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how much they grow. However, there are not clear groups of "short people" and "tall people", like there are groups of people with brown or red hair. This is because of the large number of genes involved; this makes the trait very variable and people are of many different heights. Despite a common misconception, the green/blue eye traits are also inherited in this complex inheritance model. Inheritance can also be complicated when the trait depends on the interaction between genetics and environment. For example, malnutrition does not change traits like eye color, but can stunt growth.
973:. In natural selection, if an allele makes it more likely for an organism to survive and reproduce, then over time this allele becomes more common. But if an allele is harmful, natural selection makes it less common. In the above example, if the island were getting colder each year and snow became present for much of the time, then the allele for white fur would favor survival since predators would be less likely to see them against the snow, and more likely to see the gray mice. Over time white mice would become more and more frequent, while gray mice less and less.
779:. There is a simple division of labor in cells—genes give instructions and proteins carry out these instructions, tasks like building a new copy of a cell, or repairing the damage. Each type of protein is a specialist that only does one job, so if a cell needs to do something new, it must make a new protein to do this job. Similarly, if a cell needs to do something faster or slower than before, it makes more or less of the protein responsible. Genes tell cells what to do by telling them which proteins to make and in what amounts.
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of these two alleles. When the transmitted genes are joined up in their offspring, these children have a chance of getting either brown or red hair, since they could get a genotype of BB = brown hair, Bb = brown hair or bb = red hair. In this generation, there is, therefore, a chance of the recessive allele showing itself in the phenotype of the children—some of them may have red hair like their grandfather.
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1076:. The insecticide kills insects that eat the plants but is harmless to people. In these plants, the new genes are put into the plant before it is grown, so the genes are in every part of the plant, including its seeds. The plant's offspring inherit the new genes, which has led to concern about the spread of new traits into wild plants.
451:. Genes are like sentences made of the "letters" of the nucleotide alphabet, between them genes direct the physical development and behavior of an organism. Genes are like a recipe or instruction book, providing information that an organism needs so it can build or do something - like making an eye or a leg, or repairing a wound.
740:). In this example, the allele for brown can be called "B" and the allele for red "b". (It is normal to write dominant alleles with capital letters and recessive ones with lower-case letters.) The brown hair daughter has the "brown hair phenotype" but her genotype is Bb, with one copy of the B allele, and one of the b allele.
1044:, but not all of them. However, although some of the risks are genetic, the risk of this cancer is also increased by being overweight, heavy alcohol consumption and not exercising. A woman's risk of breast cancer, therefore, comes from a large number of alleles interacting with her environment, so it is very hard to predict.
834:, which translates the sequence of nucleotides in the RNA into the correct sequence of amino acids and joins these amino acids together to make a complete protein chain. The new protein then folds up into its active form. The process of moving information from the language of RNA into the language of amino acids is called
693:) of the gene. If the father has two copies of an allele for red hair, and the mother has two copies for brown hair, all their children get the two alleles that give different instructions, one for red hair and one for brown. The hair color of these children depends on how these alleles work together. If one allele
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When DNA is copied, the two strands of the old DNA are pulled apart by enzymes; then they pair up with new nucleotides and then close. This produces two new pieces of DNA, each containing one strand from the old DNA and one newly made strand. This process is not predictably perfect as proteins attach
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molecules. This chain folds up into a compact shape, rather like an untidy ball of string. The shape of the protein is determined by the sequence of amino acids along its chain and it is this shape that, in turn, determines what the protein does. For example, some proteins have parts of their surface
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Other diseases are influenced by genetics, but the genes a person gets from their parents only change their risk of getting a disease. Most of these diseases are inherited in a complex way, with either multiple genes involved, or coming from both genes and the environment. As an example, the risk of
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If the sequence of the nucleotides in a gene changes, the sequence of the amino acids in the protein it produces may also change—if part of a gene is deleted, the protein produced is shorter and may not work anymore. This is the reason why different alleles of a gene can have different effects on an
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DNA can be copied very easily and accurately because each piece of DNA can direct the assembly of a new copy of its information. This is because DNA is made of two strands that pair together like the two sides of a zipper. The nucleotides are in the center, like the teeth in the zipper, and pair up
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Now imagine that this woman grows up and has children with a brown-haired man who also has a Bb genotype. Her eggs will be a mixture of two types, one sort containing the B allele, and one sort the b allele. Similarly, her partner will produce a mix of two types of sperm containing one or the other
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Many traits are inherited in a more complicated way than the example above. This can happen when there are several genes involved, each contributing a small part to the result. Tall people tend to have tall children because their children get a package of many alleles that each contribute a bit to
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is put into the hair as it grows. If a person has a normal set of the genes involved in making melanin, they make all the proteins needed and they grow dark hair. However, if the alleles for a particular protein have different sequences and produce proteins that can't do their jobs, no melanin is
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Mutations create new alleles. These alleles have new DNA sequences and can produce proteins with new properties. So if an island was populated entirely by black mice, mutations could happen creating alleles for white fur. The combination of mutations creating new alleles at random, and natural
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A population of organisms evolves when an inherited trait becomes more common or less common over time. For instance, all the mice living on an island would be a single population of mice: some with white fur, some gray. If over generations, white mice became more frequent and gray mice less
916:. Mutations produce new alleles of genes. Sometimes these changes stop the functioning of that gene or make it serve another advantageous function, such as the melanin genes discussed above. These mutations and their effects on the traits of organisms are one of the causes of
582:. Some traits are inherited through genes, which is the reason why tall and thin people tend to have tall and thin children. Other traits come from interactions between genes and the environment, so a child who inherited the tendency of being tall will still be short if
624:. As an example, one allele for the gene for hair color could instruct the body to produce much pigment, producing black hair, while a different allele of the same gene might give garbled instructions that fail to produce any pigment, giving white hair.
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from their ancestors; for example, children usually look like their parents because they have inherited their parents' genes. Genetics tries to identify which traits are inherited and to explain how these traits are passed from generation to generation.
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is 50 times higher in the families most at risk, compared to the families least at risk. This variation is probably due to a large number of alleles, each changing the risk a little bit. Several of the genes have been identified, such as
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The information within a particular gene is not always exactly the same between one organism and another, so different copies of a gene do not always give exactly the same instructions. Each unique form of a single gene is called an
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are random changes in genes and can create new alleles. Mutations can also produce new traits, such as when mutations to an allele for black hair produce a new allele for white hair. This appearance of new traits is important in
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A package for carrying DNA in the cells. They contain a single long piece of DNA that is wound up and bunched together into a compact structure. Different species of plants and animals have different numbers and sizes of
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The different forms of a given gene that an organism may possess. For example, in humans, one allele of the eye-color gene produces green eyes and another allele of the eye-color gene produces brown eyes.
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They form the rungs of the DNA ladder and are the repeating units in DNA. There are four types of nucleotides (A, T, G and C) and it is the sequence of these nucleotides that carries information.
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with a complete set of genes. The resulting offspring has the same number of genes as their parents, but for any gene, one of their two copies comes from their father and one from their mother.
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that looks like a twisted ladder. It is made of four types of simple units and the sequence of these units carries information, just as the sequence of letters carries information on a page.
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Although the red color allele is still there in this brown-haired girl, it doesn't show. This is a difference between what is seen on the surface (the traits of an organism, called its
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are just a single cell. A cell is like a miniature and very complex factory that can make all the parts needed to produce a copy of itself, which happens when cells
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665:. Genes are inherited as units, with two parents dividing out copies of their genes to their offspring. Humans have two copies of each of their genes, but each
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1066:, which the body converts to vitamin A. This can help children with Vitamin A deficiency. Another gene being put into some crops comes from the bacterium
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to hold the two strands together. Importantly, the four different sorts of nucleotides are different shapes, so for the strands to close up properly, an
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in cells. Cells are the smallest independent parts of organisms: the human body contains about 100 trillion cells, while very small organisms like
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884:. It is through a similar process that a child inherits genes from its parents when a copy from the mother is mixed with a copy from the father.
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to a nucleotide while they are building and cause a change in the sequence of that gene. These changes in the DNA sequence are called
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that perfectly match the shape of another molecule, allowing the protein to bind to this molecule very tightly. Other proteins are
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allele. In the case of a daughter with alleles for both red and brown hair, brown is dominant and she ends up with brown hair.
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The information in DNA is held in the sequence of the repeating units along the DNA chain. These units are four types of
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Since traits come from the genes in a cell, putting a new piece of DNA into a cell can produce a new trait. This is how
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showing how two brown haired parents can have red or brown haired children. 'B' is for brown and 'b' is for red.
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software simulates mating experiments between organisms that are genetically different across a range of traits
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that line up in a particular order within it, carrying genetic information. The language used by DNA is called
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are diseases that are caused by a single allele of a gene and are inherited in families. These include
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Genes are copied each time a cell divides into two new cells. The process that copies DNA is called
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This article is a non-technical introduction to the subject. For the main encyclopedia article, see
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works. For example, rice can be given genes from a maize and a soil bacteria so the rice produces
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The kind of technology used in genetic engineering is also being developed to treat people with
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When people change an organism by adding new genes, or deleting genes from its genome.
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The function of genes is to provide the information needed to make molecules called
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University of Utah
Genetics Learning Center animated tour of the basics of genetics
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organism. As an example, hair color depends on how much of a dark substance called
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The
National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation, Accessed 20 May 2008
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1017:. Cystic fibrosis, for example, is caused by mutations in a single gene called
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The
University of Utah, Genetic Science Learning Center, Accessed 20 May 2008
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and tries to explain what they are and how they work. Genes are how living
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Health
Library, Morgan Stanley Children's Hospital, Accessed 20 May 2008
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Alleles become more or less common either by chance in a process called
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frequent, then the color of the fur in this population of mice would be
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Genes are pieces of DNA that contain information for the synthesis of
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National
Institute of General Medical Sciences, Accessed 20 May 2008
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Some diseases are hereditary and run in families; others, such as
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or height. Other sorts of traits are not easily seen and include
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Genetic engineering: Bacterial arsenal to combat chewing insects
1446:"Breast cancer susceptibility – A new look at an old model"
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826:). Transcription is controlled by other DNA sequences (such as
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of those copies for each gene. An egg and sperm join to form a
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seems to depend on both their genes and their lifestyle.
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Genetics of human eye color: An interactive introduction
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Genetically engineered organisms public issues education
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allele, and the allele that is overridden is called the
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An event that changes the sequence of the DNA in a gene.
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selection picking out those that are useful, causes an
1224:. University of Michigan Health System. Archived from
958:. In terms of genetics, this is called an increase in
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Proteins are made of a chain of 20 different types of
1222:"Low income kids' height doesn't measure up by age 1"
27:
Non-technical introduction to the subject of genetics
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The complete set of genes in a particular organism.
1434:Genetics Home Reference, NIH, Accessed 16 May 2008
1420:requently Asked Questions About Genetic Disorders
862:produced and the person has white skin and hair (
697:the instructions from another, it is called the
689:The effects of mixing depend on the types (the
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1502:American Cancer Society, Accessed 16 May 2008
1410:Understanding Evolution, Accessed 20 May 2008
1391:Understanding Evolution, Accessed 20 May 2008
1290:Genetics Home Reference, Accessed 16 May 2008
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1493:What Are the Risk Factors for Breast Cancer?
1083:in an experimental medical technique called
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3872:Precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA / hnRNA)
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1211:, Athro Limited, Accessed 27 November 2010
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1628:What Color Eyes Would Your Children Have?
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736:) and the genes within the organism (its
1558:Cornell University, Accessed 16 May 2008
1209:Eye color is more complex than two genes
649:; the sequence of the plate-like units (
2001:List of genetics research organizations
1525:Tifton, Georgia: A Peanut Pest Showdown
1247:
1245:
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1023:and is inherited as a recessive trait.
385:
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1619:, A talking glossary of genetic terms.
1382:Mechanisms: The Processes of Evolution
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1072:; the gene makes a protein that is an
563:Some traits are part of an organism's
3892:Histone acetylation and deacetylation
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3957:Ribosome-nascent chain complex (RNC)
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1302:Nobelprize.org, Accessed 20 May 2008
1097:Common misunderstandings of genetics
852:are matched to make two new strands.
653:) in the center carries information.
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1273:HowStuffWorks, Accessed 20 May 2008
1159:. Howstuffworks.com. Archived from
2473:Evolutionary developmental biology
1360:How Stuff Works: Evolution Library
983:evolutionary developmental biology
938:Evolutionary developmental biology
25:
2498:Post-transcriptional modification
1611:Introduction to Genes and Disease
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2014:
2013:
1577:Human Genome Project Information
338:
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3962:Post-translational modification
1634:Transcribe and translate a gene
934:History of evolutionary thought
904:. This exact pairing is called
892:nucleotide must go opposite a
1:
3604:Introductory science articles
1581:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
1463:10.1016/S1535-6108(02)00079-X
786:Genes are expressed by being
1960:Missing heritability problem
790:into RNA, and this RNA then
1187:, Accessed 27 November 2010
1015:Duchenne muscular dystrophy
987:the way the embryo develops
600:Genes are made from a long
4115:
1568:Staff (18 November 2005).
1527:USDA, accessed 16 May 2008
1197:Multifactorial Inheritance
1117:Genetics in simple English
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949:with different coat colors
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2984:Polymerase chain reaction
2944:Green fluorescent protein
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2521:Earliest known life forms
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2009:
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1515:Retrieved 5 November 2012
1422:NIH, Accessed 20 May 2008
930:Introduction to evolution
4023:sequestration (P-bodies)
1605:Introduction to Genetics
822:(this process is called
18:Introduction to Genetics
4001:Gene regulatory network
3036:species discovery curve
2164:Response to environment
1623:Khan Academy on YouTube
1185:Melanocortin 1 Receptor
1107:Whole genome sequencing
4006:cis-regulatory element
3663:mathematical formalism
3511:Plant morphology terms
3113:Biological engineering
2795:Biological interaction
1252:The Structures of Life
1069:Bacillus thuringiensis
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3198:Developmental biology
3173:Computational biology
3153:Cellular microbiology
2493:Mendelian inheritance
2405:Energy transformation
1996:List of genetic codes
1498:29 April 2009 at the
1355:"How Evolution Works"
945:
928:Further information:
848:. DNA is unwound and
844:
785:
723:
711:
644:
637:Genes and inheritance
324:Personalized medicine
318:Personalized medicine
181:Quantitative genetics
176:Mendelian inheritance
4028:alternative splicing
4018:Post-transcriptional
3844:Transcription factor
3418:Reproductive biology
3303:Mathematical biology
3228:Evolutionary biology
3178:Conservation biology
2989:Two-hybrid screening
2959:Protein purification
2790:Biogeochemical cycle
2752:Internal environment
2400:Cellular respiration
1895:Behavioural genetics
1636:, University of Utah
1607:, University of Utah
1546:GMO Safety, Jul 2010
1444:Peto J (June 2002).
1007:Huntington's disease
989:into an adult body.
555:inherit features or
244:Branches of genetics
3952:Transfer RNA (tRNA)
3203:Ecological genetics
2914:Gel electrophoresis
2904:Genetic engineering
2857:Population dynamics
2767:Reproductive system
1975:Population genomics
1965:Molecular evolution
1925:Genetic engineering
1542:15 May 2011 at the
1513:Golden Rice Project
1406:27 May 2008 at the
1387:27 May 2008 at the
1363:. Howstuffworks.com
1336:15 May 2008 at the
1317:14 May 2012 at the
1257:7 June 2014 at the
1163:on 10 February 2008
1132:Predictive medicine
1122:Outline of genetics
1112:History of genetics
1060:genetic engineering
1054:Genetic engineering
1048:Genetic engineering
999:infectious diseases
924:Genes and evolution
757:Genes make proteins
565:physical appearance
489:Genetic engineering
214:Genetic engineering
171:Population genetics
42:Part of a series on
4066:Influential people
4045:Post-translational
3864:Post-transcription
3658:general relativity
3532:Biology portal
3428:Structural biology
3413:Relational biology
3238:Generative biology
3233:Freshwater biology
3031:mark and recapture
2979:Restriction enzyme
2772:Respiratory system
2727:Circulatory system
2654:Epidermis (botany)
1935:Genetic monitoring
1127:Molecular genetics
993:Inherited diseases
951:
896:nucleotide, and a
854:
796:
730:
718:
655:
186:Molecular genetics
145:History and topics
4086:
4085:
3970:
3969:
3900:
3899:
3776:Special transfers
3699:
3698:
3691:systolic geometry
3675:quantum mechanics
3571:
3570:
3433:Synthetic biology
3313:Molecular biology
3168:Cognitive biology
3044:
3043:
2870:
2869:
2561:Natural selection
2342:Organic compounds
2239:Scientific method
2229:Emergent property
2170:Hierarchy of life
2140:Energy processing
2027:
2026:
1950:He Jiankui affair
1940:Genetic genealogy
1930:Genetic diversity
1859:the British Isles
1764:Genetic variation
1617:Genetics glossary
1401:Genetic Variation
1353:Brain, Marshall.
1312:What is Albinism?
1081:genetic disorders
1003:Genetic disorders
971:natural selection
685:Example of mixing
659:ribonucleic acids
578:or resistance to
542:
541:
387:Genetics glossary
381:
380:
108:Genetic variation
16:(Redirected from
4106:
3911:
3808:
3726:
3719:
3712:
3703:
3643:electromagnetism
3598:
3591:
3584:
3575:
3561:
3560:
3551:
3550:
3541:
3540:
3534:
3530:
3529:
3506:Ecological terms
3158:Chemical biology
3019:Field techniques
2892:
2878:
2737:Digestive system
2732:Endocrine system
2305:Chemical element
2264:Biology journals
2160:Self-replication
2115:
2054:
2047:
2040:
2031:
2017:
2016:
1980:Reverse genetics
1955:Medical genetics
1670:
1663:
1656:
1647:
1613:, NCBI open book
1592:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1574:
1565:
1559:
1553:
1547:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1509:
1503:
1490:
1484:
1483:
1465:
1441:
1435:
1429:
1423:
1417:
1411:
1398:
1392:
1379:
1373:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1350:
1341:
1328:
1322:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1285:
1274:
1268:
1262:
1249:
1238:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1218:
1212:
1206:
1200:
1194:
1188:
1182:
1173:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1151:
960:allele frequency
870:Genes are copied
547:is the study of
534:
527:
520:
383:
373:
366:
359:
346:
341:
340:
236:Medical genetics
232:
227:
226:
58:
39:
21:
4114:
4113:
4109:
4108:
4107:
4105:
4104:
4103:
4089:
4088:
4087:
4082:
4061:
3996:Transcriptional
3966:
3935:
3896:
3887:Polyadenylation
3858:
3832:
3797:
3791:Protein→Protein
3742:
3735:
3733:Gene expression
3730:
3700:
3695:
3679:
3631:
3605:
3602:
3572:
3567:
3524:
3523:
3515:
3501:Botanical terms
3484:
3483:
3482:
3443:Systems biology
3408:Quantum biology
3040:
3014:
2896:
2886:
2879:
2866:
2776:
2757:Muscular system
2714:
2708:
2699:Vascular tissue
2646:
2640:
2580:
2541:History of life
2502:
2483:Gene regulation
2478:Gene expression
2449:
2366:
2273:
2104:
2063:
2058:
2028:
2023:
2005:
1984:
1883:
1874:the Middle East
1840:Archaeogenetics
1834:
1778:
1717:
1679:
1674:
1601:
1596:
1595:
1585:
1583:
1572:
1567:
1566:
1562:
1554:
1550:
1544:Wayback Machine
1535:
1531:
1523:
1519:
1510:
1506:
1500:Wayback Machine
1491:
1487:
1443:
1442:
1438:
1432:Cystic fibrosis
1430:
1426:
1418:
1414:
1408:Wayback Machine
1399:
1395:
1389:Wayback Machine
1380:
1376:
1366:
1364:
1352:
1351:
1344:
1338:Wayback Machine
1329:
1325:
1319:Wayback Machine
1310:
1306:
1300:DNA-RNA-Protein
1298:
1294:
1286:
1277:
1269:
1265:
1259:Wayback Machine
1250:
1241:
1231:
1229:
1220:
1219:
1215:
1207:
1203:
1195:
1191:
1183:
1176:
1166:
1164:
1153:
1152:
1145:
1140:
1093:
1056:
1050:
1011:cystic fibrosis
995:
940:
926:
882:DNA replication
878:
876:DNA replication
872:
846:DNA replication
765:
759:
754:
687:
673:cell only gets
639:
538:
509:
508:
505:
495:
494:
491:
481:
480:
477:
467:
466:
463:
453:
452:
445:
435:
434:
430:
420:
419:
416:
406:
405:
398:
377:
336:
329:
328:
319:
311:
310:
309:
308:
257:
249:
248:
240:
218:
199:
191:
190:
146:
138:
137:
124:
123:
122:
66:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4112:
4110:
4102:
4101:
4091:
4090:
4084:
4083:
4081:
4080:
4075:
4073:François Jacob
4069:
4067:
4063:
4062:
4060:
4059:
4058:
4057:
4052:
4042:
4037:
4036:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4015:
4010:
4009:
4008:
4003:
3993:
3992:
3991:
3980:
3978:
3972:
3971:
3968:
3967:
3965:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3943:
3941:
3937:
3936:
3934:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3917:
3915:
3908:
3902:
3901:
3898:
3897:
3895:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3868:
3866:
3860:
3859:
3857:
3856:
3851:
3849:RNA polymerase
3846:
3840:
3838:
3834:
3833:
3831:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3814:
3812:
3805:
3799:
3798:
3796:
3795:
3794:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3773:
3772:
3771:
3753:
3747:
3745:
3737:
3736:
3731:
3729:
3728:
3721:
3714:
3706:
3697:
3696:
3694:
3693:
3687:
3685:
3681:
3680:
3678:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3666:
3665:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3639:
3637:
3633:
3632:
3630:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3613:
3611:
3607:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3600:
3593:
3586:
3578:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3565:
3555:
3545:
3535:
3520:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3492:
3490:
3486:
3485:
3481:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3298:Marine biology
3295:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3108:Bioinformatics
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3054:
3053:
3052:
3050:
3046:
3045:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3022:
3020:
3016:
3015:
3013:
3012:
3005:
2998:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2939:DNA microarray
2936:
2934:DNA sequencing
2931:
2926:
2924:Centrifugation
2921:
2919:Chromatography
2916:
2911:
2909:Transformation
2906:
2900:
2898:
2889:
2881:
2880:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2848:
2847:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2820:Climate change
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2786:
2784:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2762:Nervous system
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2718:
2716:
2710:
2709:
2707:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2694:Vascular plant
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2650:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2638:
2633:
2632:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2601:
2596:
2590:
2588:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2551:Microevolution
2548:
2546:Macroevolution
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2512:
2510:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2459:
2457:
2451:
2450:
2448:
2447:
2442:
2440:Photosynthesis
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2395:Cell signaling
2392:
2387:
2382:
2376:
2374:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2281:
2279:
2278:Chemical basis
2275:
2274:
2272:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2244:Taxonomic rank
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2224:Reductionistic
2221:
2167:
2132:
2127:
2121:
2119:
2112:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2102:
2097:
2096:
2095:
2085:
2080:
2071:Introduction (
2068:
2065:
2064:
2059:
2057:
2056:
2049:
2042:
2034:
2025:
2024:
2022:
2021:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2003:
1998:
1992:
1990:
1986:
1985:
1983:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1970:Plant genetics
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1910:Genome editing
1907:
1902:
1897:
1891:
1889:
1888:Related topics
1885:
1884:
1882:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1845:
1843:
1836:
1835:
1833:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1810:Immunogenetics
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1786:
1784:
1780:
1779:
1777:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1725:
1723:
1722:Key components
1719:
1718:
1716:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1684:
1681:
1680:
1675:
1673:
1672:
1665:
1658:
1650:
1644:
1643:
1637:
1631:
1625:
1620:
1614:
1608:
1600:
1599:External links
1597:
1594:
1593:
1570:"Gene Therapy"
1560:
1548:
1529:
1517:
1504:
1485:
1436:
1424:
1412:
1393:
1374:
1342:
1323:
1304:
1292:
1275:
1263:
1239:
1228:on 26 May 2008
1213:
1201:
1189:
1174:
1142:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1135:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1104:
1099:
1092:
1089:
1052:Main article:
1049:
1046:
994:
991:
925:
922:
874:Main article:
871:
868:
761:Main article:
758:
755:
753:
752:How genes work
750:
724:Red hair is a
714:Punnett square
686:
683:
638:
635:
540:
539:
537:
536:
529:
522:
514:
511:
510:
506:
501:
500:
497:
496:
492:
487:
486:
483:
482:
478:
473:
472:
469:
468:
464:
459:
458:
455:
454:
446:
441:
440:
437:
436:
431:
426:
425:
422:
421:
417:
412:
411:
408:
407:
399:
394:
393:
390:
389:
379:
378:
376:
375:
368:
361:
353:
350:
349:
348:
347:
331:
330:
327:
326:
320:
317:
316:
313:
312:
307:
306:
301:
296:
291:
286:
284:Immunogenetics
281:
276:
271:
266:
260:
259:
258:
255:
254:
251:
250:
247:
246:
239:
238:
233:
216:
211:
209:DNA sequencing
206:
200:
197:
196:
193:
192:
189:
188:
183:
178:
173:
168:
158:
153:
147:
144:
143:
140:
139:
136:
135:
130:
121:
120:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
69:
68:
67:
65:Key components
64:
63:
60:
59:
51:
50:
44:
43:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4111:
4100:
4097:
4096:
4094:
4079:
4078:Jacques Monod
4076:
4074:
4071:
4070:
4068:
4064:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4047:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4040:Translational
4038:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4020:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3998:
3997:
3994:
3990:
3987:
3986:
3985:
3982:
3981:
3979:
3977:
3973:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3944:
3942:
3938:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3903:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3869:
3867:
3865:
3861:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3841:
3839:
3835:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3815:
3813:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3803:Transcription
3800:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3778:
3777:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3759:
3758:
3757:
3756:Central dogma
3754:
3752:
3749:
3748:
3746:
3744:
3738:
3734:
3727:
3722:
3720:
3715:
3713:
3708:
3707:
3704:
3692:
3689:
3688:
3686:
3682:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3640:
3638:
3634:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3614:
3612:
3608:
3599:
3594:
3592:
3587:
3585:
3580:
3579:
3576:
3564:
3556:
3554:
3546:
3544:
3536:
3533:
3528:
3522:
3521:
3518:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3493:
3491:
3487:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3378:Phylogenetics
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3273:Human biology
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3163:Chronobiology
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3138:Biotechnology
3136:
3134:
3133:Biostatistics
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3026:Belt transect
3024:
3023:
3021:
3017:
3011:
3010:
3006:
3004:
3003:
2999:
2997:
2996:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2974:Southern blot
2972:
2970:
2969:Northern blot
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2901:
2899:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2882:
2877:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
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2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2785:
2783:
2779:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2747:Immune system
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2711:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2664:Ground tissue
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2651:
2649:
2643:
2637:
2634:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2606:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2587:
2583:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2566:Phylogenetics
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2531:Genetic drift
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2513:
2511:
2509:
2505:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
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2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2377:
2375:
2373:
2369:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2337:Nucleic acids
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2321:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2300:Chemical bond
2298:
2296:
2295:Carbohydrates
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2282:
2280:
2276:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2101:
2098:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2069:
2066:
2062:
2055:
2050:
2048:
2043:
2041:
2036:
2035:
2032:
2020:
2012:
2011:
2008:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1993:
1991:
1987:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
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1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
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1886:
1880:
1877:
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1823:
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1798:
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1788:
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1781:
1775:
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1770:
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1765:
1762:
1760:
1757:
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1747:
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1735:
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1714:
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1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
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1609:
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1602:
1598:
1582:
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1571:
1564:
1561:
1557:
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1533:
1530:
1526:
1521:
1518:
1514:
1508:
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1501:
1497:
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1489:
1486:
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1473:
1469:
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1451:
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1440:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1425:
1421:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1402:
1397:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1383:
1378:
1375:
1362:
1361:
1356:
1349:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1332:
1327:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1313:
1308:
1305:
1301:
1296:
1293:
1289:
1284:
1282:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1267:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1253:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1227:
1223:
1217:
1214:
1210:
1205:
1202:
1198:
1193:
1190:
1186:
1181:
1179:
1175:
1162:
1158:
1157:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1137:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1094:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1070:
1065:
1064:beta-carotene
1061:
1055:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1042:
1037:
1036:
1030:
1029:breast cancer
1024:
1022:
1021:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
992:
990:
988:
984:
980:
974:
972:
968:
967:genetic drift
963:
961:
957:
948:
944:
939:
935:
931:
923:
921:
919:
915:
909:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
885:
883:
877:
869:
867:
865:
860:
851:
847:
843:
839:
837:
833:
829:
825:
824:transcription
821:
817:
813:
808:
806:
801:
794:into protein.
793:
789:
784:
780:
778:
774:
770:
764:
756:
751:
749:
745:
741:
739:
735:
727:
722:
715:
710:
706:
704:
700:
696:
692:
684:
682:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
652:
648:
645:A section of
643:
636:
634:
632:
627:
623:
617:
615:
611:
607:
603:
598:
596:
595:heart disease
592:
588:
585:
581:
577:
573:
570:
566:
561:
558:
554:
550:
546:
535:
530:
528:
523:
521:
516:
515:
513:
512:
504:
499:
498:
490:
485:
484:
476:
471:
470:
462:
457:
456:
450:
447:A segment of
444:
439:
438:
429:
424:
423:
415:
410:
409:
403:
397:
392:
391:
388:
384:
374:
369:
367:
362:
360:
355:
354:
352:
351:
345:
335:
334:
333:
332:
325:
322:
321:
315:
314:
305:
302:
300:
297:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
261:
253:
252:
245:
242:
241:
237:
234:
230:
221:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
201:
195:
194:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
166:
162:
159:
157:
154:
152:
149:
148:
142:
141:
134:
131:
129:
126:
125:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
94:
91:
89:
86:
84:
81:
79:
76:
74:
71:
70:
62:
61:
57:
53:
52:
49:
45:
41:
40:
35:
30:
19:
4055:irreversible
3940:Key elements
3837:Key elements
3751:Genetic code
3741:Introduction
3740:
3653:gauge theory
3621:
3423:Sociobiology
3403:Protistology
3368:Photobiology
3363:Pharmacology
3353:Parasitology
3348:Paleontology
3328:Neuroscience
3308:Microbiology
3218:Epidemiology
3188:Cytogenetics
3148:Cell biology
3128:Biosemiotics
3118:Biomechanics
3098:Biogeography
3093:Biochemistry
3088:Bacteriology
3083:Astrobiology
3007:
3000:
2993:
2964:Western blot
2954:Enzyme assay
2929:Cell culture
2830:Conservation
2715:and function
2713:Animal form
2647:and function
2420:Fermentation
2198:Organ system
2156:Reproduction
2134:Properties (
2072:
1920:Genetic code
1854:the Americas
1830:Quantitative
1800:Cytogenetics
1795:Conservation
1688:Introduction
1687:
1640:StarGenetics
1584:. Retrieved
1576:
1563:
1551:
1532:
1520:
1507:
1488:
1456:(5): 411–2.
1453:
1449:
1439:
1427:
1415:
1396:
1377:
1365:. Retrieved
1359:
1326:
1307:
1295:
1288:What is DNA?
1266:
1230:. Retrieved
1226:the original
1216:
1204:
1192:
1165:. Retrieved
1161:the original
1155:
1085:gene therapy
1078:
1067:
1057:
1039:
1033:
1025:
1018:
996:
975:
964:
952:
910:
906:base pairing
901:
897:
893:
889:
886:
879:
855:
816:genetic code
809:
797:
766:
763:Genetic code
746:
742:
731:
702:
698:
688:
674:
663:polypeptides
656:
618:
614:genetic code
610:simple units
599:
562:
544:
543:
433:chromosomes.
304:Quantitative
274:Cytogenetics
269:Conservation
151:Introduction
150:
29:
3906:Translation
3743:to genetics
3684:Mathematics
3563:WikiProject
3473:Xenobiology
3468:Virophysics
3438:Systematics
3393:Primatology
3338:Ornithology
3278:Ichthyology
3263:Herpetology
3258:Gerontology
3223:Epigenetics
3183:Cryobiology
3073:Agrostology
3063:Aerobiology
3058:Abiogenesis
2895:Laboratory
2742:Homeostasis
2645:Plant form
2468:Epigenetics
2390:Cell theory
2290:Amino acids
2269:Common name
2259:Peer review
2234:Mechanistic
1900:Epigenetics
1450:Cancer Cell
1102:Epigenetics
1074:insecticide
900:opposite a
850:nucleotides
836:translation
812:nucleotides
788:transcribed
651:nucleotides
576:blood types
4050:reversible
4013:lac operon
3989:imprinting
3984:Epigenetic
3976:Regulation
3931:Eukaryotic
3877:5' capping
3828:Eukaryotic
3489:Glossaries
3458:Toxicology
3453:Teratology
3398:Proteomics
3383:Physiology
3323:Neontology
3288:Lipidology
3283:Immunology
3253:Geobiology
3213:Embryology
3193:Dendrology
3123:Biophysics
3103:Biogeology
2897:techniques
2852:Microbiome
2679:Plant stem
2571:Speciation
2516:Adaptation
2445:Prokaryote
2425:Metabolism
2385:Cell cycle
2216:>
2212:>
2208:>
2206:Population
2204:>
2200:>
2196:>
2192:>
2188:>
2184:>
2180:>
2176:>
2152:Regulation
2136:Adaptation
1905:Geneticist
1879:South Asia
1825:Population
1805:Ecological
1774:Amino acid
1754:Nucleotide
1729:Chromosome
1367:24 January
1167:24 January
1138:References
979:adaptation
800:amino acid
792:translated
661:(RNAs) or
567:, such as
428:Chromosome
414:Nucleotide
299:Population
279:Ecological
204:Geneticist
118:Amino acid
98:Nucleotide
73:Chromosome
3921:Bacterial
3818:Bacterial
3617:evolution
3373:Phycology
3358:Pathology
3343:Osteology
3333:Nutrition
3293:Mammalogy
3268:Histology
3009:in silico
2885:Research
2862:Resources
2835:Ecosystem
2825:Community
2810:Biosphere
2722:Breathing
2604:Eukaryote
2586:Diversity
2536:Gene flow
2508:Evolution
2415:Eukaryote
2327:Molecules
2218:Biosphere
2214:Ecosystem
2210:Community
2182:Organelle
2077:Evolution
1820:Molecular
1815:Microbial
1790:Classical
1472:1535-6108
1331:Mutations
985:, affect
918:evolution
914:mutations
828:promoters
734:phenotype
726:recessive
703:recessive
695:dominates
631:evolution
626:Mutations
587:nourished
553:organisms
294:Molecular
289:Microbial
264:Classical
165:molecular
161:Evolution
4099:Genetics
4093:Category
4033:microRNA
3947:Ribosome
3926:Archaeal
3882:Splicing
3854:Promoter
3823:Archaeal
3767: →
3763: →
3670:M-theory
3622:genetics
3543:Category
3463:Virology
3448:Taxonomy
3388:Pomology
3318:Mycology
3248:Genomics
3243:Genetics
3068:Agronomy
3049:Branches
3002:in vitro
2599:Bacteria
2576:Taxonomy
2556:Mutation
2526:Function
2455:Genetics
2357:Proteins
2202:Organism
2178:Molecule
2162:),
2118:Overview
2093:Timeline
2073:Genetics
2019:Category
1945:Heredity
1915:Genomics
1759:Mutation
1749:Heredity
1713:Glossary
1703:Timeline
1677:Genetics
1540:Archived
1496:Archived
1480:12124169
1404:Archived
1385:Archived
1334:Archived
1315:Archived
1255:Archived
1091:See also
956:evolving
864:albinism
832:ribosome
773:bacteria
769:proteins
738:genotype
699:dominant
602:molecule
580:diseases
545:Genetics
503:Mutation
402:molecule
344:Category
229:template
220:Genomics
198:Research
103:Mutation
93:Heredity
48:Genetics
34:Genetics
3786:RNA→DNA
3781:RNA→RNA
3769:Protein
3648:entropy
3636:Physics
3627:viruses
3610:Biology
3553:Commons
3496:Biology
3478:Zoology
3208:Ecology
3078:Anatomy
2995:in vivo
2887:methods
2840:Habitat
2815:Climate
2800:Biomass
2782:Ecology
2629:Protist
2594:Archaea
2488:Genomes
2435:Mitosis
2430:Meiosis
2352:Polymer
2332:Monomer
2320:Quantum
2154:,
2150:,
2146:,
2142:,
2138:,
2125:Science
2110:Biology
2088:History
2083:Outline
2061:Biology
1698:History
1693:Outline
1271:Enzymes
859:melanin
805:enzymes
691:alleles
604:called
400:A long
156:History
128:Outline
3143:Botany
2949:vector
2805:Biomes
2674:Phloem
2659:Flower
2619:Fungus
2614:Animal
2410:Enzyme
2315:Matter
2310:Lipids
2249:Theory
2190:Tissue
2144:Growth
1864:Europe
1849:Africa
1783:Fields
1769:Allele
1744:Genome
1586:28 May
1511:Staff
1478:
1470:
1232:20 May
969:or by
936:, and
777:divide
728:trait.
679:zygote
622:allele
591:cancer
584:poorly
557:traits
475:Genome
461:Allele
342:
256:Fields
113:Allele
88:Genome
3914:Types
3811:Types
2845:niche
2704:Xylem
2689:Shoot
2636:Virus
2624:Plant
2372:Cells
2362:Water
2285:Atoms
2194:Organ
2148:Order
2100:Index
1989:Lists
1869:Italy
1708:Index
1573:(FAQ)
1041:BRCA2
1035:BRCA1
671:sperm
572:color
549:genes
133:Index
2684:Root
2669:Leaf
2609:Alga
2186:Cell
2174:Atom
2130:Life
1588:2006
1476:PMID
1468:ISSN
1369:2008
1234:2008
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