recognition limbo. While there is not a large body of academic work examining the relationship, Hironaka's statistical study found a correlation that suggests that every major international anti-secessionist declaration increased the number of ongoing civil wars by +10%, or a total
2762:
This meant that whoever had control of the capital and the military could normally crush resistance. A rebellion which failed to quickly seize the capital and control of the military for itself normally found itself doomed to rapid destruction. For example, the fighting associated with the 1871
3122:
regime and norms against territorial aggression is strongly associated with the dramatic drop in the number of interstate wars, though it has also been attributed to the effect of the Cold War or to the changing nature of economic development. Consequently, military aggression that results in
2435:
and non-petroleum groupings showed different results: a country with relatively low levels of dependence on petroleum exports is at slightly less risk, while a high level of dependence on oil as an export results in slightly more risk of a civil war than national dependence on another primary
3100:
Historically, the international community would have targeted weak states for territorial absorption or colonial domination or, alternatively, such states would fragment into pieces small enough to be effectively administered and secured by a local power. However, international norms towards
2483:
Beyond Keen, several other authors have introduced works that either disprove greed vs. grievance theory with empirical data, or dismiss its ultimate conclusion. Authors such as
Cristina Bodea and Ibrahim Elbadawi, who co-wrote the entry, "Riots, coups and civil war: Revisiting the greed and
2293:
Based on the 1,000-casualties-per-year criterion, there were 213 civil wars from 1816 to 1997, 104 of which occurred from 1944 to 1997. If one uses the less-stringent 1,000 casualties total criterion, there were over 90 civil wars between 1945 and 2007, with 20 ongoing civil wars as of 2007.
3043:
to favor a particular interest group. In such a situation, factions manipulate the state to benefit themselves or, alternatively, state leaders use the bureaucracy to further their own self-interest. The lack of credible governance was compounded by the fact that most colonies were economic
3034:
prohibited any self-government up until it suddenly granted independence to its colonies in 1960. Like
Western states of previous centuries, the new ex-colonies lacked autonomous bureaucracies, which would make decisions based on the benefit to society as a whole, rather than respond to
2619:
and Marta Reynal-Querol argue that the correlation is spurious, and that lower income and heightened conflict are instead products of other phenomena. In contrast, a study by Alex
Braithwaite and colleagues showed systematic evidence of "a causal arrow running from poverty to conflict".
2480:
He believes that conflicts are much more complex and thus should not be analyzed through simplified methods. He disagrees with the quantitative research methods of
Collier and believes a stronger emphasis should be put on personal data and human perspective of the people in conflict.
2391:
which center on factors that make it easier to engage in violent mobilization. According to the study, the most influential explanation for civil war onset is the opportunity-based explanation by James Fearon and David Laitin in their 2003 American Political Science Review article.
2484:
grievance debate", argue that empirical data can disprove many of the proponents of greed theory and make the idea "irrelevant". They examine a myriad of factors and conclude that too many factors come into play with conflict, which cannot be confined to simply greed or grievance.
2301:
do not specifically define the term "civil war"; nevertheless, they do outline the responsibilities of parties in "armed conflict not of an international character". This includes civil wars; however, no specific definition of civil war is provided in the text of the Conventions.
2957:
In the 1990s, about twenty civil wars were occurring concurrently during an average year, a rate about ten times the historical average since the 19th century. However, the rate of new civil wars had not increased appreciably; the drastic rise in the number of ongoing wars after
2415:
in the early 21st century. The study framework, which came to be called the Collier–Hoeffler Model, examined 78 five-year increments when civil war occurred from 1960 to 1999, as well as 1,167 five-year increments of "no civil war" for comparison, and subjected the data set to
2550:
action that weakens their military, political or economical power. Commitment problems may deter a lasting peace agreement as the powers in question are aware that neither of them is able to commit to their end of the bargain in the future. States are often unable to escape
2408:, or do conflicts begin because it is in the economic best interests of individuals and groups to start them? Scholarly analysis supports the conclusion that economic and structural factors are more important than those of identity in predicting occurrences of civil war.
3281:
in 1989 resulted in a reduction in the duration of Cold War civil wars of 92% or, phrased another way, a roughly ten-fold increase in the rate of resolution of Cold War civil wars. Lengthy Cold War-associated civil conflicts that ground to a halt include the wars of
2702:
are not sufficient to explain the emergence of that insurgent movement. Instead, she argues that "emotional engagements" and "moral commitments" are the main reasons why thousand of civilians, most of them from poor and rural backgrounds, joined or supported the
2879:) would frequently coordinate interventions in other nations' civil wars, nearly always on the side of the incumbent government. Given the military strength of the Great Powers, these interventions nearly always proved decisive and quickly ended the civil wars.
2973:
While the new ex-colonial states appeared to follow the blueprint of the idealized state—centralized government, territory enclosed by defined borders, and citizenry with defined rights—as well as accessories such as a national flag, an anthem, a seat at the
3462:
2732:
the duration of civil wars grew past the norm of the pre-19th century, largely due to weakness of the many postcolonial states and the intervention by major powers on both sides of conflict. The most obvious commonality to civil wars are that they occur in
2194:
has resulted in increasing numbers of wars ongoing at any one time. For example, there were no more than five civil wars underway simultaneously in the first half of the 20th century while there were over 20 concurrent civil wars close to the end of the
2636:
or population size are known to increase civil war risk, also, one may conclude that "the discontent of the colonized, caused by the creation of borders across tribal lines and bad treatment by the colonizers" is one important cause of civil conflicts.
2341:(1) That the Party in revolt against the de jure Government possesses an organized military force, an authority responsible for its acts, acting within a determinate territory and having the means of respecting and ensuring respect for the Convention.
2443:, which can fund rebellions and insurgencies from abroad. The study found that statistically switching the size of a country's diaspora from the smallest found in the study to the largest resulted in a sixfold increase in the chance of a civil war.
3044:
loss-makers at independence, lacking both a productive economic base and a taxation system to effectively extract resources from economic activity. Among the rare states profitable at decolonization was India, to which scholars credibly argue that
2645:
The more time that has elapsed since the last civil war, the less likely it is that a conflict will recur. The study had two possible explanations for this: one opportunity-based and the other grievance-based. The elapsed time may represent the
2249:, defines a civil war as "a violent conflict within a country fought by organized groups that aim to take power at the center or in a region, or to change government policies". Ann Hironaka further specifies that one side of a civil war is the
3180:
of 1821 for events in its Central American "backyard". However, the large population of weak states after 1945 allowed intervention by former colonial powers, regional powers and neighboring states who themselves often had scarce resources.
2970:
also meant more states in which to have long civil wars. Hironaka statistically measures the impact of the increased number of ex-colonial states as increasing the post-World War II incidence of civil wars by +165% over the pre-1945 number.
3136:+114% from 1945 to 1997. The diplomatic and legal protection given by the international community, as well as economic support to weak governments and discouragement of secession, thus had the unintended effect of encouraging civil wars.
3226:(1947–1991) provided a global network of material and ideological support that often helped perpetuate civil wars, which were mainly fought in weak ex-colonial states rather than the relatively strong states that were aligned with the
3131:, international military intervention to reverse the territorial aggression. Similarly, the international community has largely refused to recognize secessionist regions, while keeping some secessionist self-declared states such as
3117:
to weak states, which helps maintain the facade of a functioning modern state by giving the appearance that the state is capable of fulfilling its implied responsibilities of control and order. The formation of a strong
2487:
Anthony Vinci makes a strong argument that "fungible concept of power and the primary motivation of survival provide superior explanations of armed group motivation and, more broadly, the conduct of internal conflicts".
3198:, in which there is two-sided foreign intervention, including by a superpower (actually, two superpowers in the case of Angola), would be 538% longer on average than a civil war without any international intervention.
4101:
2668:
greatly increased the frequency of civil wars but not interstate wars. Gleditsch et al. did not find a relationship between ethnic groups with polygyny and increased frequency of civil wars but nations having legal
3422:
2358:(d) That the dispute has been admitted to the agenda of the Security Council or the General Assembly of the United Nations as being a threat to international peace, a breach of the peace, or an act of aggression.
3123:
territorial annexation became increasingly likely to prompt international condemnation, diplomatic censure, a reduction in international aid or the introduction of economic sanction, or, as in the case of 1990
3540:
2707:, despite individually facing both high risks and virtually no foreseeable gains. Wood also attributes participation in the civil war to the value that insurgents assigned to changing social relations in
2521:
3241:
would superimpose Cold War ideology onto local conflicts, while in others local actors using Cold War ideology would attract the attention of a superpower to obtain support. A notable example is the
2500:
Such research finds that civil wars happen because the state is weak; both authoritarian and democratic states can be stable if they have the financial and military capacity to put down rebellions.
3113:
sovereignty or control of their own territory, including the privileges of international diplomatic recognition and an equal vote in the United Nations. Further, the international community offers
2262:, a dataset widely used by scholars of conflict, classifies civil wars as having over 1000 war-related casualties per year of conflict. This rate is a small fraction of the millions killed in the
3018:
was an entirely different process of state formation. Most imperial powers had not foreseen a need to prepare their colonies for independence; for example, Britain had given limited self-rule to
2632:
and the probability of civil war outbreak, relative deprivation may actually be a more pertinent possible cause. Historically, higher inequality levels led to higher civil war probability. Since
2603:
The various factors contributing to the risk of civil war rise increase with population size. The risk of a civil war rises approximately proportionately with the size of a country's population.
2615:
and civil war, but the causality (which causes the other) is unclear. Some studies have found that in regions with lower income per capita, the likelihood of civil war is greater. Economists
2420:
to see the effect of various factors. The factors that were shown to have a statistically significant effect on the chance that a civil war would occur in any given five-year period were:
2345:(2) That the legal Government is obliged to have recourse to the regular military forces against insurgents organized as military and in possession of a part of the national territory.
3632:
3176:, had always felt no compunction in intervening in civil wars that affected their interests, while distant regional powers such as the United States could declare the interventionist
2979:
structures, in particular those related to extraction of taxes, is closely associated with the intense warfare between predatory European states in the 17th and 18th centuries, or in
4073:
3679:
4091:
3826:, Anke Hoeffler and Nicholas Sambanis, "The Collier-Hoeffler Model of Civil War Onset and the Case Study Project Research Design," in Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 13
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on Third 1949 Geneva Convention, Article III, Section "A. Cases of armed conflict" for the ICRC's reading of the definition and a listing of proposed alternative wording
66:
4889:
3497:
2554:(recurring civil war conflicts) due to the lack of strong political and legal institutions that motivate bargaining, settle disputes, and enforce peace settlements.
2513:
2431:, has a 22% risk of falling into civil war in a given five-year period, while a country with no primary commodity exports has a 1% risk. When disaggregated, only
3869:
3703:
3528:
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growth by about 2%. It also has a regional effect, reducing the GDP growth of neighboring countries. Civil wars also have the potential to lock the country in a
3006:
An American Cadillac Gage Light Armored Reconnaissance Vehicle and Italian Fiat-OTO Melara Type 6614 Armored Personnel Carrier guard an intersection during the
2704:
2283:
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did not have sovereign status, but had significant political and economic independence coupled with weak federal control, reducing the incentive to secede.
4465:
2962:
was a result of the tripling of the average duration of civil wars to over four years. This increase was a result of the increased number of states, the
157:
4584:
3736:
2306:
1081:
4485:
Baten, Joerg; Mumme, Christina (2011). "Does Inequality Lead to Civil Wars? A global long-term study using anthropometric indicators (1816-1999)".
3164:
There has been an enormous amount of international intervention in civil wars since 1945 that some have argued served to extend wars. According to
2886:(1861–1865) was unusual for at least two reasons: it was fought around regional identities as well as political ideologies, and it ended through a
1508:
2454:
Low per capita income has also been proposed as a cause for grievance, prompting armed rebellion. However, for this to be true, one would expect
2258:
scientists define a civil war as having more than 1,000 casualties, while others further specify that at least 100 must come from each side. The
5157:
5128:
2365:(b) That the insurgent civil authority exercises de facto authority over the population within a determinate portion of the national territory.
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offer terrain where rebels can seek sanctuary. Rough terrain was highlighted as one of the more important factors in a 2006 systematic review.
4007:
Anthony Vinci. "Greed-Grievance Reconsidered: The Role of Power and Survival in the Motivation of Armed Groups." Civil Wars "8(1)" (2007): 35.
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has argued that an important cause of intergroup conflict may be the relative availability of women of reproductive age. He found that
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sovereignty changed in the wake of World War II in ways that support and maintain the existence of weak states. Weak states are given
2059:
1837:
452:
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4912:
4865:
4646:
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1513:
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in national exports significantly increases the risk of a conflict. A country at "peak danger", with commodities comprising 32% of
2368:(c) That the armed forces act under the direction of an organized authority and are prepared to observe the ordinary laws of war.
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1591:
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1936:
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206:
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1700:
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114:
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Christina Bodea. "Riots, coups and civil war : revisiting the greed and grievance debate." Policy Research 1 (2007).
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Civil wars often have severe economic consequences: two studies estimate that each year of civil war reduces a country's
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to also be a significant factor in rebellions, which it is not. The study therefore concluded that the economic model of
3343:
2497:
also favors rebel recruitment—political instability, rough terrain, and large populations" make civil wars more likely.
2355:(c) That it has accorded the insurgents recognition as belligerents for the purposes only of the present Convention; or
2054:
518:
4982:
3866:
2983:'s famous formulation: "War made the state and the state made war". For example, the formation of the modern states of
3700:
3355:
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were associated with fewer civil wars and that legal polygamy had no effect after women's rights were controlled for.
2064:
1251:
1053:
924:
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attributes this shift to changes in information technology, especially the advent of the Web 2.0 in the early 2000s.
3061:. The "strong"-"weak" categorization is not the same as "Western"-"non-Western", as some Latin American states like
4936:
Dube, Vargas (2015). "Bases, Bullets and Ballots; The Effect of US-Military Aid on Political Conflict in Colombia".
4278:
Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, and James Robinson. 2005. "Institutions as a fundamental cause of long-run growth".
2516:, have criticized the data used by Fearon and Laitin to determine ethnic and religious diversity. In his 2007 paper
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3089:
1528:
31:
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with the expectation of immediately meeting the demands of a modern state. Such states are considered "weak" or "
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are examples of nations that were considered to have had promising futures before being engulfed in civil wars.
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2529:
2089:
1956:
1503:
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862:
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According to a 2017 review study of civil war research, there are three prominent explanations for civil war:
5312:
3245:(1946–1949), which erupted shortly after the end of World War II. This conflict saw the communist-dominated
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2579:
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804:
467:
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2813:
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offers yet another rationale for why civilians rebel and/or support civil war. Through her studies of the
2428:
2401:
1909:
1884:
1606:
1518:
1391:
1266:
867:
844:
290:
189:
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as little more than a trading post, while all major decisions for French colonies were made in Paris and
5538:
4067:
2951:
2915:
2793:– their nominal state government – to gain recognition of their sovereignty. Conversely, states such as
1498:
1431:
1384:
1038:
1001:
964:
882:
834:
718:
528:
336:
245:
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98:
4367:"Complicit States and the Governing Strategy of Privilege Violence: When Weakness is Not the Problem"
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3287:
3283:
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839:
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196:
103:
4983:"Autonomous Recovery and International Intervention in Comparative Perspective, CGDEV Working Paper"
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4034:
2362:(4) (a) That the insurgents have an organization purporting to have the characteristics of a State.
5533:
5068:"The Consequences of Contention: Understanding the Aftereffects of Political Conflict and Violence"
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3274:
2770:, and ended quickly once the military sided with the government at Versailles and conquered Paris.
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2417:
2333:
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1401:
1311:
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1026:
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states because of their military power. The Barbary pirates thus had no need to rebel against the
2719:
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5267:
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4532:
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3671:
3454:
3338:
3215:
3124:
3093:
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2883:
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in the 18th and 19th centuries, which further reduced the number of civil wars. For example, the
2509:
2405:
2310:
2298:
2235:
2074:
1929:
1849:
1770:
1715:
1690:
1611:
1557:
1523:
1454:
1371:
1281:
1186:
1131:
1021:
986:
939:
814:
785:
738:
676:
651:
485:
299:
218:
35:
5397:
4398:
Djankov, Simeon; Reynal-Querol, Marta (2010). "Poverty and Civil War: Revisiting the Evidence".
4254:
3989:
David Keen. "Complex Emergencies: David Keen Responds" African Arguments: Royal African Society.
2882:
There were several exceptions from the general rule of quick civil wars during this period. The
5469:"A Review of Recent Advances and Future Directions in the Quantitative Literature on Civil War"
2371:(d) That the insurgent civil authority agrees to be bound by the provisions of the Convention.
2198:. Since 1945, civil wars have resulted in the deaths of over 25 million people, as well as the
5352:
5336:
5213:
Licklider, Roy (1995). "The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945–1993".
5163:
5142:
4918:
4908:
4871:
4861:
4642:
4615:
4339:
4235:
4186:
4147:
3960:
3911:
3786:
3661:
3622:
3618:
3573:
3258:
3195:
3128:
3119:
2991:
in the 19th century is closely associated with the wars of expansion and consolidation led by
2946:
2891:
2887:
2836:
2754:
2684:
2678:
2587:
2563:
2447:
2259:
2187:
2110:
2019:
1966:
1869:
1859:
1854:
1824:
1807:
1802:
1775:
1720:
1421:
1411:
1406:
1396:
1316:
1306:
1301:
1276:
1246:
1136:
1106:
1101:
1091:
1086:
1076:
991:
944:
914:
753:
546:
523:
457:
123:
107:
3570:
Neverending Wars: The International Community, Weak States, and the Perpetuation of Civil War
5480:
5418:
5288:
5259:
5222:
5186:
5134:
5079:
5046:
4955:
4576:
4524:
4512:
4494:
4449:
4407:
4378:
4331:
4225:
4217:
4178:
4139:
4039:
3952:
3903:
3778:
3763:
3653:
3614:
3444:
3436:
3165:
3007:
2911:
2903:
2828:
2821:
2750:
2661:
2583:
2459:
2329:
2275:
2199:
2168:
2161:
2084:
2049:
1981:
1874:
1812:
1705:
1633:
1626:
1483:
1416:
1366:
1356:
1231:
1151:
1111:
1096:
1063:
1048:
919:
904:
857:
765:
723:
666:
661:
619:
442:
419:
326:
255:
184:
167:
5513:
3938:
3080:
5384:
5333:
The Geography of Ethnic Violence: Identity, Interests, and the Indivisibility of Territory
5311:(2011). internal insurrections in Russia, Spain, Greece, Yugoslavia, and other countries;
5084:
5067:
5051:
5034:
4383:
4366:
4299:
3873:
3746:
3739:
3707:
3506:
3501:
3328:
3262:
3242:
3177:
3151:
in 2003 passes the hulk of an LTTE supply ship that had been sunk by government aircraft,
3114:
2864:
2745:
2691:
2254:
2186:, that is sustained, organized and large-scale. Civil wars may result in large numbers of
2139:
1894:
1879:
1797:
1753:
1695:
1351:
1346:
1236:
1226:
1141:
1116:
1058:
899:
829:
819:
758:
671:
656:
579:
551:
351:
331:
179:
5162:. Vol. 2: Europe, Central Asia, and Other Regions. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
3406:
Higgins, Noelle (2019). "The Geneva Conventions and Non-International Armed Conflicts".
5138:
3440:
3077:
are considered to have "strong" administrative structures and economic infrastructure.
3015:
2975:
2890:, rather than with a decisive battle over control of the capital, as was the norm. The
2860:
2808:
2790:
2778:
2616:
2250:
2079:
2069:
1817:
1241:
1201:
1179:
1166:
1156:
1126:
1043:
996:
799:
790:
681:
634:
614:
604:
574:
541:
429:
386:
341:
213:
146:
78:
42:
5377:
5066:
Davenport, Christian; Mokleiv NygĂĄrd, HĂĄvard; Fjelde, Hanne; Armstrong, David (2019).
2404:. Roughly stated: are conflicts caused by differences of ethnicity, religion or other
2400:
Scholars investigating the cause of civil war are attracted by two opposing theories,
2156:
5527:
5494:
5300:
5271:
5242:
5198:
4967:
4351:
3939:"The inequality–conflict nexus re-examined: Income, education and popular rebellions"
3798:
3316:
3266:
3194:
states was a superpower, a civil war is a further 72% longer; a conflict such as the
3058:
2980:
2963:
2802:
2798:
2782:
2763:
2734:
2551:
2146:). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve
1916:
1904:
1760:
1680:
1596:
1579:
1436:
1291:
1271:
954:
949:
929:
909:
824:
795:
770:
646:
624:
609:
584:
424:
346:
309:
304:
201:
4419:
3675:
3458:
3206:
2387:
which center on conflict as a response to socioeconomic or political injustice, and
2349:(3) (a) That the de jure Government has recognized the insurgents as belligerents;
2226:
5438:
5124:
4536:
4498:
4461:
4059:
4020:
Fearon, James D.; Laitin, David D. (2003). "Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War".
3823:
3490:
3254:
3173:
2959:
2919:
2899:
2729:
2647:
2287:
2271:
2242:
2183:
2176:
2147:
2103:
2029:
2009:
2004:
1899:
1844:
1478:
1473:
1296:
1211:
959:
693:
594:
391:
295:
2575:
4989:
4636:
4609:
4322:
Walter, Barbara F. (2015-10-01). "Why Bad Governance Leads to Repeat Civil War".
4204:
CEDERMAN, LARS-ERIK; WEIDMANN, NILS B.; GLEDITSCH, KRISTIAN SKREDE (2011-07-11).
5434:
5292:
5263:
5177:
Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2001). ""New" and "Old" Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction?".
4435:"Does poverty cause conflict? Isolating the causal origins of the conflict trap"
3383:
3278:
3227:
3211:
2852:
2774:
2708:
2633:
2325:
2014:
1765:
1730:
1569:
1256:
1221:
934:
877:
780:
564:
285:
280:
4230:
4205:
17:
5250:
Mack, Andrew (2002). "Civil War: Academic Research and the Policy Community".
4580:
4528:
4221:
4166:
4143:
4043:
3923:
3891:
3333:
3250:
3238:
3132:
2844:
2817:
2412:
1971:
1941:
1663:
1032:
119:
4922:
4875:
4453:
4343:
4335:
4239:
4206:"Horizontal Inequalities and Ethnonationalist Civil War: A Global Comparison"
4190:
4182:
4151:
3964:
3956:
3915:
3790:
3782:
3657:
5207:
The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation
3529:"Civil Wars and Foreign Powers: Outside Intervention in Intrastate Conflict"
3510:, March/April 2007. For further discussion on civil war classification, see
3148:
3062:
3023:
2966:
formed after 1945, the decline in interstate war, and the Cold War rivalry.
2927:
2848:
2432:
2424:
2167:
Most modern civil wars involve intervention by outside powers. According to
1961:
1785:
1735:
1685:
1675:
1670:
1535:
1326:
1321:
1286:
728:
414:
381:
270:
5485:
5468:
4128:"Beyond Fractionalization: Mapping Ethnicity onto Nationalist Insurgencies"
2175:(2000) about two thirds of the 138 intrastate conflicts between the end of
5319:
Civil Wars and Foreign Powers: Outside Intervention in Intrastate Conflict
4552:"Polygyny or Misogyny? Reexamining the "First Law of Intergroup Conflict""
5517:
5190:
4411:
4293:
Fostering Peace after Civil War: Commitment Problems and Agreement Design
3701:"A Matter of Definition: What Makes a Civil War, and Who Declares It So?"
3261:, which was backed by the United Kingdom and the United States under the
3223:
3109:
3049:
3040:
2794:
2674:
2670:
2665:
2518:
Beyond Fractionalization: Mapping Ethnicity onto Nationalist Insurgencies
2440:
2309:
has sought to provide some clarification through its commentaries on the
2270:, for example, but excludes several highly publicized conflicts, such as
2202:
of millions more. Civil wars have further resulted in economic collapse;
2195:
1976:
1951:
1584:
1216:
1191:
809:
364:
238:
4641:(Reprint. ed.). Cambridge : Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 17–20.
4292:
5422:
5234:
4614:(Reprint. ed.). Cambridge : Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 1–16.
4255:"Incidence, onset and duration of civil wars: A review of the evidence"
4051:
3103:
3085:
3031:
2992:
2984:
2868:
2655:
from diasporas offsets the depreciation of rebellion-specific capital.
2629:
2612:
2203:
2143:
1986:
1946:
1710:
1544:
1540:
887:
872:
748:
409:
404:
374:
313:
275:
5445:
4550:
Gleditsch, K. S.; Wucherpfennig, J.; Hug, S.; Reigstad, K. G. (2011).
3107:
sovereignty equal to that of other states, even when they do not have
2898:
sides in the struggle received support from intervening great powers:
2411:
A comprehensive study of civil war was carried out by a team from the
4858:
Does peacekeeping work? shaping belligerents' choices after civil war
3449:
3074:
3066:
3053:
3045:
2876:
2872:
2832:
2534:
Incidence, Onset and Duration of Civil Wars: A Review of the Evidence
2215:
2211:
2151:
1493:
894:
711:
447:
5226:
41:"Civil conflict" redirects here. For the college football game, see
4959:
4165:
Cederman, Lars-Erik; Buhaug, Halvard; Rød, Jan Ketil (2009-05-27).
3907:
3319:, where each conflict increases the likelihood of future conflict.
2352:(b) That it has claimed for itself the rights of a belligerent; or
3605:
Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2009). Boix, Carles; Stokes, Susan C (eds.).
3205:
3138:
3079:
3070:
3019:
3001:
2988:
2945:
2937:
2807:
2773:
The power of non-state actors resulted in a lower value placed on
2767:
2744:
2574:
2319:
2225:
2207:
969:
505:
500:
113:
97:
2677:
is a better explanation than polygyny. They found that increased
5279:
Mason, T. David; Fett, Patrick J. (1996). "How Civil Wars End".
4515:(2009). "Evolutionary Psychological Foundations of Civil Wars".
3096:(1975–1990) was characterized by multiple foreign interventions.
2628:
While there is a supposed negative correlation between absolute
2314:
2182:
A civil war is often a high-intensity conflict, often involving
265:
260:
5509:
Royal Air Force Doctrine – The Nature of War and Armed Conflict
4092:"Americans hate each other. But we aren't headed for civil war"
2383:
which center on individuals' desire to maximize their profits,
3312:
2150:
for a region, or to change government policies. The term is a
2135:
138:
49:
2528:
Michael Bleaney, Professor of International Economics at the
5367:
Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars
5118:
Breaking the Conflict Trap: civil war and development policy
5409:
Blattman, Christopher; Miguel, Edward (2010). "Civil War".
3867:
A CLASH OF GENERATIONS? YOUTH BULGES AND POLITICAL VIOLENCE
5453:
Stathis Kalyvas on 20 years of studying political violence
4433:
Braithwaite, Alex; Dasandi, Niheer; Hudson, David (2016).
122:
after a raid by German aircraft on 31 May 1938 during the
5326:
Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements
3572:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. p. 3.
3423:"Towards an Understanding of Contemporary Intrastate War"
2711:, an experience she defines as the "pleasure of agency".
5102:
Ali, Taisier Mohamed Ahmed and Robert O. Matthews, eds.
4638:
Insurgent collective action and civil war in El Salvador
4611:
Insurgent collective action and civil war in El Salvador
5372:
Elisabeth Jean Wood; "Civil Wars: What We Don't Know,"
74:
4126:
Cederman, Lars-Erik; Girardin, Luc (February 2007).
3522:
3520:
5111:
Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars
3273:times as long as other civil wars. Conversely, the
5335:(Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003).
2749:An artillery school set up by the anti-socialist "
4072:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
5156:Collier, Paul; Sambanis, Nicholas, eds. (2005).
4121:
4119:
3892:"Income Inequality and the Taste for Revolution"
3762:Cederman, Lars-Erik; Vogt, Manuel (2017-07-26).
2512:of the Center for Security Studies (CSS) at the
2475:Criticism of the "greed versus grievance" theory
5441:, 416–434. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
2942:Civil conflicts vs other conflicts 1946 to 2016
2698:, Wood finds that traditional explanations of
2522:ethno-linguistic fractionalization index (ELF)
2190:and the consumption of significant resources.
5159:Understanding Civil War:Evidence and Analysis
5130:Understanding Civil War:Evidence and Analysis
5028:
5026:
2111:
63:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
4888:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3408:Revisiting the Geneva Conventions: 1949-2019
3611:The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics
3563:
3561:
3559:
3557:
2673:may have more civil wars. They argued that
5349:How Civil Wars Start: And How to Stop Them
5104:Civil Wars in Africa: roots and resolution
4085:
4083:
3511:
2118:
2104:
128:
5484:
5451:Kalyvas, Stathis; Straus, Scott (2020). "
5396:Lars-Erik Cederman; Manuel Vogt (2017). "
5083:
5050:
4949:
4856:Page), Fortna, V. Page (Virginia (2008).
4570:
4382:
4365:Kleinfeld, Rachel; Barham, Elena (2018).
4229:
4033:
3652:. Cambridge University Press. p. 5.
3448:
2705:Farabundo MartĂ National Liberation Front
2446:Higher male secondary school enrollment,
2179:and 2000 saw international intervention.
2138:between organized groups within the same
5017:
5005:
4843:
4831:
4819:
4807:
4781:
4769:
4757:
4745:
4733:
4721:
4709:
4697:
4685:
4673:
4661:
3819:
3737:International Committee of the Red Cross
3592:
3486:
3484:
3482:
3480:
2307:International Committee of the Red Cross
1082:List of military strategies and concepts
5431:Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics
5429:Kalyvas Stathis N. 2007. "Civil Wars."
4167:"Ethno-Nationalist Dyads and Civil War"
3976:
3974:
3852:
3850:
3848:
3846:
3836:
3834:
3832:
3724:Diplomatic Conference of Geneva of 1949
3619:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199566020.003.0018
3398:
3367:
2894:(1936–1939) proved exceptional because
2504:Critical Responses to Fearon and Laitin
2439:A second source of finance is national
2160:which was used to refer to the various
136:
5205:David Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds.
4881:
4065:
2950:Members of ARDE Frente Sur during the
30:For specific wars and other uses, see
5446:Conflict: Trajectories and Challenges
5391:Review articles of civil war research
5085:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064057
5052:10.1146/annurev-polisci-060415-093921
4794:
4792:
4790:
4480:
4478:
4442:Conflict Management and Peace Science
4384:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041916-015628
4317:
4315:
4291:Mattes, M., & Savun, B. (2009). "
4022:The American Political Science Review
4015:
4013:
3757:
3755:
2514:Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
7:
4487:European Review of Political Economy
3980:Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 18
3856:Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 16
3840:Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 17
2741:In the 19th and early 20th centuries
5369:(Princeton University Press, 2002),
5209:(Princeton University Press, 1996).
5127:; Sambanis, Nicholas, eds. (2005).
3512:the section "Formal classification"
3465:from the original on 5 January 2017
5457:Violence: An International Journal
5072:Annual Review of Political Science
5039:Annual Review of Political Science
4400:Review of Economics and Statistics
4371:Annual Review of Political Science
4104:from the original on 19 April 2021
3896:The Journal of Law & Economics
3764:"Dynamics and Logics of Civil War"
3649:The Logic of Violence in Civil War
3441:10.1111/j.1477-7053.2007.00215_1.x
3421:Jackson, Richard (28 March 2014).
3350:The Logic of Violence in Civil War
3232:North Atlantic Treaty Organization
2317:in its commentary are as follows:
25:
5215:American Political Science Review
5109:Mats Berdal and David M. Malone,
5033:Walter, Barbara F. (2017-01-01).
4210:American Political Science Review
4132:American Political Science Review
3527:Ikenberry, G. John (2009-01-28).
2843:The two major global ideologies,
5398:Dynamics and Logics of Civil War
4981:Weinstein, Jeremy (April 2005).
4471:from the original on 2020-03-10.
3937:BartuseviÄŤius, Henrikas (2014).
3808:from the original on 2018-07-23.
3635:from the original on 2012-12-31.
3376:non-international armed conflict
2532:, published a 2009 paper titled
2162:civil wars of the Roman Republic
156:
54:
5324:Stephen John and others., eds.
4590:from the original on 2017-09-21
4304:International Studies Quarterly
4090:Richard Hanania (29 Oct 2020).
3682:from the original on 2021-11-09
3543:from the original on 2021-03-08
3160:Interventions by outside powers
3069:and Middle Eastern states like
2611:There is a correlation between
2462:better explained the findings.
5411:Journal of Economic Literature
5403:Journal of Conflict Resolution
5309:Civil War in Europe, 1905–1949
5281:Journal of Conflict Resolution
4860:. Princeton University Press.
4499:10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2013.06.007
4324:Journal of Conflict Resolution
4171:Journal of Conflict Resolution
3771:Journal of Conflict Resolution
2389:opportunity-based explanations
1:
5444:Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2024). "
5120:World Bank (2003) – 320 pages
4907:. National Geographic Books.
4635:Wood, Elisabeth Jean (2003).
4608:Wood, Elisabeth Jean (2003).
3185:Effectiveness of intervention
3170:Civil Wars and Foreign Powers
2423:A high proportion of primary
2245:, a scholar of civil wars at
2173:Civil Wars and Foreign Powers
77:and discuss the issue on the
3646:Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2006).
3378:(NIAC) and also known as an
3344:List of wars of independence
2910:supported opposition leader
2766:occurred almost entirely in
2385:grievance-based explanations
5473:Defence and Peace Economics
5467:Sambanis, Nicholas (2002).
5293:10.1177/0022002796040004002
5264:10.1177/0022343302039005001
4280:Handbook of Economic Growth
3890:MacCulloch, Robert (2005).
3880:Retrieved 28 December 2012.
3356:Wars of national liberation
3210:Fall and demolition of the
3084:A checkpoint manned by the
2520:, Cederman argues that the
1575:Military–industrial complex
1054:Operational manoeuvre group
118:The destruction wrought on
5555:
5347:Barbara F. Walter (2022).
3410:. Brill. pp. 168–189.
3277:marked by the fall of the
3143:A fast attack boat of the
40:
32:Civil War (disambiguation)
29:
5514:"What makes a civil war?"
5252:Journal of Peace Research
4581:10.1017/S0022381610001003
4529:10.1017/S0022381608090026
4253:Bleaney, Michael (2009).
4222:10.1017/s0003055411000207
4144:10.1017/S0003055407070086
4044:10.1017/S0003055403000534
3944:Journal of Peace Research
3428:Government and Opposition
3247:Democratic Army of Greece
2659:Evolutionary psychologist
2280:African National Congress
2264:Second Sudanese Civil War
1639:Loss-of-strength gradient
496:Combat information center
5035:"The New New Civil Wars"
4454:10.1177/0738894214559673
4336:10.1177/0022002714528006
4183:10.1177/0022002709336455
3957:10.1177/0022343313503179
3783:10.1177/0022002717721385
3658:10.1017/cbo9780511818462
2803:United States of America
2530:University of Nottingham
2381:greed-based explanations
2324:Tanks in the streets of
2278:and the struggle of the
1957:Military science fiction
1442:Technology and equipment
863:List of military tactics
5133:. Vol. 1: Africa.
4938:The Journal of Politics
4903:Gerald., Knaus (2012).
4559:The Journal of Politics
4517:The Journal of Politics
4046:(inactive 2024-09-20).
3777:(9): 0022002717721385.
3726:, (Volume II-B, p. 121)
2831:'s Nationalists, bombs
2508:Some scholars, such as
2332:the capital during the
2164:in the 1st century BC.
2025:Wartime sexual violence
1781:Full-spectrum dominance
1592:Supply-chain management
5486:10.1080/10242690210976
5113:(Lynne Rienner, 2000).
4905:Can intervention work?
4748:, pp. 7 & 23.
3568:Hironaka, Ann (2005).
3219:
3202:Effect of the Cold War
3156:
3097:
3011:
2954:
2943:
2840:
2818:smaller fighter planes
2758:
2591:
2429:gross domestic product
2402:greed versus grievance
2337:
2239:
1937:Awards and decorations
1910:Peace through strength
1885:Low-intensity conflict
1519:Conscientious objector
1392:Area of responsibility
126:
111:
5376:Vol. 9, 2003 pp 247+
4262:CREDIT Research Paper
3822:, pp. 9–10, and
3209:
3142:
3083:
3005:
2952:Nicaraguan Revolution
2949:
2941:
2855:(defined in the 1815
2811:
2748:
2578:
2323:
2229:
2222:Formal classification
529:Torpedo data computer
519:Ship gun fire-control
117:
101:
5191:10.1353/wp.2001.0022
4798:Hironaka, 2005, p. 6
4412:10.1162/REST_a_00046
3722:Final Record of the
3613:. pp. 416–434.
3595:, pp. 1–2, 4–5.
3539:(July/August 2000).
3153:Sri Lankan Civil War
2715:Duration and effects
2696:Salvadoran Civil War
2582:soldiers during the
2562:Political scientist
2232:Battle of Gettysburg
2184:regular armed forces
2055:Military occupations
1890:Military engineering
1792:Unrestricted Warfare
1649:Force multiplication
547:Military manoeuvrers
75:improve this article
65:may not represent a
27:War within a country
5365:Barbara F. Walter,
5331:Monica Duffy Toft,
5307:Stanley G. Payne,
4231:20.500.11850/160115
4097:The Washington Post
3713:. November 26, 2006
3275:end of the Cold War
3014:In sharp contrast,
2964:fragility of states
2825:Legionary Air Force
2785:were recognized as
2700:greed and grievance
2545:Bargaining problems
2456:economic inequality
2418:regression analysis
2334:Ethiopian Civil War
2268:Cambodian Civil War
2247:Stanford University
2200:forced displacement
1741:Penal military unit
1726:Rules of engagement
1402:Command and control
1027:Operations research
491:Director (military)
481:Fire-control system
251:Command and control
132:Part of a series on
5448:". World Politics.
5423:10.1257/jel.48.1.3
5383:2012-06-28 at the
5374:Global Governance,
5317:Patrick M. Regan.
4736:, pp. 1, 4–5.
4298:2018-09-08 at the
3872:2017-07-03 at the
3818:See, for example,
3745:2016-03-22 at the
3706:2021-05-23 at the
3500:2007-03-17 at the
3495:"Iraq's Civil War"
3339:List of civil wars
3220:
3216:Checkpoint Charlie
3157:
3125:invasion of Kuwait
3098:
3094:Lebanese Civil War
3028:British Somaliland
3012:
2955:
2944:
2884:American Civil War
2857:Congress of Vienna
2841:
2759:
2592:
2571:Military advantage
2510:Lars-Erik Cederman
2406:social affiliation
2338:
2311:Geneva Conventions
2305:Nevertheless, the
2299:Geneva Conventions
2240:
2236:American Civil War
1850:Counter-insurgency
1771:Command of the sea
1716:Jewish laws on war
1691:Geneva Conventions
1227:Divide and conquer
1022:Military operation
987:Tactical objective
486:Fire-control radar
463:Electronic-warfare
127:
112:
36:List of civil wars
5328:(2002), 729 pages
5169:978-0-8213-6049-1
5148:978-0-8213-6047-7
5106:(1999), 322 pages
5020:, pp. 48–50.
5008:, pp. 50–51.
4846:, pp. 37–40.
4810:, pp. 59–61.
4688:, pp. 28–29.
3667:978-0-521-85409-2
3374:Legally known as
3259:Kingdom of Greece
3196:Angolan Civil War
3120:international law
3026:, while treating
2997:Sardinia-Piedmont
2892:Spanish Civil War
2837:Spanish Civil War
2755:Finnish Civil War
2685:Political scholar
2588:Chinese Civil War
2564:Barbara F. Walter
2448:per capita income
2260:Correlates of War
2230:Aftermath of the
2128:
2127:
2020:Horses in warfare
1967:Anti-war movement
1870:Gunboat diplomacy
1860:Disaster response
1808:Philosophy of war
1803:Principles of war
1776:Deterrence theory
1721:Right of conquest
1644:Lanchester's laws
1412:Principles of war
1102:Counter-offensive
1087:Military campaign
992:Target saturation
915:Counterinsurgency
524:Gun data computer
458:Close air support
420:Aircraft carriers
124:Spanish Civil War
108:Finnish Civil War
96:
95:
16:(Redirected from
5546:
5498:
5488:
5426:
5362:
5321:(2000) 172 pages
5304:
5275:
5246:
5202:
5173:
5152:
5135:Washington, D.C.
5090:
5089:
5087:
5063:
5057:
5056:
5054:
5030:
5021:
5015:
5009:
5003:
4997:
4996:
4994:
4988:. Archived from
4987:
4978:
4972:
4971:
4953:
4933:
4927:
4926:
4900:
4894:
4893:
4887:
4879:
4853:
4847:
4841:
4835:
4829:
4823:
4817:
4811:
4805:
4799:
4796:
4785:
4779:
4773:
4767:
4761:
4755:
4749:
4743:
4737:
4731:
4725:
4719:
4713:
4707:
4701:
4695:
4689:
4683:
4677:
4671:
4665:
4659:
4653:
4652:
4632:
4626:
4625:
4605:
4599:
4598:
4596:
4595:
4589:
4574:
4556:
4547:
4541:
4540:
4513:Satoshi Kanazawa
4509:
4503:
4502:
4482:
4473:
4472:
4470:
4439:
4430:
4424:
4423:
4406:(4): 1035–1041.
4395:
4389:
4388:
4386:
4362:
4356:
4355:
4330:(7): 1242–1272.
4319:
4310:
4289:
4283:
4276:
4270:
4269:
4259:
4250:
4244:
4243:
4233:
4201:
4195:
4194:
4162:
4156:
4155:
4123:
4114:
4113:
4111:
4109:
4087:
4078:
4077:
4071:
4063:
4037:
4017:
4008:
4005:
3999:
3996:
3990:
3987:
3981:
3978:
3969:
3968:
3934:
3928:
3927:
3887:
3881:
3863:
3857:
3854:
3841:
3838:
3827:
3816:
3810:
3809:
3807:
3768:
3759:
3750:
3733:
3727:
3720:
3714:
3697:
3691:
3690:
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3488:
3475:
3474:
3472:
3470:
3452:
3418:
3412:
3411:
3403:
3386:
3372:
3290:(1979–1991) and
3166:Patrick M. Regan
3008:Somali Civil War
2912:Francisco Franco
2888:war of attrition
2865:Habsburg Austria
2829:Francisco Franco
2725:Neverending Wars
2662:Satoshi Kanazawa
2584:Battle of Siping
2460:opportunity cost
2276:Northern Ireland
2169:Patrick M. Regan
2120:
2113:
2106:
1875:Humanitarian aid
1813:Security dilemma
1634:Power projection
1417:Economy of force
1397:Chain of command
1112:Defence in depth
1097:Commerce raiding
920:Defeat in detail
256:Defense ministry
160:
151:
150:
141:
129:
91:
88:
82:
58:
57:
50:
21:
5554:
5553:
5549:
5548:
5547:
5545:
5544:
5543:
5524:
5523:
5520:, 20 April 2006
5505:
5466:
5439:Stokes Susan C.
5408:
5393:
5385:Wayback Machine
5359:
5346:
5278:
5249:
5227:10.2307/2082982
5212:
5176:
5170:
5155:
5149:
5123:
5099:
5097:Further reading
5094:
5093:
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5032:
5031:
5024:
5016:
5012:
5004:
5000:
4992:
4985:
4980:
4979:
4975:
4951:10.1.1.622.2394
4935:
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4930:
4915:
4902:
4901:
4897:
4880:
4868:
4855:
4854:
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4593:
4591:
4587:
4572:10.1.1.518.5482
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4300:Wayback Machine
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4081:
4064:
4035:10.1.1.453.3913
4019:
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4002:
3997:
3993:
3988:
3984:
3979:
3972:
3936:
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3889:
3888:
3884:
3874:Wayback Machine
3865:Henrik Urdal –
3864:
3860:
3855:
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3817:
3813:
3805:
3766:
3761:
3760:
3753:
3747:Wayback Machine
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3708:Wayback Machine
3698:
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3603:
3599:
3591:
3587:
3580:
3567:
3566:
3555:
3546:
3544:
3533:Foreign Affairs
3526:
3525:
3518:
3507:Foreign Affairs
3502:Wayback Machine
3489:
3478:
3468:
3466:
3420:
3419:
3415:
3405:
3404:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3389:
3373:
3369:
3364:
3329:Frozen conflict
3325:
3309:
3300:
3263:Truman Doctrine
3257:, opposing the
3249:, supported by
3243:Greek Civil War
3237:In some cases,
3204:
3187:
3178:Monroe Doctrine
3162:
3115:development aid
2936:
2816:, supported by
2743:
2717:
2692:Yale University
2643:
2626:
2609:
2601:
2599:Population size
2573:
2560:
2547:
2542:
2506:
2494:
2477:
2468:
2398:
2377:
2361:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2255:Stathis Kalyvas
2224:
2124:
2095:
2094:
2045:
2035:
2034:
2000:
1992:
1991:
1932:
1922:
1921:
1895:Multilateralism
1880:Law enforcement
1840:
1830:
1829:
1798:Just war theory
1756:
1746:
1745:
1696:Geneva Protocol
1666:
1656:
1655:
1629:
1619:
1618:
1560:
1550:
1549:
1457:
1447:
1446:
1387:
1377:
1376:
1342:
1332:
1331:
1262:Network-centric
1182:
1172:
1171:
1079:
1069:
1068:
1017:
1007:
1006:
955:Rapid dominance
860:
850:
849:
805:Electromagnetic
714:
704:
703:
690:
643:
591:
567:
557:
556:
552:Combat training
533:
510:
476:Combat systems:
472:
434:
430:Auxiliary ships
396:
356:
352:Military police
318:
241:
231:
230:
170:
144:
143:
142:
137:
102:Members of the
92:
86:
83:
72:
59:
55:
46:
39:
28:
23:
22:
18:Internecine war
15:
12:
11:
5:
5552:
5550:
5542:
5541:
5536:
5526:
5525:
5522:
5521:
5511:
5504:
5503:External links
5501:
5500:
5499:
5479:(3): 215–243.
5464:
5449:
5442:
5427:
5406:
5392:
5389:
5388:
5387:
5378:online version
5370:
5363:
5358:978-0593137789
5357:
5344:
5329:
5322:
5315:
5305:
5287:(4): 546–568.
5276:
5258:(5): 515–525.
5247:
5221:(3): 681–690.
5210:
5203:
5179:World Politics
5174:
5168:
5153:
5147:
5139:The World Bank
5121:
5116:Paul Collier,
5114:
5107:
5098:
5095:
5092:
5091:
5058:
5045:(1): 469–486.
5022:
5010:
4998:
4995:on 2012-05-28.
4973:
4960:10.1086/679021
4944:(1): 249–267.
4928:
4913:
4895:
4866:
4848:
4836:
4824:
4812:
4800:
4786:
4774:
4762:
4760:, pp. 36.
4750:
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4390:
4357:
4311:
4284:
4271:
4245:
4216:(3): 478–495.
4196:
4177:(4): 496–525.
4157:
4138:(1): 173–185.
4115:
4079:
4009:
4000:
3991:
3982:
3970:
3929:
3924:10.1086/426881
3908:10.1086/426881
3882:
3858:
3842:
3828:
3811:
3751:
3728:
3715:
3711:New York Times
3692:
3666:
3638:
3628:978-0199566020
3627:
3597:
3585:
3578:
3553:
3516:
3476:
3435:(1): 121–128.
3413:
3397:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3388:
3387:
3380:intrastate war
3366:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3359:
3358:
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3324:
3321:
3308:
3305:
3299:
3296:
3203:
3200:
3186:
3183:
3161:
3158:
3016:decolonization
2976:United Nations
2935:
2932:
2924:the government
2861:United Kingdom
2791:Ottoman Empire
2742:
2739:
2735:fragile states
2716:
2713:
2688:Elisabeth Wood
2679:women's rights
2642:
2639:
2630:welfare levels
2625:
2622:
2617:Simeon Djankov
2608:
2605:
2600:
2597:
2572:
2569:
2559:
2556:
2552:conflict traps
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2100:
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2060:Military terms
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1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1841:
1836:
1835:
1832:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1822:
1821:
1820:
1818:Tripwire force
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1757:
1752:
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1471:
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1419:
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1404:
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1383:
1382:
1379:
1378:
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1369:
1364:
1359:
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1343:
1340:Administrative
1338:
1337:
1334:
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1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1267:New generation
1264:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1242:Fleet in being
1239:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1183:
1180:Grand strategy
1178:
1177:
1174:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1167:Scorched earth
1164:
1159:
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1080:
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1046:
1044:Deep operation
1041:
1036:
1029:
1024:
1018:
1013:
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1008:
1005:
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999:
994:
989:
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897:
892:
891:
890:
885:
880:
870:
861:
856:
855:
852:
851:
848:
847:
845:Unconventional
842:
837:
832:
827:
822:
817:
812:
807:
802:
793:
791:Disinformation
788:
783:
778:
773:
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762:
761:
756:
746:
741:
736:
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721:
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696:
689:
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686:
685:
684:
674:
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659:
654:
642:
641:
640:
639:
638:
637:
627:
622:
617:
612:
607:
602:
590:
589:
588:
587:
582:
577:
568:
563:
562:
559:
558:
555:
554:
549:
544:
542:Basic training
539:
532:
531:
526:
521:
516:
509:
508:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
478:
471:
470:
468:Reconnaissance
465:
460:
455:
450:
445:
440:
433:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
395:
394:
389:
387:Special forces
384:
379:
378:
377:
367:
362:
355:
354:
349:
344:
342:Reconnaissance
339:
334:
329:
324:
317:
316:
307:
302:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
248:
242:
237:
236:
233:
232:
229:
228:
227:
226:
221:
211:
210:
209:
204:
194:
193:
192:
185:Post-classical
182:
177:
171:
166:
165:
162:
161:
153:
152:
134:
133:
94:
93:
69:of the subject
62:
60:
53:
43:Civil Conflict
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5551:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5532:
5531:
5529:
5519:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5506:
5502:
5496:
5492:
5487:
5482:
5478:
5474:
5470:
5465:
5463:(2): 389–407.
5462:
5458:
5454:
5450:
5447:
5443:
5440:
5436:
5432:
5428:
5424:
5420:
5416:
5412:
5407:
5405:
5404:
5399:
5395:
5394:
5390:
5386:
5382:
5379:
5375:
5371:
5368:
5364:
5360:
5354:
5350:
5345:
5342:
5341:0-691-12383-7
5338:
5334:
5330:
5327:
5323:
5320:
5316:
5314:
5310:
5306:
5302:
5298:
5294:
5290:
5286:
5282:
5277:
5273:
5269:
5265:
5261:
5257:
5253:
5248:
5244:
5240:
5236:
5232:
5228:
5224:
5220:
5216:
5211:
5208:
5204:
5200:
5196:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5175:
5171:
5165:
5161:
5160:
5154:
5150:
5144:
5140:
5136:
5132:
5131:
5126:
5125:Collier, Paul
5122:
5119:
5115:
5112:
5108:
5105:
5101:
5100:
5096:
5086:
5081:
5077:
5073:
5069:
5062:
5059:
5053:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5029:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5018:Hironaka 2005
5014:
5011:
5007:
5006:Hironaka 2005
5002:
4999:
4991:
4984:
4977:
4974:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4932:
4929:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4914:9780393342246
4910:
4906:
4899:
4896:
4891:
4885:
4877:
4873:
4869:
4867:9780691136714
4863:
4859:
4852:
4849:
4845:
4844:Hironaka 2005
4840:
4837:
4834:, p. 16.
4833:
4832:Hironaka 2005
4828:
4825:
4822:, p. 56.
4821:
4820:Hironaka 2005
4816:
4813:
4809:
4808:Hironaka 2005
4804:
4801:
4795:
4793:
4791:
4787:
4784:, p. 54.
4783:
4782:Hironaka 2005
4778:
4775:
4772:, p. 40.
4771:
4770:Hironaka 2005
4766:
4763:
4759:
4758:Hironaka 2005
4754:
4751:
4747:
4746:Hironaka 2005
4742:
4739:
4735:
4734:Hironaka 2005
4730:
4727:
4724:, p. 31.
4723:
4722:Hironaka 2005
4718:
4715:
4712:, p. 30.
4711:
4710:Hironaka 2005
4706:
4703:
4700:, p. 29.
4699:
4698:Hironaka 2005
4694:
4691:
4687:
4686:Hironaka 2005
4682:
4679:
4675:
4674:Hironaka 2005
4670:
4667:
4664:, p. 28.
4663:
4662:Hironaka 2005
4658:
4655:
4650:
4648:9780521010504
4644:
4640:
4639:
4631:
4628:
4623:
4621:9780521010504
4617:
4613:
4612:
4604:
4601:
4586:
4582:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4553:
4546:
4543:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4508:
4505:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4481:
4479:
4475:
4467:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4436:
4429:
4426:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4394:
4391:
4385:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4361:
4358:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4318:
4316:
4312:
4309:(3), 737–759.
4308:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4294:
4288:
4285:
4281:
4275:
4272:
4267:
4263:
4256:
4249:
4246:
4241:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4200:
4197:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4161:
4158:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4122:
4120:
4116:
4103:
4099:
4098:
4093:
4086:
4084:
4080:
4075:
4069:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4016:
4014:
4010:
4004:
4001:
3995:
3992:
3986:
3983:
3977:
3975:
3971:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3945:
3940:
3933:
3930:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3902:(1): 93–123.
3901:
3897:
3893:
3886:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3868:
3862:
3859:
3853:
3851:
3849:
3847:
3843:
3837:
3835:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3824:Collier, Paul
3821:
3820:Hironaka 2005
3815:
3812:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3765:
3758:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3741:
3738:
3735:See also the
3732:
3729:
3725:
3719:
3716:
3712:
3709:
3705:
3702:
3699:Edward Wong,
3696:
3693:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3650:
3642:
3639:
3634:
3630:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3601:
3598:
3594:
3593:Hironaka 2005
3589:
3586:
3581:
3579:0-674-01532-0
3575:
3571:
3564:
3562:
3560:
3558:
3554:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3523:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3508:
3503:
3499:
3496:
3492:
3487:
3485:
3483:
3481:
3477:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3429:
3424:
3417:
3414:
3409:
3402:
3399:
3392:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3371:
3368:
3361:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3351:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3326:
3322:
3320:
3318:
3317:conflict trap
3314:
3306:
3304:
3297:
3295:
3294:(1970–1990).
3293:
3289:
3286:(1960–1996),
3285:
3280:
3276:
3270:
3268:
3267:Marshall Plan
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3235:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3217:
3213:
3208:
3201:
3199:
3197:
3191:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3159:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3141:
3137:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3112:
3111:
3106:
3105:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3082:
3078:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3042:
3038:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3009:
3004:
3000:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2981:Charles Tilly
2977:
2971:
2967:
2965:
2961:
2953:
2948:
2940:
2933:
2931:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2880:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2810:
2806:
2804:
2800:
2799:Massachusetts
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2783:Barbary Coast
2780:
2776:
2771:
2769:
2765:
2764:Paris Commune
2756:
2753:" during the
2752:
2747:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2731:
2727:
2726:
2721:
2714:
2712:
2710:
2706:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2686:
2682:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2656:
2653:
2649:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2634:colonial rule
2631:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2614:
2606:
2604:
2598:
2596:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2544:
2539:
2537:
2535:
2531:
2526:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2492:Opportunities
2491:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2474:
2472:
2465:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2452:
2449:
2444:
2442:
2437:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2421:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2407:
2403:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2363:
2359:
2356:
2353:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2335:
2331:
2328:after rebels
2327:
2322:
2318:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2303:
2300:
2295:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2237:
2233:
2228:
2221:
2219:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2191:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2165:
2163:
2159:
2158:
2157:bellum civile
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2121:
2116:
2114:
2109:
2107:
2102:
2101:
2099:
2098:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2044:
2039:
2038:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2002:
1996:
1995:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1947:Warrior caste
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1931:
1926:
1925:
1918:
1917:Show of force
1915:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1905:Peacebuilding
1903:
1902:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1842:
1839:
1834:
1833:
1826:
1823:
1819:
1816:
1815:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1793:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1761:Air supremacy
1759:
1758:
1755:
1750:
1749:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1701:Islamic rules
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1681:Court-martial
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1665:
1660:
1659:
1650:
1647:
1646:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1631:
1628:
1623:
1622:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1599:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1580:Arms industry
1578:
1577:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1559:
1554:
1553:
1546:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1530:
1527:
1526:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1468:
1465:
1464:
1463:
1460:
1459:
1456:
1451:
1450:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1386:
1381:
1380:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1344:
1341:
1336:
1335:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1223:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1197:Broken-backed
1195:
1193:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1184:
1181:
1176:
1175:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1072:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1039:Expeditionary
1037:
1035:
1034:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1019:
1016:
1011:
1010:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
993:
990:
988:
985:
983:
980:
978:
975:
971:
968:
967:
966:
963:
961:
958:
956:
953:
951:
948:
946:
943:
941:
938:
936:
933:
931:
928:
926:
923:
921:
918:
916:
913:
911:
910:Counterattack
908:
906:
903:
901:
898:
896:
893:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
875:
874:
871:
869:
866:
865:
864:
859:
854:
853:
846:
843:
841:
838:
836:
835:Psychological
833:
831:
828:
826:
823:
821:
818:
816:
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
801:
797:
794:
792:
789:
787:
784:
782:
779:
777:
774:
772:
771:Combined arms
769:
767:
764:
760:
757:
755:
752:
751:
750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
716:
713:
708:
707:
700:
697:
695:
692:
691:
683:
680:
679:
678:
675:
673:
670:
668:
665:
663:
660:
658:
655:
653:
650:
649:
648:
645:
644:
636:
633:
632:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
610:Fortification
608:
606:
603:
601:
598:
597:
596:
593:
592:
586:
583:
581:
578:
576:
573:
572:
570:
569:
566:
561:
560:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
538:
535:
534:
530:
527:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
511:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
473:
469:
466:
464:
461:
459:
456:
454:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
435:
431:
428:
426:
425:Landing craft
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
397:
393:
390:
388:
385:
383:
380:
376:
373:
372:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
357:
353:
350:
348:
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
319:
315:
311:
310:Standing army
308:
306:
303:
301:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
243:
240:
235:
234:
225:
222:
220:
217:
216:
215:
212:
208:
205:
203:
202:pike and shot
200:
199:
198:
195:
191:
188:
187:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
172:
169:
164:
163:
159:
155:
154:
148:
140:
135:
131:
130:
125:
121:
116:
109:
105:
100:
90:
80:
76:
70:
68:
61:
52:
51:
48:
44:
37:
33:
19:
5539:Wars by type
5476:
5472:
5460:
5456:
5433:, edited by
5430:
5414:
5410:
5401:
5373:
5366:
5348:
5332:
5325:
5318:
5308:
5284:
5280:
5255:
5251:
5218:
5214:
5206:
5182:
5178:
5158:
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4676:, p. 1.
4669:
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4592:. Retrieved
4562:
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4095:
4068:cite journal
4028:(1): 75–90.
4025:
4021:
4003:
3994:
3985:
3951:(1): 35–50.
3948:
3942:
3932:
3899:
3895:
3885:
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3861:
3814:
3774:
3770:
3731:
3718:
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3648:
3641:
3610:
3607:"Civil Wars"
3600:
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3569:
3545:. Retrieved
3536:
3532:
3505:
3491:James Fearon
3467:. Retrieved
3432:
3426:
3416:
3407:
3401:
3379:
3375:
3370:
3348:
3310:
3301:
3271:
3255:Soviet Union
3236:
3221:
3192:
3188:
3174:great powers
3169:
3168:in his book
3163:
3155:(1983–2009).
3108:
3102:
3099:
3092:, 1982. The
3013:
2972:
2968:
2960:World War II
2956:
2920:Soviet Union
2895:
2881:
2853:Great Powers
2842:
2827:, allied to
2786:
2772:
2760:
2730:World War II
2723:
2722:, author of
2720:Ann Hironaka
2718:
2683:
2657:
2650:of whatever
2648:depreciation
2644:
2627:
2610:
2602:
2593:
2561:
2548:
2540:Other causes
2533:
2527:
2517:
2507:
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2495:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2469:
2453:
2445:
2438:
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2380:
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2367:
2364:
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2357:
2354:
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2339:
2304:
2296:
2292:
2288:South Africa
2272:The Troubles
2243:James Fearon
2241:
2192:
2181:
2177:World War II
2172:
2171:in his book
2166:
2155:
2148:independence
2131:
2129:
2030:Fifth column
2010:War resister
2005:Women in war
1900:Peacekeeping
1845:Arms control
1790:
1479:Mobilization
1474:Conscription
1432:Intelligence
1385:Organization
1031:
960:Encirclement
840:Radiological
776:Conventional
630:Subterranean
537:Development:
536:
513:
475:
437:
400:Naval units:
399:
392:Signal corps
359:
337:Intelligence
322:Specialties:
321:
246:Organization
197:Early modern
84:
64:
47:
5435:Boix Carles
5078:: 361–377.
4565:: 265–270.
4377:: 215–238.
4282:1: 385–472.
3384:war studies
3288:El Salvador
3279:Berlin Wall
3239:superpowers
3228:Warsaw Pact
3212:Berlin Wall
2839:(1936–1939)
2835:during the
2775:sovereignty
2709:El Salvador
2425:commodities
2326:Addis Ababa
2210:(Myanmar),
2015:War studies
1838:Non-warfare
1766:Appeasement
1731:Martial law
1570:War economy
1509:Transgender
1462:Recruitment
1222:Containment
1107:Culminating
1015:Operational
935:Envelopment
878:Air assault
759:Air cavalry
719:Air defence
699:Information
600:Cold-region
565:Battlespace
514:Historical:
360:Land units:
286:Space force
281:Coast guard
214:Late modern
175:Prehistoric
106:during the
5534:Civil wars
5528:Categories
5185:: 99–118.
4594:2017-10-24
3740:commentary
3686:2021-11-09
3547:2015-11-06
3393:References
3334:Insurgency
3251:Yugoslavia
3145:rebel LTTE
3133:Somaliland
3090:US Marines
3037:corruption
2934:Since 1945
2922:supported
2845:monarchism
2624:Inequality
2558:Governance
2413:World Bank
2188:casualties
2075:War crimes
2065:Operations
1972:Foot drill
1942:Battle cry
1855:deterrence
1514:Harassment
1489:Specialism
1312:Technology
1307:Succession
1252:Liberation
1187:Asymmetric
1122:Empty fort
1033:Blitzkrieg
1002:Withdrawal
965:Investment
744:Camouflage
739:Biological
677:Underwater
652:Amphibious
571:Aerospace
438:Air units:
415:Submarines
224:fourth-gen
219:industrial
207:napoleonic
120:Granollers
104:Red Guards
5495:153678074
5351:. Crown.
5301:155874771
5272:145668725
5243:144717008
5199:144164335
4968:220454361
4946:CiteSeerX
4923:916002160
4884:cite book
4876:785583130
4567:CiteSeerX
4523:: 25–34.
4493:: 56–79.
4448:: 45–66.
4352:154632359
4344:0022-0027
4240:0003-0554
4191:0022-0027
4152:0003-0554
4030:CiteSeerX
3965:0022-3433
3916:0022-2186
3799:149212588
3791:0022-0027
3469:5 January
3450:2160/1963
3298:Post-2003
3292:Nicaragua
3284:Guatemala
3149:Sri Lanka
3088:army and
3063:Argentina
3024:Sri Lanka
2928:proxy war
2849:democracy
2580:Communist
2466:Grievance
2441:diasporas
2433:petroleum
2284:Apartheid
2154:of Latin
2132:civil war
1962:War novel
1865:Grey-zone
1825:War games
1786:Overmatch
1736:War crime
1686:Desertion
1676:Ceasefire
1671:Armistice
1558:Logistics
1536:Mercenary
1524:Volunteer
1455:Personnel
1427:Engineers
1372:Sociology
1327:World war
1322:Total war
1302:Strategic
1292:Religious
1277:Political
1272:Perpetual
1247:Irregular
1162:Offensive
1137:Defensive
1132:Deception
1092:Attrition
945:Guerrilla
940:Formation
883:Airbridge
815:Loitering
729:Artillery
382:Artillery
332:Engineers
300:Irregular
271:Air force
79:talk page
67:full view
5518:BBC News
5417:: 3–57.
5381:Archived
4585:Archived
4466:Archived
4420:18168622
4296:Archived
4268:(8): 29.
4108:15 April
4102:Archived
3870:Archived
3803:Archived
3743:Archived
3704:Archived
3680:Archived
3676:14897960
3633:Archived
3541:Archived
3498:Archived
3463:Archived
3459:56449614
3323:See also
3265:and the
3253:and the
3224:Cold War
3110:de facto
3086:Lebanese
3059:fragile"
3050:Malaysia
3041:nepotism
2918:and the
2914:, while
2908:Portugal
2795:Virginia
2787:de facto
2675:misogyny
2671:polygamy
2666:polygyny
2196:Cold War
1977:War song
1952:War film
1585:Materiel
1504:Children
1484:Training
1422:Medicine
1407:Doctrine
1362:Training
1297:Resource
1282:Princely
1232:Economic
1217:Conquest
1212:Colonial
1207:Cold war
1192:Blockade
1077:Strategy
1049:Maneuver
810:Infantry
766:Chemical
620:Mountain
580:Airborne
443:Fighters
410:Warships
365:Infantry
291:Reserves
239:Military
87:May 2019
5235:2082982
4537:1492307
4462:3460450
4060:8303905
4052:3118222
3878:un.org.
3307:Effects
3104:de jure
3032:Belgium
3010:(1993).
2993:Prussia
2985:Germany
2900:Germany
2869:Prussia
2859:as the
2822:Italian
2801:in the
2781:of the
2779:pirates
2652:capital
2613:poverty
2607:Poverty
2204:Somalia
2144:country
2090:Writers
2085:Weapons
2050:Battles
1999:Related
1987:Wargame
1982:Uniform
1930:Culture
1711:Perfidy
1706:Justice
1627:Science
1612:Outpost
1565:History
1545:Warrior
1541:Soldier
1529:foreign
1467:counter
1367:Service
1317:Theater
1257:Limited
1237:Endemic
1152:Nuclear
925:Foxhole
900:Cavalry
888:Airdrop
873:Airlift
858:Tactics
830:Nuclear
820:Missile
749:Cavalry
734:Barrage
712:Weapons
672:Surface
453:Command
448:Bombers
405:Frogman
375:Cavalry
347:Medical
314:Militia
296:Regular
276:Marines
190:castles
180:Ancient
168:History
147:outline
110:of 1918
73:Please
5493:
5355:
5339:
5313:online
5299:
5270:
5241:
5233:
5197:
5166:
5145:
4966:
4948:
4921:
4911:
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4569:
4535:
4460:
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4350:
4342:
4238:
4189:
4150:
4058:
4050:
4032:
3963:
3922:
3914:
3797:
3789:
3674:
3664:
3625:
3576:
3457:
3218:(1990)
3075:Israel
3067:Brazil
3054:Angola
3046:Uganda
2916:France
2906:, and
2877:Russia
2875:, and
2873:France
2833:Madrid
2757:, 1918
2751:Whites
2590:, 1946
2375:Causes
2336:(1991)
2330:seized
2238:, 1863
2216:Angola
2212:Uganda
2152:calque
2070:Sieges
1754:Theory
1494:Morale
1352:Policy
1347:Branch
1127:Mosaic
1117:Fabian
1064:Covert
997:Trench
982:Screen
905:Charge
895:Battle
868:Aerial
786:Denial
754:Horses
682:Seabed
635:Tunnel
615:Jungle
605:Desert
575:Aerial
5491:S2CID
5297:S2CID
5268:S2CID
5239:S2CID
5231:JSTOR
5195:S2CID
4993:(PDF)
4986:(PDF)
4964:S2CID
4588:(PDF)
4555:(PDF)
4533:S2CID
4469:(PDF)
4458:S2CID
4438:(PDF)
4416:S2CID
4348:S2CID
4258:(PDF)
4056:S2CID
4048:JSTOR
3920:JSTOR
3806:(PDF)
3795:S2CID
3767:(PDF)
3672:S2CID
3455:S2CID
3362:Notes
3071:Egypt
3020:India
2989:Italy
2926:(see
2904:Italy
2820:, of
2814:plane
2768:Paris
2690:from
2396:Greed
2286:-era
2251:state
2208:Burma
2140:state
2134:is a
2043:Lists
1499:Women
1437:Ranks
1357:Staff
1287:Proxy
1202:Class
1157:Naval
1142:Depth
977:Swarm
970:Siege
950:Naval
930:Drone
825:Music
800:Robot
796:Drone
781:Cyber
724:Armor
694:Cyber
667:Green
662:Brown
625:Urban
585:Space
506:Radar
501:Sonar
370:Armor
327:Staff
305:Ranks
5353:ISBN
5337:ISBN
5164:ISBN
5143:ISBN
4919:OCLC
4909:ISBN
4890:link
4872:OCLC
4862:ISBN
4643:ISBN
4616:ISBN
4340:ISSN
4236:ISSN
4187:ISSN
4148:ISSN
4110:2021
4074:link
3961:ISSN
3912:ISSN
3787:ISSN
3662:ISBN
3623:ISBN
3574:ISBN
3471:2017
3230:and
3222:The
3129:Iraq
3073:and
3065:and
3052:and
3039:and
3022:and
2995:and
2987:and
2896:both
2847:and
2797:and
2641:Time
2315:ICRC
2297:The
2266:and
2214:and
2142:(or
2080:Wars
1597:Base
1147:Goal
1059:Raid
657:Blue
595:Land
266:Navy
261:Army
34:and
5481:doi
5455:".
5419:doi
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5289:doi
5260:doi
5223:doi
5187:doi
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