652:
122:
situation. Adding the GFM capability to a GFL device is not expensive in terms of components, but affects the revenues: in order to support the grid stability by providing extra power when needed, the power semiconductors need to be oversized and energy storage added. Modeling demonstrates, however,
247:
700 MW of loss were caused by the poorly designed frequency estimation algorithm. The line faults had distorted the AC waveform and fooled the software into a wrong estimate of the grid frequency dropping below 57 Hz, a threshold where an emergency disconnect shall be initiated. However, the actual
255:
Additional 450 MW were lost when low line voltage caused the inverters to immediately cease to inject current, with gradual return to operative state within 2 minutes. At least one manufacturer had indicated that injecting the current when the voltage level is below 0.9
99:). The GFL inverters are built into an overwhelming majority of installed IBR devices. Due to their following nature, the GFL device will shut down if a large voltage/frequency disturbance is observed. The GFL devices cannot contribute to the
63:) and their features are almost entirely defined by the control algorithms, presenting specific challenges to system stability as their penetration increases, for example, a single software fault can affect all devices of a certain type in a
114:) device partially mimics the behavior of a synchronous generator: its voltage is controlled by a free-running oscillator that slows down when more energy is withdrawn from the device. Unlike a conventional generator, the GFM device has no
611:
169:
The electronic nature of IBRs limits their overload capability: the thermal stress causes their components to even temporarily be able to function at no more than 1-2 times the
232:), but the unexpected features of the algorithms in the photovoltaic inverter software triggered multiple massive losses of power, with the largest one of almost 1,200
629:
620:
240:
80:
220:
on August 16, 2016, has affected multiple high-voltage (500 kV and 287 kV) power transmission lines passing through the canyon. Throughout the day thirteen 500 kV
181:
New challenges to the system stability came with the increased penetration of IBRs. Incidences of disconnections during contingency events where the
95:) device is synchronized to the local grid voltage and injects an electric current vector aligned with the voltage (in other words, behaves like a
689:
598:
The
Incidence of Inverter Incidents: Understanding and Quantifying Contributions to Risk in Systems with Large Amounts of Inverter-Based Resources
264:
As a result of the incident, NERC had issued multiple recommendations, involving the changes in inverter design and amendments to the standards.
155:), the delay is shorter if the voltage deviation is larger. Once the inverter is off, it will stay disconnected for a significant time (minutes);
564:
394:
379:
Hybridizing synchronous condensers with grid forming batteries for PV integration – a solution to enhance grid reliability and resiliency
248:
frequency during the event had never dropped below 59.867 Hz, well above the low limit of the normal frequency range (59.5 Hz for the
638:
713:
162:
state: while still connected, it will not inject any power into the grid. This state has a short duration (less than a second).
124:
64:
52:
682:
708:
224:
and two 287 kV faults were recorded. The faults themselves were transitory and self-cleared in a short time (2-3.5
166:
Once an IBR ceases to provide power, it can come back only gradually, ramping its output from zero to full power.
602:
514:
123:
that it is possible to run a power system that almost entirely is based on the GFL devices. A combination of GFM
48:
186:
147:
if the sensed line voltage significantly deviates from the nominal (usually outside the limits of 0.9 to 1.1
249:
675:
173:, while the synchronous machines can briefly tolerate an overload as high as 5-6 times their rated power.
128:
60:
574:
Khan, Akhlaque Ahmad; Minai, Ahmad Faiz (13 January 2023). "Introduction to Grid-Forming
Inverters".
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32:
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119:
100:
613:
1,200 MW Fault
Induced Solar Photovoltaic Resource Interruption Disturbance Report
554:
229:
115:
553:
Nabil
Mohammed; Hassan Haes Alhelou; Behrooz Bahrani, eds. (28 February 2023).
529:
217:
545:
537:
143:
Compliance with IEEE 1547 standard makes the IBR to support safety features:
596:
585:
515:"Power System Stability With a High Penetration of Inverter-Based Resources"
196:
One of the most studied major power contingencies that involved IBRs is the
76:
386:
233:
205:
36:
651:
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if the voltage magnitude is unexpected, the inverter shall enter the
27:) is a source of electricity that is asynchronously connected to the
151:), the IBR shall disconnect from the after a delay (so called
381:. Institution of Engineering and Technology. p. 85–108.
75:. The design of inverters for the IBR generally follows the
663:
631:
Application of
Advanced Grid-scale Inverters in the NEM
55:. These devices lack the intrinsic behaviors (like the
556:
Grid-Forming Power
Inverters: Control and Applications
420:
418:
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283:
281:
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capacity and thus will react very differently in the
312:
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236:at 11:45:16 AM, persisting for multiple minutes.
39:"). The devices in this category, also known as
621:North American Electric Reliability Corporation
241:North American Electric Reliability Corporation
103:, dampen active power oscillations, or provide
683:
8:
208:of photovoltaic power in a very short time.
690:
676:
377:Gevorgian, V.; Shah, S.; Yan, W. (2021).
340:
328:
301:
364:
289:
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204:, with a temporary loss of more than a
658:This electricity-related article is a
513:Gu, Yunjie; Green, Timothy C. (2022).
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7:
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646:
496:
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185:was expected, and poor damping of
71:below). IBRs are sometimes called
68:
14:
639:Australian Energy Market Operator
650:
260:would involve a major redesign.
87:Grid-following vs. grid-forming
41:converter interfaced generation
595:Popiel, Caroline Rose (2020).
239:The analysis performed by the
53:battery storage power stations
1:
125:battery storage power station
51:generators (wind, solar) and
662:. You can help Knowledge by
580:. CRC Press. pp. 1–14.
577:Grid-Forming Power Inverters
187:subsynchronous oscillations
730:
645:
530:10.1109/JPROC.2022.3179826
73:non-synchronous generators
603:The University of Vermont
216:The Blue Cut fire in the
49:variable renewable energy
69:section on Blue Cut fire
586:10.1201/9781003302520-1
522:Proceedings of the IEEE
250:Western Interconnection
243:(NERC) had shown that:
135:) is being researched.
21:inverter-based resource
714:Electrical engineering
129:synchronous condensers
387:10.1049/icp.2021.2488
341:Khan & Minai 2023
329:Khan & Minai 2023
302:Khan & Minai 2023
83:PRC-024-2 standards.
61:synchronous generator
16:Source of electricity
628:AEMO (August 2021).
365:Gu & Green 2022
290:Gu & Green 2022
202:Southern California
160:momentary cessation
610:NERC (June 2017).
183:fault ride through
171:nameplate capacity
91:A grid-following (
31:via an electronic
709:Electricity stubs
671:
670:
566:978-1-00-083929-6
396:978-1-83953-680-9
57:inertial response
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153:ridethrough time
110:A grid-forming (
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412:, pp. 4–5.
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331:, pp. 1–2.
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228:, less than 60
214:
193:were reported.
179:
177:Vulnerabilities
141:
89:
47:), include the
33:power converter
29:electrical grid
17:
12:
11:
5:
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97:current source
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559:. CRC Press.
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212:Blue Cut fire
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198:Blue Cut Fire
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120:short-circuit
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101:grid strength
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664:expanding it
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555:
521:
499:, p. 9.
492:
487:, p. 8.
480:
475:, p. 5.
468:
463:, p. 2.
456:
451:, p. v.
444:
432:
427:, p. 5.
405:
378:
372:
367:, p. 2.
360:
348:
343:, p. 4.
336:
324:
304:, p. 1.
297:
292:, p. 1.
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238:
230:milliseconds
215:
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132:
111:
109:
92:
90:
72:
44:
40:
24:
20:
18:
425:Popiel 2020
410:Popiel 2020
222:line faults
200:of 2016 in
116:overcurrent
65:contingency
703:Categories
268:References
218:Cajon Pass
191:weak grids
133:SuperFACTS
546:0018-9219
538:1558-2256
497:NERC 2017
485:NERC 2017
473:NERC 2017
461:NERC 2017
449:NERC 2017
437:AEMO 2021
353:AEMO 2021
317:NERC 2017
234:megawatts
77:IEEE 1547
524:: 1–22.
206:gigawatt
139:Features
37:inverter
601:(MSc).
507:Sources
105:inertia
563:
544:
536:
393:
226:cycles
635:(PDF)
617:(PDF)
534:eISSN
518:(PDF)
67:(cf.
59:of a
660:stub
561:ISBN
542:ISSN
391:ISBN
127:and
81:NERC
79:and
582:doi
526:doi
383:doi
189:in
112:GFM
93:GFL
45:CIG
25:IBR
19:An
705::
637:.
619:.
540:.
532:.
520:.
417:^
389:.
309:^
276:^
258:pu
252:).
149:pu
107:.
35:("
691:e
684:t
677:v
666:.
641:.
623:.
605:.
588:.
584::
569:.
548:.
528::
399:.
385::
131:(
43:(
23:(
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