750:
93:). However, a population can only grow to a very limited number within an environment. The carrying capacity, defined by the variable k, of an environment is the maximum number of individuals or species an environment can sustain and support over a longer period of time. The resources within an environment are limited, and are not endless. An environment can only support a certain number of individuals before its resources completely diminish. Numbers larger than this will suffer a negative population growth until eventually reaching the carrying capacity, whereas populations smaller than the carrying capacity will grow until they reach it.
146:
350:
31:
161:) have evolved varying levels of aggression depending on the intensity of intraspecific competition. In populations where the resources are scarcer, more aggressive behaviours are likely to evolve. It is a more effective strategy to fight rivals within the species harder instead of searching for other options due to the lack of available food. More aggressive salamanders are more likely obtain the resources they require to reproduce whereas timid salamanders may starve before reproducing, so aggression can
276:) have different energy intakes based on their ranking within the group. Both males and females compete for territories with the best access to food and the most successful monkeys are able to obtain a disproportionately large quantity of food and therefore have a higher fitness in comparison to the subordinate members of the group. In the case of
336:. For instance, the caterpillars of cinnabar moths feed via scramble competition, and when there are too many caterpillars competing very few are able to pupate and there is a large population crash. Subsequently, very few cinnabar moths are competing intraspecifically in the next generation so the population grows rapidly before crashing again.
176:) found that birds in a bond were much more aggressive than single birds. The paired birds were significantly more likely to start an agonistic encounter in defense of their mate or young whereas single birds were typically non-breeding and less likely to fight. Not all flamingos can mate in the population because of an unsuitable
307:
is very uneven between males. The reproductive success of most males is zero; they die before breeding age or are prevented from mating by higher ranked males. In addition, just a few dominant males account for the majority of copulations. The potential reproductive success for males is so great that
226:
In stationary organisms, such as plants, exploitative competition plays a much larger role than interference competition because individuals are rooted to a specific area and utilise resources in their immediate surroundings. Saplings will compete for light, most of which will be blocked and utilised
547:
grown in test tubes initially grew exponentially. But as resources became scarcer, their growth rates slowed until reaching the carrying capacity. If the populations were moved to a larger container with more resources they would continue to grow until reaching their new carrying capacity. The shape
311:
Contest competition produces relatively stable population dynamics. The uneven distribution of resources results in some individuals dying off but helps to ensure that the members of the population that hold a territory can reproduce. As the number of territories in an area stays the same over time,
357:
The major impact of intraspecific competition is reduced population growth rates as population density increases. When resources are infinite, intraspecific competition does not occur and populations can grow exponentially. Exponential population growth is exceedingly rare, but has been documented,
526:
The logistic growth curve is initially very similar to the exponential growth curve. When population density is low, individuals are free from competition and can grow rapidly. However, as the population reaches its maximum (the carrying capacity), intraspecific competition becomes fiercer and the
207:). Both increasing the density of young spiders and reducing the available food supply lowered the growth of individual spiders. Food is clearly a limiting resource for the wolf spiders but there was no direct competition between juveniles for food, just a reduction in fitness due to the increased
327:
involves a more equal distribution of resources than contest competition and occurs when there is a common resource pool that an individual cannot be excluded from. For instance, grazing animals compete more strongly for grass as their population grows and food becomes a limiting resource. Each
230:
Apparent competition occurs in populations that are predated upon. An increase in population of the prey species will bring more predators to the area, which increases the risk of an individual being eaten and hence lowers its survivorship. Like exploitative competition, the individuals aren’t
137:
which then excludes other animals from entering the area. There may not be an actual conflict between the two competitors, but the animal excluded from the territory suffers a fitness loss due to a reduced foraging area and is unable to enter the area as it risks confrontation from a more
76:
When resources are limited, an increase in population size reduces the quantity of resources available for each individual, reducing the per capita fitness in the population. As a result, the growth rate of a population slows as intraspecific competition becomes more intense, making it a
287:
Aggressive encounters are potentially costly for individuals as they can get injured and be less able to reproduce. As a result, many species have evolved forms of ritualised combat to determine who wins access to a resource without having to undertake a dangerous fight. Male adders
227:
by taller trees. The saplings can be easily out-competed by larger members of their own species, which is one of the reasons why seed dispersal distances can be so large. Seeds that germinate in close proximity to the parents are very likely to be out-competed and die.
107:
and contest competition. Scramble competition involves a relatively even distribution of resources among a population as all individuals exploit a common resource pool. In contrast, contest competition is the uneven distribution of resources and occurs when
231:
interacting directly but rather suffer a reduction in fitness as a consequence of the increasing population size. Apparent competition is generally associated with inter rather than intraspecific competition, whereby two different species share a common
235:. An adaptation that makes one species less likely to be eaten results in a reduction in fitness for the other prey species because the predator species hunts more intensely as food has become more difficult to obtain. For example, native skinks (
527:
per capita growth rate slows until the population reaches a stable size. At the carrying capacity, the rate of change of population density is zero because the population is as large as possible based on the resources available. Experiments on
331:
Scramble completion can lead to unstable population dynamics, the equal division of resources can result in very few of the organisms obtaining enough to survive and reproduce and this can cause population crashes. This phenomenon is called
68:
which is required for survival or reproduction. The resource must be limited for competition to occur; if every member of the species can obtain a sufficient amount of every resource then individuals do not compete and the population
471:
511:
The logistic growth equation is an effective tool for modelling intraspecific competition despite its simplicity, and has been used to model many real biological systems. At low population densities,
180:
or some dominant flamingos mating with multiple partners. Mates are a fiercely contested resource in many species as the production of offspring is essential for an individual to propagate its genes.
211:. The negative density dependence in young wolf spiders is evident: as the population density increases further, growth rates continues to fall and could potentially reach zero (as predicted by the
73:. Prolonged exponential growth is rare in nature because resources are finite and so not every individual in a population can survive, leading to intraspecific competition for the scarce resources.
652:
96:
Intraspecific competition does not just involve direct interactions between members of the same species (such as male deer locking horns when competing for mates) but can also include
142:. As organisms are encountering each other during interference competition, they are able to evolve behavioural strategies and morphologies to out-compete rivals in their population.
840:
Perdue, Bonnie M.; Gaalema, Diann E.; Martin, Allison L.; Dampier, Stephanie M.; Maple, Terry L. (2010-02-22). "Factors affecting aggression in a captive flock of
Chilean flamingos (
57:
occurs when members of different species compete for a shared resource. Members of the same species have rather similar requirements for resources, whereas different species have a
1213:
Young, Kim; Ferreira, Van Aarde (March 2009). "The influence of increasing population size and vegetation productivity on elephant distribution in the Kruger
National Park".
1043:
Olsson, Mats; Schwartz, Tonia; Uller, Tobias; Healey, Mo (February 2009). "Effects of sperm storage and male colour on probability of paternity in a polychromatic lizard".
270:
Contest competition takes place when a resource is associated with a territory or hierarchical structure within the population. For instance: white-faced capuchin monkeys (
504:
100:
where an individual depletes a shared resource (such as a grizzly bear catching a salmon that can then no longer be eaten by bears at different points along a river).
294:) undertake complex ritualised confrontations when courting females. Generally, the larger male will win and fights rarely escalate to injury to either combatant.
2078:
1331:
961:
Norbury, Grant (December 2001). "Conserving dryland lizards by reducing predator-mediated apparent competition and direct competition with introduced rabbits".
2222:
116:
or at the top of the hierarchies obtain a sufficient quantity of the resources, whereas individuals without a territory don’t obtain any of the resource.
2292:
303:, engage in fierce competitive displays in an attempt to control a large harem of females with which to mate. The distribution of females and subsequent
1829:
507:
Population growth against time in a population growing logistically. The steepest parts of the graph are where the population growth is most rapid.
935:
683:
2302:
2030:
1078:
Madsen, Thomas; Shine, Richard (1993). "Temporal variability in sexual selection acting on reproductive tactics and body size in male snakes".
523:
approaches the carrying capacity the second term in the logistic equation becomes smaller, reducing the rate of change of population density.
635:
2307:
375:
1864:
1275:
Schoener, Thomas (March 1973). "Population growth regulated by intraspecific competition for energy or time: Some simple representations".
2495:
129:
Interference competition is the process by which individuals directly compete with one another in pursuit of a resource. It can involve
1912:
297:
However, sometimes the resource may be so prized that potentially fatal confrontations can occur to acquire them. Male elephant seals,
2248:
2071:
1324:
945:
760:
777:
1584:
2883:
2327:
2040:
1907:
1619:
2585:
592:
162:
2712:
2357:
2758:
2312:
2064:
1317:
2190:
2547:
1438:
257:) so the introduction of rabbits resulted in immigration of ferrets to the area, which then depleted skink numbers.
196:
as a result. The organisms may not actually come into contact and only interact via the shared resource indirectly.
2612:
2332:
1536:
1433:
284:
variants, red lizards have are more aggressive in defending their territory compared to their yellow counterparts.
503:
2793:
2405:
2297:
2155:
2135:
1526:
562:
313:
154:
54:
2552:
223:, where the existence of color morphs within a population depends on the density and intraspecific competition.
2783:
2778:
2748:
2015:
1897:
879:
Wise, David; Wagner (August 1992). "Evidence of exploitative competition among young stages of the wolf spider
544:
2627:
2490:
2400:
2268:
2150:
2120:
1977:
1942:
1662:
1629:
1604:
537:
population density graph occurred at half the carrying capacity, as predicted by the logistic growth model.
2773:
2717:
2652:
2515:
2450:
2385:
2045:
1947:
1735:
1443:
1423:
370:(South Africa) also grew exponentially in the mid-1900s after strict poaching controls were put in place.
333:
299:
281:
85:. The rate of change of population density eventually falls to zero, the point ecologists have termed the
61:, resulting in intraspecific competition generally being a stronger force than interspecific competition.
653:"On the prevalence and relative importance of interspecific competition: evidence from field experiments"
192:. Exploitative competition involves individuals depleting a shared resource and both suffering a loss in
81:
process. The falling population growth rate as population increases can be modelled effectively with the
34:
Male hartebeest locking horns and fiercely defending their territories. An example of direct competition.
2677:
2622:
2485:
2470:
2253:
2210:
2200:
2195:
1952:
1932:
1788:
1778:
1720:
1715:
1551:
1403:
557:
359:
272:
189:
112:
in a population influence the amount of resource each individual receives. Organisms in the most prized
97:
2803:
2768:
2763:
2687:
2682:
2637:
2535:
2505:
2500:
2352:
2215:
2205:
1750:
1589:
1378:
1222:
1171:
1162:
Crawley, Mick; Gillman (April 1990). "A comparative evaluation of models of cinnabar moth dynamics".
996:
Vogel, Erin (August 2005). "Rank differences in energy intake rates in white-faced capuchin monkeys,
970:
892:
367:
324:
304:
139:
104:
1309:
2853:
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2692:
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2395:
2342:
2175:
2110:
1992:
1922:
1453:
145:
130:
109:
2056:
533:
growth rates showed a striking adherence to the logistic growth curve. The inflexion point in the
519:
and so the main determinant for population growth is just the per capita growth rate. However, as
308:
many are killed before breeding age as they attempt to move up the hierarchy in their population.
53:
for both individuals, but the more fit individual survives and is able to reproduce. By contrast,
2864:
2813:
2808:
2617:
2580:
2278:
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2100:
2025:
1927:
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1849:
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1111:
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916:
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675:
577:
277:
208:
134:
113:
78:
70:
65:
42:
2322:
778:"Competition and the evolution of aggressive behavior in two species of terrestrial salamanders"
2753:
2722:
2510:
2337:
2145:
2010:
1987:
1844:
1725:
1501:
1413:
1398:
1383:
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1103:
941:
908:
861:
808:
756:
631:
582:
567:
216:
212:
193:
86:
82:
50:
149:
Flamingos competing via interference competition, potentially for territories, mates or food.
2707:
2570:
2562:
2480:
2362:
2347:
2283:
2263:
2180:
2170:
2165:
2130:
1962:
1902:
1773:
1574:
1516:
1428:
1388:
1284:
1257:
1230:
1179:
1142:
1087:
1052:
1009:
978:
900:
853:
792:
726:
667:
587:
169:
58:
316:
remains constant which produces a similar number of new individuals every breeding season.
2843:
2702:
2672:
2667:
2657:
2590:
2575:
2455:
2435:
2317:
2185:
2091:
1982:
1892:
1834:
1819:
1418:
1344:
816:
242:
103:
The way in which resources are partitioned by organisms also varies and can be split into
1226:
1175:
974:
896:
328:
herbivore receives less food as more individuals compete for the same quantity of food.
2823:
2647:
2600:
2530:
2525:
2420:
2287:
2160:
1967:
1957:
1937:
1814:
1740:
1705:
1644:
1521:
1476:
1368:
199:
For instance, exploitative competition has been shown experimentally between juvenile
2877:
2848:
1824:
1798:
1755:
1745:
1700:
1687:
1667:
1559:
1393:
1348:
1288:
1261:
1234:
982:
572:
1064:
1029:
920:
679:
17:
2833:
2818:
2475:
2445:
2390:
2273:
2238:
2115:
1614:
1248:
Hanson, Floyd (1981). "Logistic growth with random density independent disasters".
1199:
1115:
540:
290:
30:
1056:
714:
241:) in New Zealand suffered a large decline in population after the introduction of
2125:
1854:
1672:
1634:
1609:
1599:
1564:
1511:
1491:
548:
of their growth can be modeled very effectively with the logistic growth model.
200:
543:
1930s lab experiments showed logistic growth in microorganisms. Populations of
349:
2838:
2415:
2380:
2020:
1972:
1917:
1887:
1793:
1710:
1654:
1531:
1481:
1013:
2743:
2697:
2425:
1869:
1839:
1639:
1594:
1569:
1506:
1496:
1471:
1463:
1408:
237:
232:
177:
1191:
1147:
1130:
1107:
912:
865:
812:
64:
Individuals can compete for food, water, space, light, mates, or any other
1296:
2798:
2727:
2258:
1765:
1677:
1624:
1579:
1021:
730:
2788:
2595:
2465:
2460:
2087:
2035:
1695:
1340:
1183:
1099:
904:
804:
529:
46:
857:
466:{\displaystyle {dN(t) \over dt}=rN(t)\left(1-{\frac {N(t)}{K}}\right)}
601:
250:
796:
133:. Direct intraspecific competition also includes animals claiming a
1091:
671:
1131:"Male-male Competition and Reproductive Success in Elephant Seals"
348:
29:
2060:
1313:
597:
353:
Exponential human population growth in the last 1,000 years.
49:
compete for limited resources. This leads to a reduction in
378:
715:"Experimental studies on the struggle for existence"
2736:
2636:
2561:
2434:
2371:
2231:
2099:
2001:
1880:
1807:
1764:
1686:
1653:
1550:
1462:
1356:
465:
600:– extreme result of intraspecific competition in
280:lizards, males compete for territory. Among the
621:
619:
617:
2072:
1325:
188:Organisms can compete indirectly, either via
8:
744:
742:
740:
708:
706:
704:
702:
700:
698:
696:
2293:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
2079:
2065:
2057:
1332:
1318:
1310:
153:For example, different populations of the
1146:
437:
379:
377:
340:Consequences of intraspecific competition
2191:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
1830:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
502:
144:
2223:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
1000:: the effects of contest competition".
613:
479:= rate of change of population density
131:fighting, stealing or ritualised combat
2031:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
940:. The Blackburn Press. pp. 9–23.
27:Species members compete for resources
7:
2046:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
190:exploitative or apparent competition
2496:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
1135:Integrative and Comparative Biology
1002:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
358:most notably in humans since 1900.
2249:Ecological effects of biodiversity
59:smaller contested resource overlap
25:
1585:Generalist and specialist species
937:Perspectives on Plant Competition
651:Connell, Joseph (November 1983).
140:dominant member of the population
2308:Occupancy–abundance relationship
1235:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2009.01934.x
983:10.1046/j.0021-8901.2001.00685.x
2328:Relative abundance distribution
2041:Plant defense against herbivory
1908:Competitive exclusion principle
1620:Mesopredator release hypothesis
719:Journal of Experimental Biology
1913:Consumer–resource interactions
1277:Theoretical Population Biology
1250:Theoretical Population Biology
713:Gause, Georgy (October 1932).
593:Female intrasexual competition
449:
443:
423:
417:
394:
388:
45:, whereby members of the same
1:
2759:Biological data visualization
2586:Environmental niche modelling
2313:Population viability analysis
1057:10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.10.017
249:). Both species are eaten by
163:spread through the population
2244:Density-dependent inhibition
1289:10.1016/0040-5809(73)90006-3
1262:10.1016/0040-5809(81)90032-0
79:negatively density dependent
2713:Liebig's law of the minimum
2548:Resource selection function
1439:Metabolic theory of ecology
630:. Wiley. pp. 103–105.
2900:
2613:Niche apportionment models
2333:Relative species abundance
1537:Primary nutritional groups
1434:List of feeding behaviours
963:Journal of Applied Ecology
485:= population size at time
2862:
2794:Ecosystem based fisheries
2406:Interspecific competition
2298:Minimum viable population
2156:Maximum sustainable yield
2141:Intraspecific competition
2136:Effective population size
2016:Anti-predator adaptations
1527:Photosynthetic efficiency
1129:Le Bouef, Burney (1974).
1014:10.1007/s00265-005-0960-4
776:Nishikawa, Kiisa (1985).
563:Interspecific competition
494:= per capita growth rate
155:northern slimy salamander
55:interspecific competition
39:Intraspecific competition
2784:Ecological stoichiometry
2749:Alternative stable state
934:Connell, Joseph (1990).
842:Phoenicopterus chilensis
215:). This is also seen in
174:Phoenicopterus chilensis
168:In addition, a study on
2884:Biological interactions
2628:Ontogenetic niche shift
2491:Ideal free distribution
2401:Ecological facilitation
2151:Malthusian growth model
2121:Consumer-resource model
1978:Paradox of the plankton
1943:Energy systems language
1663:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
1630:Optimal foraging theory
1605:Heterotrophic nutrition
1080:The American Naturalist
300:Mirounga augustirostris
2774:Ecological forecasting
2718:Marginal value theorem
2516:Landscape epidemiology
2451:Cross-boundary subsidy
2386:Biological interaction
1736:Microbial intelligence
1424:Green world hypothesis
508:
467:
354:
150:
35:
2779:Ecological humanities
2678:Ecological energetics
2623:Niche differentiation
2486:Habitat fragmentation
2254:Ecological extinction
2201:Small population size
1953:Feed conversion ratio
1933:Ecological succession
1865:San Francisco Estuary
1779:Ecological efficiency
1721:Microbial cooperation
628:Essentials of Ecology
558:Competition (biology)
515:is much smaller than
506:
468:
352:
261:Resource partitioning
247:Oryctolagus cuniculus
213:logistic growth model
148:
98:indirect interactions
83:logistic growth model
41:is an interaction in
33:
2804:Evolutionary ecology
2769:Ecological footprint
2764:Ecological economics
2688:Ecological threshold
2683:Ecological indicator
2553:Source–sink dynamics
2506:Land change modeling
2501:Insular biogeography
2353:Species distribution
2092:Modelling ecosystems
1751:Microbial metabolism
1590:Intraguild predation
1379:Biogeochemical cycle
1345:Modelling ecosystems
1148:10.1093/icb/14.1.163
749:Keddy, Paul (2001).
500:= carrying capacity
376:
368:Kruger National Park
325:Scramble competition
305:reproductive success
159:Plethodon glutinosus
18:Intraspecific combat
2854:Theoretical ecology
2829:Natural environment
2693:Ecosystem diversity
2663:Ecological collapse
2653:Bateman's principle
2608:Limiting similarity
2521:Landscape limnology
2343:Species homogeneity
2181:Population modeling
2176:Population dynamics
1993:Trophic state index
1227:2009AusEc..34..329Y
1176:1990Oecol..82..437G
975:2001JApEc..38.1350N
897:1992Oecol..91....7W
731:10.1242/jeb.9.4.389
660:American Naturalist
345:Slowed growth rates
314:breeding population
71:grows exponentially
2865:Outline of ecology
2814:Industrial ecology
2809:Functional ecology
2673:Ecological deficit
2618:Niche construction
2581:Ecosystem engineer
2358:Species–area curve
2279:Introduced species
2094:: Other components
2026:Deimatic behaviour
1928:Ecological network
1860:North Pacific Gyre
1845:hydrothermal vents
1784:Ecological pyramid
1731:Microbial food web
1542:Primary production
1487:Foundation species
1184:10.1007/BF00319783
905:10.1007/BF00317234
881:Schizocosa ocreata
578:Population ecology
509:
463:
364:Loxodonta africana
355:
278:Ctenophorus pictus
209:population density
205:Schizocosa ocreata
151:
43:population ecology
36:
2871:
2870:
2754:Balance of nature
2511:Landscape ecology
2396:Community ecology
2338:Species diversity
2274:Indicator species
2269:Gradient analysis
2146:Logistic function
2054:
2053:
2011:Animal coloration
1988:Trophic mutualism
1726:Microbial ecology
1517:Photoheterotrophs
1502:Myco-heterotrophy
1414:Ecosystem ecology
1399:Carrying capacity
1364:Abiotic component
858:10.1002/zoo.20313
637:978-1-4051-5658-5
626:Townsend (2008).
583:Sexual dimorphism
456:
406:
366:) populations in
217:Viviparous lizard
170:Chilean flamingos
87:carrying capacity
16:(Redirected from
2891:
2571:Ecological niche
2543:selection theory
2363:Umbrella species
2348:Species richness
2284:Invasive species
2264:Flagship species
2171:Population cycle
2166:Overexploitation
2131:Ecological yield
2081:
2074:
2067:
2058:
1963:Mesotrophic soil
1903:Climax community
1835:Marine food webs
1774:Biomagnification
1575:Chemoorganotroph
1429:Keystone species
1389:Biotic component
1334:
1327:
1320:
1311:
1301:
1300:
1272:
1266:
1265:
1245:
1239:
1238:
1210:
1204:
1203:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1150:
1126:
1120:
1119:
1075:
1069:
1068:
1045:Animal Behaviour
1040:
1034:
1033:
993:
987:
986:
969:(6): 1350–1361.
958:
952:
951:
931:
925:
924:
876:
870:
869:
837:
831:
830:
828:
827:
821:
815:. Archived from
791:(6): 1282–1294.
782:
773:
767:
766:
746:
735:
734:
710:
691:
690:
688:
682:. Archived from
657:
648:
642:
641:
623:
588:Sexual selection
472:
470:
469:
464:
462:
458:
457:
452:
438:
407:
405:
397:
380:
334:overcompensation
221:Lacerta vivipara
21:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2893:
2892:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2874:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2858:
2844:Systems ecology
2732:
2703:Extinction debt
2668:Ecological debt
2658:Bioluminescence
2639:
2632:
2601:marine habitats
2576:Ecological trap
2557:
2437:
2430:
2373:
2367:
2323:Rapoport's rule
2318:Priority effect
2259:Endemic species
2227:
2186:Population size
2102:
2095:
2085:
2055:
2050:
2003:
1997:
1983:Trophic cascade
1893:Bioaccumulation
1876:
1803:
1760:
1682:
1649:
1546:
1458:
1419:Ecosystem model
1352:
1338:
1307:
1305:
1304:
1274:
1273:
1269:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1215:Austral Ecology
1212:
1211:
1207:
1161:
1160:
1156:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1077:
1076:
1072:
1042:
1041:
1037:
998:Cebus capucinus
995:
994:
990:
960:
959:
955:
948:
933:
932:
928:
878:
877:
873:
839:
838:
834:
825:
823:
819:
797:10.2307/2408785
780:
775:
774:
770:
763:
748:
747:
738:
712:
711:
694:
686:
655:
650:
649:
645:
638:
625:
624:
615:
610:
554:
439:
430:
426:
398:
381:
374:
373:
347:
342:
322:
273:Cebus capucinus
268:
263:
186:
127:
122:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2897:
2895:
2887:
2886:
2876:
2875:
2869:
2868:
2863:
2860:
2859:
2857:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2824:Microecosystem
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2740:
2738:
2734:
2733:
2731:
2730:
2725:
2723:Thorson's rule
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2648:Assembly rules
2644:
2642:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2567:
2565:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2533:
2531:Patch dynamics
2528:
2526:Metapopulation
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2442:
2440:
2432:
2431:
2429:
2428:
2423:
2421:Storage effect
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2377:
2375:
2369:
2368:
2366:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2303:Neutral theory
2300:
2295:
2290:
2288:Native species
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2161:Overpopulation
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2107:
2105:
2097:
2096:
2086:
2084:
2083:
2076:
2069:
2061:
2052:
2051:
2049:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2007:
2005:
1999:
1998:
1996:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1968:Nutrient cycle
1965:
1960:
1958:Feeding frenzy
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1938:Energy quality
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1898:Cascade effect
1895:
1890:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1877:
1875:
1874:
1873:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1811:
1809:
1805:
1804:
1802:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1770:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1759:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1741:Microbial loop
1738:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1706:Lithoautotroph
1703:
1698:
1692:
1690:
1688:Microorganisms
1684:
1683:
1681:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1659:
1657:
1651:
1650:
1648:
1647:
1645:Prey switching
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1556:
1554:
1548:
1547:
1545:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1522:Photosynthesis
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1477:Chemosynthesis
1474:
1468:
1466:
1460:
1459:
1457:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1369:Abiotic stress
1366:
1360:
1358:
1354:
1353:
1339:
1337:
1336:
1329:
1322:
1314:
1303:
1302:
1267:
1240:
1221:(3): 329–342.
1205:
1170:(4): 437–445.
1154:
1141:(1): 163–176.
1121:
1092:10.1086/285467
1086:(1): 166–171.
1070:
1051:(2): 419–424.
1035:
1008:(4): 333–344.
988:
953:
947:978-1930665859
946:
926:
871:
832:
768:
762:978-1402002298
761:
736:
725:(4): 389–402.
692:
689:on 2014-10-26.
672:10.1086/284165
666:(5): 661–696.
643:
636:
612:
611:
609:
606:
605:
604:
595:
590:
585:
580:
575:
570:
568:Logistic model
565:
560:
553:
550:
461:
455:
451:
448:
445:
442:
436:
433:
429:
425:
422:
419:
416:
413:
410:
404:
401:
396:
393:
390:
387:
384:
346:
343:
341:
338:
321:
318:
267:
264:
262:
259:
185:
182:
126:
123:
121:
118:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2896:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2866:
2861:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2849:Urban ecology
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2741:
2739:
2735:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2708:Kleiber's law
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2641:
2635:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2560:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2481:Foster's rule
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2439:
2433:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2370:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2236:
2234:
2230:
2224:
2221:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2208:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2106:
2104:
2098:
2093:
2089:
2082:
2077:
2075:
2070:
2068:
2063:
2062:
2059:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2008:
2006:
2000:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1879:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1812:
1810:
1806:
1800:
1799:Trophic level
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1769:
1767:
1763:
1757:
1756:Phage ecology
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1746:Microbial mat
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1701:Bacteriophage
1699:
1697:
1694:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1685:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1668:Decomposition
1666:
1664:
1661:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1652:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1615:Mesopredators
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1560:Apex predator
1558:
1557:
1555:
1553:
1549:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1461:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1394:Biotic stress
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1359:
1355:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1335:
1330:
1328:
1323:
1321:
1316:
1315:
1312:
1308:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1271:
1268:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1244:
1241:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1209:
1206:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1158:
1155:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1074:
1071:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1039:
1036:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
992:
989:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
957:
954:
949:
943:
939:
938:
930:
927:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
875:
872:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
836:
833:
822:on 2014-10-17
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
779:
772:
769:
764:
758:
755:. Dordrecht.
754:
753:
745:
743:
741:
737:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
709:
707:
705:
703:
701:
699:
697:
693:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
654:
647:
644:
639:
633:
629:
622:
620:
618:
614:
607:
603:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
574:
573:Plant density
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
555:
551:
549:
546:
542:
538:
536:
532:
531:
524:
522:
518:
514:
505:
501:
499:
495:
493:
489:
488:
484:
480:
478:
474:
459:
453:
446:
440:
434:
431:
427:
420:
414:
411:
408:
402:
399:
391:
385:
382:
371:
369:
365:
361:
351:
344:
339:
337:
335:
329:
326:
319:
317:
315:
309:
306:
302:
301:
295:
293:
292:
285:
283:
279:
275:
274:
265:
260:
258:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
239:
234:
228:
224:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
197:
195:
191:
183:
181:
179:
175:
171:
166:
164:
160:
156:
147:
143:
141:
136:
132:
124:
119:
117:
115:
111:
106:
101:
99:
94:
92:
88:
84:
80:
74:
72:
67:
62:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
32:
19:
2834:Regime shift
2819:Macroecology
2540:
2536:
2476:Edge effects
2446:Biogeography
2391:Commensalism
2239:Biodiversity
2140:
2116:Allee effect
1855:kelp forests
1808:Example webs
1673:Detritivores
1512:Organotrophs
1492:Kinetotrophs
1444:Productivity
1306:
1283:(1): 56–84.
1280:
1276:
1270:
1253:
1249:
1243:
1218:
1214:
1208:
1167:
1163:
1157:
1138:
1134:
1124:
1083:
1079:
1073:
1048:
1044:
1038:
1005:
1001:
997:
991:
966:
962:
956:
936:
929:
888:
884:
880:
874:
852:(1): 59–64.
849:
845:
841:
835:
824:. Retrieved
817:the original
788:
784:
771:
751:
722:
718:
684:the original
663:
659:
646:
627:
539:
534:
528:
525:
520:
516:
512:
510:
497:
496:
491:
490:
486:
482:
481:
476:
475:
372:
363:
356:
330:
323:
310:
298:
296:
291:Vipera berus
289:
286:
271:
269:
255:Mustela furo
254:
246:
236:
229:
225:
220:
204:
201:wolf spiders
198:
187:
173:
167:
158:
152:
128:
102:
95:
90:
75:
63:
38:
37:
2471:Disturbance
2374:interaction
2196:Recruitment
2126:Depensation
1918:Copiotrophs
1789:Energy flow
1711:Lithotrophy
1655:Decomposers
1635:Planktivore
1610:Insectivore
1600:Heterotroph
1565:Bacterivore
1532:Phototrophs
1482:Chemotrophs
1454:Restoration
1404:Competition
1256:(1): 1–18.
891:(1): 7–13.
846:Zoo Biology
752:Competition
282:polymorphic
114:territories
110:hierarchies
2839:Sexecology
2416:Parasitism
2381:Antibiosis
2216:Resistance
2211:Resilience
2101:Population
2021:Camouflage
1973:Oligotroph
1888:Ascendency
1850:intertidal
1840:cold seeps
1794:Food chain
1595:Herbivores
1570:Carnivores
1497:Mixotrophs
1472:Autotrophs
1351:components
826:2014-03-27
608:References
120:Mechanisms
2744:Allometry
2698:Emergence
2426:Symbiosis
2411:Mutualism
2206:Stability
2111:Abundance
1923:Dominance
1881:Processes
1870:tide pool
1766:Food webs
1640:Predation
1625:Omnivores
1552:Consumers
1507:Mycotroph
1464:Producers
1409:Ecosystem
1374:Behaviour
1164:Oecologia
885:Oecologia
785:Evolution
435:−
238:Oligosoma
178:sex ratio
135:territory
2878:Category
2799:Endolith
2728:Xerosere
2640:networks
2456:Ecocline
2002:Defense,
1678:Detritus
1580:Foraging
1449:Resource
1192:28311465
1108:19426025
1065:53164664
1030:29039152
1022:25063623
921:19268804
913:28313367
866:20186725
813:28564270
680:84642049
552:See also
477:dN(t)/dt
360:Elephant
320:Scramble
233:predator
184:Indirect
105:scramble
66:resource
2789:Ecopath
2596:Habitat
2466:Ecotype
2461:Ecotone
2438:ecology
2436:Spatial
2372:Species
2232:Species
2103:ecology
2088:Ecology
2036:Mimicry
2004:counter
1948:f-ratio
1696:Archaea
1384:Biomass
1357:General
1349:Trophic
1341:Ecology
1297:4726010
1223:Bibcode
1200:9288133
1172:Bibcode
1116:2390755
1100:2462769
971:Bibcode
893:Bibcode
805:2408785
541:Gause’s
535:Daphnia
530:Daphnia
266:Contest
251:ferrets
243:rabbits
194:fitness
51:fitness
47:species
1820:Rivers
1716:Marine
1295:
1198:
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1114:
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1098:
1063:
1028:
1020:
944:
919:
911:
864:
811:
803:
759:
678:
634:
602:humans
125:Direct
2737:Other
2638:Other
2591:Guild
2563:Niche
1815:Lakes
1196:S2CID
1112:S2CID
1096:JSTOR
1061:S2CID
1026:S2CID
1018:JSTOR
917:S2CID
820:(PDF)
801:JSTOR
781:(PDF)
687:(PDF)
676:S2CID
656:(PDF)
545:yeast
219:, or
1825:Soil
1293:PMID
1188:PMID
1104:PMID
942:ISBN
909:PMID
862:PMID
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809:PMID
757:ISBN
632:ISBN
521:N(t)
513:N(t)
483:N(t)
312:the
1285:doi
1258:doi
1231:doi
1180:doi
1143:doi
1088:doi
1084:141
1053:doi
1010:doi
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854:doi
793:doi
727:doi
668:doi
664:122
598:War
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