Iron Age - Knowledge

1301: 2956: 2193: 2068: 2823: 1399:. Whilst terrestrial iron is abundant naturally, temperatures above 1,250 °C (2,280 °F) are required to smelt it, impractical to achieve with the technology available commonly until the end of the second millennium BC. In contrast, the components of bronze—tin with a melting point of 231.9 °C (449.4 °F) and copper with a relatively moderate melting point of 1,085 °C (1,985 °F)—were within the capabilities of Neolithic 2452: 1347: 1485: 1244:. The term "Iron Age" in the archaeology of South, East, and Southeast Asia is more recent and less common than for Western Eurasia. Africa did not have a universal "Bronze Age", and many areas transitioned directly from stone to iron. Some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was developed in sub-Saharan Africa independently from Eurasia and neighbouring parts of Northeast Africa as early as 1476:

BC. The Nok culture of Nigeria may have practiced iron smelting from as early as 1000 BC, while the nearby Djenné-Djenno culture of the Niger Valley in Mali shows evidence of iron production from c. 250 BC. Iron technology across much of sub-Saharan Africa has an African origin dating to before 2000 BC. These findings confirm the independent invention of iron smelting in sub-Saharan Africa.

2486:. Yoon proposes that iron was first introduced to chiefdoms located along North Korean river valleys that flow into the Yellow Sea such as the Cheongcheon and Taedong Rivers. Iron production quickly followed during the 2nd century BC, and iron implements came to be used by farmers by the 1st century in southern Korea. The earliest known cast-iron axes in southern Korea are found in the 2105:, and slowly spread northwards and westwards over the succeeding 500 years. The Iron Age did not start when iron first appeared in Europe but it began to replace bronze in the preparation of tools and weapons. It did not happen at the same time throughout Europe; local cultural developments played a role in the transition to the Iron Age. For example, the Iron Age of 2871:; consequently, as these origin centers are located within inner Africa, these archaeometallurgical developments are thus native African technologies. Iron metallurgical development occurred 2631–2458 BC at Lejja, in Nigeria, 2136–1921 BC at Obui, in Central Africa Republic, 1895–1370 BC at Tchire Ouma 147, in Niger, and 1297–1051 BC at Dekpassanware, in Togo. 2759: 2211:, Portugal, is one of the examples of archaeological sites of the Iron Age. This settlement (fortified villages) covered an area of 3.8 hectares (9.4 acres), and served as a Celtiberian stronghold against Roman invasions. İt dates more than 2500 years back. The site was researched by Francisco Martins Sarmento starting from 1874. A number of 2090:

periods, which initially means descriptions of a particular area by Greek and Roman writers. For much of Europe, the period came to an abrupt local end after conquest by the Romans, though ironworking remained the dominant technology until recent times. Elsewhere it may last until the early centuries

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examination indicates that it is likely that the use of ironware made of steel had already begun in the third millennium BC in Central Anatolia". Souckova-Siegolová (2001) shows that iron implements were made in Central Anatolia in very limited quantities about 1800 BC and were in general use by

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In addition to specially designed furnaces, ancient iron production required the development of complex procedures for the removal of impurities, the regulation of the admixture of carbon, and the invention of hot-working to achieve a useful balance of hardness and strength in steel. The use of steel

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The Early Iron Age in the Caucasus area is divided conventionally into two periods, Early Iron I, dated to about 1100 BC, and the Early Iron II phase from the tenth to ninth centuries BC. Many of the material culture traditions of the Late Bronze Age continued into the Early Iron Age. Thus, there is

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Valley in India have been dated tentatively to 1800 BC. Tewari (2003) concludes that "knowledge of iron smelting and manufacturing of iron artifacts was well known in the Eastern Vindhyas and iron had been in use in the Central Ganga Plain, at least from the early second millennium BC". By

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showed evidence of an extensive trade network. Sa Huynh beads were made from glass, carnelian, agate, olivine, zircon, gold and garnet; most of these materials were not local to the region and were most likely imported. Han-dynasty-style bronze mirrors were also found in Sa Huynh sites. Conversely,

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and its surrounding area. This site is assumed as the center for smelted bloomer iron to this area due to its location in the Karamnasa River and Ganga River. This site shows agricultural technology as iron implements sickles, nails, clamps, spearheads, etc., by at least c. 1500 BC. Archaeological

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to manufacture some items in the 3rd millennium BC such as a small copper/bronze bell with an iron clapper, a copper/bronze rod with two iron decorative buttons, and a copper/bronze mirror handle with a decorative iron button. Artefacts including small knives and blades have been discovered in the

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African sites are revealing dates as early as 2000–1200 BC. However, some recent studies date the inception of iron metallurgy in Africa between 3000 and 2500 BC, with evidence existing for early iron metallurgy in parts of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Central Africa, from as early as around 2,000

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in 671 BC. The explanation of this would seem to be that the relics are in most cases the paraphernalia of tombs, the funeral vessels and vases, and iron being considered an impure metal by the ancient Egyptians it was never used in their manufacture of these or for any religious purposes. It was

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would have been responsible for spreading the knowledge through that region. The idea of such a "Hittite monopoly" has been examined more thoroughly and no longer represents a scholarly consensus. While there are some iron objects from Bronze Age Anatolia, the number is comparable to iron objects

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The Iron Age in Europe is characterized by an elaboration of designs of weapons, implements, and utensils. These are no longer cast but hammered into shape, and decoration is elaborate and curvilinear rather than simple rectilinear; the forms and character of the ornamentation of the northern

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to seek an alternative to bronze. Many bronze implements were recycled into weapons during that time, and more widespread use of iron resulted in improved steel-making technology and lower costs. When tin became readily available again, iron was cheaper, stronger and lighter, and forged iron

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The three-age method of Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages was first used for the archaeology of Europe during the first half of the 19th century, and by the latter half of the 19th century, it had been extended to the archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Its name harks back to the mythological

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saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron-working technology in the region. It was long believed that the success of the Hittite Empire during the Late Bronze Age had been based on the advantages entailed by the "monopoly" on ironworking at the time. Accordingly, the invading

2921:(Holl 2009). The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896–773 BC and 907–796 BC, respectively. Similarly, smelting in bloomery-type furnaces appear in the 3260:

Rehren, Thilo; Belgya, Tamás; Jambon, Albert; Káli, György; Kasztovszky, Zsolt; Kis, Zoltán; Kovács, Imre; Maróti, Boglárka; Martinón-Torres, Marcos; Miniaci, Gianluca; Pigott, Vincent C.; Radivojević, Miljana; Rosta, László; Szentmiklósi, László; Szőkefalvi-Nagy, Zoltán (2013).

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Archaeology in Thailand at sites Ban Don Ta Phet and Khao Sam Kaeo yielding metallic, stone, and glass artifacts stylistically associated with the Indian subcontinent suggest Indianization of Southeast Asia beginning in the 4th to 2nd centuries BC during the late Iron Age.

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begins about 500 BC (when the Greek Iron Age had already ended) and finishes about 400 AD. The widespread use of the technology of iron was implemented in Europe simultaneously with Asia. The prehistoric Iron Age in Central Europe is divided into two periods based on the

2637:. The Anuradhapura settlement is recorded to extend 10 ha (25 acres) by 800 BC and grew to 50 ha (120 acres) by 700–600 BC to become a town. The skeletal remains of an Early Iron Age chief were excavated in Anaikoddai, 2601:

The beginning of the 1st millennium BC saw extensive developments in iron metallurgy in India. Technological advancement and mastery of iron metallurgy were achieved during this period of peaceful settlements. One ironworking centre in

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the date of the beginning of iron smelting in India may well be placed as early as the sixteenth century BC ... by about the early decade of thirteenth century BCE iron smelting was definitely known in India on a bigger

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Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new pottery styles and the start of intensive rice agriculture in paddy fields. Yayoi culture flourished in a geographic area from southern

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Though there is some uncertainty, some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was developed independently in sub-Saharan West Africa, separately from Eurasia and neighboring parts of North and Northeast Africa.

3229:. Das Staats-Lexikon: Enzyklopädie der sämmtlichen Staatswissenschaften für alle Stände : in Verbindung mit vielen der angesehensten Publicisten Deutschlands (in German). F. A. Brockhaus. p. 774 5161:

Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald H. (22 September 1978). "Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania: Recent discoveries show complex technological achievement in African iron production".

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show iron implements in the period 1800–1200 BC. As the evidence from the sites Raja Nala ka tila, Malhar suggest the use of Iron in c. 1800/1700 BC. The extensive use of iron smelting is from

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buried with the skeleton and is assigned by the excavators to the 3rd century BC. Ko, meaning "King" in Tamil, is comparable to such names as Ko Atan and Ko Putivira occurring in contemporary

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had given way to history periodized by ruling dynasties by the start of iron use, so "Iron Age" is not used typically to describe a period of Chinese history. Iron metallurgy reached the

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period saw advances in metallurgy. As early as 300 BC, certainly by 200 AD, high-quality steel was produced in southern India, by what would later be called the

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has not generalized well, as written language and steel use have developed at different times in different areas across the archaeological record. For instance, in China,

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has been used for millennia in many regions, the beginning of the Iron Age is defined locally around the world by archaeological convention when the production of smelted

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Kim, Do-heon (2002). "Samhan Sigi Jujocheolbu-eui Yutong Yangsang-e Daehan Geomto" [A Study of the Distribution Patterns of Cast Iron Axes in the Samhan Period].

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The earliest tentative evidence for iron-making is a small number of iron fragments with the appropriate amounts of carbon admixture found in the Proto-Hittite layers at

2614:) iron appeared as early as 12th to 11th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country. The Indian 2574: 896: 1654: 1663: 2972: 2736: 2539: 2320: 1992: 1673: 1423: 4446: 1724:

In Iran, the earliest actual iron artifacts were unknown until the 9th century BC. For Iran, the best studied archaeological site during this time period is

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The techniques used in Lingnan are a combination of bivalve moulds of distinct southern tradition and the incorporation of piece mould technology from the

1752:, the initial use of iron reaches far back, to perhaps 3000 BC. One of the earliest smelted iron artifacts known is a dagger with an iron blade found in a 1063: 856: 5619: 871: 667: 4113: 2970: 1365:, was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. The earliest-known meteoric iron artifacts are nine small beads dated to 1259:

started before iron smelting began, so the term is used infrequently for the archaeology of China. For the Ancient Near East, the establishment of the

6386: 3875: 4719: 3810: 2318: 2727: 2626:. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. 2381:

period (from about 350 BC). Important non-precious husi style metal finds include iron tools found at the tomb at Guwei-cun of the 4th century BC.

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during the 1830s. By the 1860s, it was embraced as a useful division of the "earliest history of mankind" in general and began to be applied in

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European weapons resemble in some respects Roman arms, while in other respects they are peculiar and evidently representative of northern art.

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in modern-day Turkey, dated to 2200–2000 BC. Akanuma (2008) concludes that "The combination of carbon dating, archaeological context, and

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Iron metal is singularly scarce in collections of Egyptian antiquities. Bronze remained the primary material there until the conquest by the

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Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of large-scale global iron production about 1200 BC, marking the end of the

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around 400 AD. However, iron working may have been practiced in central Africa as early as the 3rd millennium BC. Instances of

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The protohistoric Early Iron Age in Sri Lanka lasted from 1000 BC to 600 BC. Radiocarbon evidence has been collected from

1042: 5245:; Rauch, Ferdinand (16 August 2021). "Of Mice and Merchants: Connectedness and the Location of Economic Activity in the Iron Age". 4407:

Tewari, Rakesh (2003). "The origins of iron working in India: new evidence from the Central Ganga Plain and the Eastern Vindhyas".

1657: 1655: 4973: 4088: 2955: 2536: 1990: 1760:, dating from 2500 BC. The widespread use of iron weapons which replaced bronze weapons rapidly disseminated throughout the 1671: 1667: 5044:

Miller, Duncan E.; Van Der Merwe, Nikolaas J. (1994). "Early Metal Working in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Recent Research".

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Miller, Duncan E.; Van Der Merwe, Nikolaas J. (1994). "Early Metal Working in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Recent Research".

1988: 1666: 6014: 5206: 2532: 2531: 1007: 2967: 2388:. The products of the combination of these two periods are bells, vessels, weapons and ornaments, and the sophisticated cast. 1668: 6181: 5983: 5612: 3024: 2732: 2577:

began prior to the 3rd millennium BC. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila, Lahuradewa,

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The characteristic of an Iron Age culture is the mass production of tools and weapons made not just of found iron, but from

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despite considerable written records now being known from well back into the Bronze Age. In Central and Western Europe, the

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In Japan, iron items, such as tools, weapons, and decorative objects, are postulated to have entered Japan during the late

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attributed to Seth, the spirit of evil who according to Egyptian tradition governed the central deserts of Africa. In the

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as well as a battle axe with an iron blade and gold-decorated bronze shaft were both found in the excavation of Ugarit. A

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Typical bloomery iron production operational sequence starting with acquiring raw materials through smelting and smithing

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is used traditionally and still usually as an end date; later dates are considered historical according to the record by

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are found around 1200 BC, preceding the development of iron metallurgy, which was known by the 9th century BC. The

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Iron ingots were an important mortuary item and indicated the wealth or prestige of the deceased during this period.

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This article is about the historical/archaeological period known as the Iron Age. For the mythological Iron Age, see

2265:(China) between the 10th century BC and the 7th century BC, such as those found at the cemetery site of Chawuhukou. 6281: 6007: 5079:

Stuiver, Minze; van der Merwe, Nicolaas J. (1968). "Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa".

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Stuiver, Minze; van der Merwe, Nicolaas J. (1968). "Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa".

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Aux origines de la métallurgie du fer en Afrique, Une ancienneté méconnue: Afrique de l'Ouest et Afrique centrale

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found in Egypt and other places of the same time period; and only a small number of these objects are weapons.

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Souckova-Siegolová, J. (2001). "Treatment and usage of iron in the Hittite empire in the 2nd millennium BC".

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based on complex preheating principles were found to be in production around the 1st century CE in northwest

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Sa Huynh produced ear ornaments have been found in archaeological sites in Central Thailand, as well as the

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Karunaratne; Adikari (1994). "Excavations at Aligala prehistoric site". In Bandaranayake; Mogren (eds.).

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Archaeological sites containing iron smelting furnaces and slag have also been excavated at sites in the

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Holl, Augustin F. C. (6 November 2009). "Early West African Metallurgies: New Data and Old Orthodoxy".

2118:(late Iron Age) cultures. Material cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène consist of 4 phases (A, B, C, D). 1436: 193: 4750:

Mogren (1994). "Objectives, methods, constraints, and perspectives". In Bandaranayake; Mogren (eds.).

3112:"From bronze to iron: the transition from the bronze age to the iron age in the Eastern Mediterranean" 2535: 2311: 6196: 5988: 5964: 5752: 5723: 5357:

Finkelstein, Israel; Piasetzky, Eli (2011). "The Iron Age Chronology Debate: Is the Gap Narrowing?".

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suggests that a shortage of tin and trade disruptions in the Mediterranean about 1300 BC forced

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From Bronze to Iron: The Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean

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Genesis Too: A Rational Story of How All Things Began and the Main Events that Have Shaped Our World

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Mazar, Amihai (2011). "The Iron Age Chronology Debate: Is the Gap Narrowing? Another Viewpoint".

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Taylor, Sarah (1989). "The introduction and development of iron production in Korea: A survey".

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Riederer, Josef; Wartke, Ralf-B. (2009). "Iron". In Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth (eds.).

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increasing numbers of smelted iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by the lack of

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Comelli, Daniela; d'Orazio, Massimo; Folco, Luigi; El-Halwagym, Mahmud; et al. (2016).

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predates the emergence of the Iron Age proper by several centuries. Iron was being used in

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of Anatolia during the Late Bronze Age. As part of the Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age, the

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The evolution of an ethnic identity : the Tamils in Sri Lanka c. 300 BCE to c. 1200 CE

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may date to as early as 1500 BC. There is also evidence of iron metallurgy in Termit,

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inscriptions in south India. It is also speculated that Early Iron Age sites may exist in

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is believed to have begun after the discovery of iron smelting and smithing techniques in

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was one of the relatively few places in Africa to have a sustained Bronze Age along with

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to 3rd centuries BC) identified by excavated artifacts and mummified humans found in the

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India: An Archaeological History: Palaeolithic Beginnings to Early Historic Foundations

4754:. Sri Lanka: University of Kelaniya: Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology. p. 39. 4739:. Sri Lanka: University of Kelaniya: Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology. p. 58. 4145:

Hall, Mark E. (1997). "Towards an absolute chronology for the Iron Age of Inner Asia".

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Muhly, James D. (2003). "Metalworking/Mining in the Levant". In Suzanne Richard (ed.).

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Early evidence for iron technology in Sub-Saharan Africa can be found at sites such as

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Eggert, Manfred (2014). "Early iron in West and Central Africa". In Breunig, P (ed.).

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in the archaeology of the Ancient Near East was developed during the 1920s and 1930s.

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elites, though not by commoners, during the New Hittite Empire (≈1400–1200 BC).

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Burial Ritual, Gender, and Status in South Siberia in the Late Bronze-early Iron Age

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Understanding Materials Science: History, Properties, Applications, Second Edition

2493:. The time that iron production begins is the same time that complex chiefdoms of 2423: 2208: 5131: 4221: 3587: 3360: 6131: 5659: 4765:

Allchin, F. R. (1989). "City and State Formation in Early Historic South Asia".

4447:"Metal Technologies of the Indus Valley Tradition in Pakistan and Western India" 3388:"The Significance of Early Bronze Age Iron Objects from Kaman-Kalehöyük, Turkey" 2922: 2910: 2868: 2860: 2859:

originated in numerous centers of Africa; the centers of origin were located in

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Smelted iron appears sporadically in the archeological record from the middle

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Further studies in the settlement archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla region

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Further studies in the settlement archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla region

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was introduced to Europe during the late 11th century BC, probably from the

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to 100 BC during which ferrous metallurgy was present even if not dominant.

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has also been regulated by the economics of the metallurgical advancements.

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Ancient Europe, 8000 B.C. to A.D. 1000: Encyclopedia of the Barbarian World

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emerged. The complex chiefdoms were the precursors of early states such as

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of central Nigeria by about 550 BC and possibly a few centuries earlier.

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was a major manufacturer and exporter of iron after the expulsion of the

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in the context of China is used sometimes for the transitional period of

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content. Only with the capability of the production of carbon steel does

1377: 1166: 1162: 647: 372: 5395:

Mazar, Amihai (1997). "Iron Age Chronology: A Reply to I. Finkelstein".

3263:"5,000 years old Egyptian iron beads made from hammered meteoritic iron" 17: 5591: 3858: 3833: 2906: 2782: 2758: 2619: 2578: 2443: 2374: 2370: 2284: 2212: 1749: 1366: 1245: 791: 5118:

Pringle, Heather (9 January 2009). "Seeking Africa's first Iron Men".

3111: 1316:. As an archaeological era, it was first introduced to Scandinavia by 5803: 4662: 2902: 2709: 2650: 2638: 2611: 2502: 2494: 2042: 2034: 1497: 1457: 1448: 1389: 1381: 1313: 1251:

The concept of the Iron Age ending with the beginning of the written

1237: 1155: 638: 4520: 4501: 4365:

State Formation in Korea: Historical and Archaeological Perspectives

2365:

toward the end of the 6th century BC. The few objects were found at

1277:

of the 1st century BC serve as marking the end of the Iron Age. The

5597: 5272:

Rethinking Prehistoric Central Asia: Shepherds, Farmers, and Nomads

5092: 4912:

Bandama, Foreman; Babalola, Abidemi Babatunde (13 September 2023).

4248:

Encyclopedia of World Art: Landscape in art to Micronesian cultures

3532: 3197: 2418:

250–538 AD), most likely from the Korean Peninsula and China.

3561:. 19 February 2007. Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. 3008: 2954: 2932:

spread south and east from Central Africa in conjunction with the

2914: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2843: 2839: 2821: 2813: 2763: 2757: 2716:. However, more recent scholars have dated them to later periods. 2582: 2498: 2463: 2455: 2450: 2191: 2066: 1741: 1483: 1345: 1299: 1151: 5577:. American Institute of Archaeology, San Francisco, January 2004. 5539: 2373:. The mortuary evidence suggests that the initial use of iron in 4914:"Science, Not Black Magic: Metal and Glass Production in Africa" 3876:"King Tut's Dagger Made of 'Iron From the Sky,' Researchers Say" 2705: 2258: 1765: 1509: 1447:

Similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron-working in the

1400: 1147: 407: 6003: 5601: 4639:"An ancient wind-powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka" 4592:. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press, USA. p. xxix. 4041:(1st paperback ed.). Thames and Hudson. 2005. p. 21. 3728: 3588:"Did They or Didn't They Invent It? Iron in Sub-Saharan Africa" 2739:

Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details.

2542:

Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details.

2323:

Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details.

1995:

Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details.

1107:(before written history). In this usage, it is preceded by the 2975:

Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details

2963: 2724: 2527: 2474:

through trade with chiefdoms and state-level societies in the

2349:

is identified with a group of characters from a book entitled

2308: 2045:, the metal is mentioned. A sword bearing the name of pharaoh 1984: 1652: 1520:. The Iron Age in Europe is often considered as a part of the 1419: 5999: 5575:

Early "Iron Age economic expansion and contraction revisited"

3401:. Tokyo: Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archaeology: 313–20. 2091:

AD, and either Christianization or a new conquest during the

1789:

Early examples and distribution of non-precious metal finds

1771:

The development of iron smelting was once attributed to the

1721:

a sociocultural continuity during this transitional period.

1388:

result in tools or weapons that are harder and lighter than

1201:

between the 12th and 11th century BC. Its further spread to

4804:. Colombo: South Asian Studies Centre Sydney. p. 324. 2161:

Dagger swords, brooches, and ring ornaments, girdle mounts

1123:) and Bronze Age. These concepts originated for describing 3834:"The meteoritic origin of Tutankhamun's iron dagger blade" 1193:(1200–1100 BC). The technology soon spread throughout the 3198:"Iron and its influence on the prehistoric site of Lejja" 2712:

coin legends, and the inscription on the silver coins of

5023:. Frankfurt: Africa Magna Verlag Press. pp. 53–54. 3362:

Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction

1338:

Ferrous metallurgy § Iron smelting and the Iron Age

4987:

Collins, Robert O.; Burns, James M. (8 February 2007).

4502:"Iron Age in South India: Telangana and Andhra Pradesh" 2838:

and parts of Nigeria and the Central African Republic.

2598:

excavations in Hyderabad show an Iron Age burial site.

2573:

which have been dated between 2400 BC and 1800 BC. The

2478:

area during the 4th century BC, just at the end of the

4721:

The prehistory of Sri Lanka: An ecological perspective

5588:"Mass burial suggests massacre at Iron Age hill fort" 4991:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 37. 4564:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 372. 4336:

Yoon, D. S (1989). "Early iron metallurgy in Korea".

2051:

dagger with an iron blade found in Tutankhamun's tomb

1539:

implements superseded cast bronze tools permanently.

5340:

Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age

5010: 5008: 3987:

History of Europe – The chronology of the Metal Ages

2917:(Eze-Uzomaka 2009) and to 750 BC and at the site of 2196:

A sword of the Iron Age Cogotas II culture in Spain.

6290: 6047: 5912: 5884: 5817: 5794: 5732: 5635: 5493:

The Age of Iron in South Asia: Legacy and Tradition

5320:. English Heritage (Rev. ed.). B.T. Batsford. 4858:

Early Interactions between South and Southeast Asia

4831:. Oxford University Press India. pp. 355–356. 3918:

American Association for the Advancement of Science

3138:. Frankfurt, Germany: Africa Magna. pp. 51–59. 3129: 3127: 3125: 1185:, this transition occurred simultaneously with the 4415:(297). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 536–544. 4153:(274). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 863–874. 3908:"King Tut's dagger made from an ancient meteorite" 2857:scientific knowledge and technological development 2181:Iron chains, iron swords, belts, heavy spearheads 2041:found some pieces of iron. In the funeral text of 5021:Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context 3555:"How Old is the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa?" 3136:Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context 2575:history of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent 4713: 4711: 4390:Silla – Gaya Sahoe-eui Giwon-gwa Seongjang 4199:. University of California Press. p. 226. 3105: 3103: 4475:"Rare discovery pushes back Iron Age in India" 3684:on 11 April 2022 – via encyclopedia.com. 3486: 3484: 3482: 3365:. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 21. 2874:Very early copper and bronze working sites in 2606:has been dated to the first millennium BC. In 2434:are sometimes referred to collectively as the 2186:Iron reaping-hooks, saws, scythes and hammers 6015: 5613: 5052:(1). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 1–36. 4394:The Rise and Growth of Silla and Gaya Society 4263:"Prehistoric Archaeological Periods in Japan" 3774: 3772: 3499:(1). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 1–36. 3191: 3189: 3187: 2410:300 BC – 300 AD) or the succeeding 2082:In Europe, the Iron Age is the last stage of 1768:) by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. 1546:and Western Europe, the Iron Age lasted from 1217:was not reached until about the start of the 1103:(before recorded history) and progressing to 1064: 668: 312: 8: 5573:Andre Gunder Frank and William R. Thompson, 5338:; Bashilov, V.A.; Tiablonskiĭ, L.T. (1995). 4555: 4553: 3739:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 2074:, Dorset, England. More than 2,000 Iron Age 1713:, Jordan about 930 BC (determined from 1228:is stated as beginning with the ironworking 4396:] (in Korean). Seoul: Hakyeon Munhwasa. 3598:. Cambridge University Press (CUP): 41–94. 3151: 3149: 3147: 3145: 2222: 2216: 1373:, having been shaped by careful hammering. 1087:is the final epoch of the three historical 6022: 6008: 6000: 5909: 5814: 5729: 5620: 5606: 5598: 4907: 4905: 4004:La Tène | archaeological site, Switzerland 3798:. Gothenburg: Paul Astöms. pp. 56–58. 2826:Examples of African bloomery furnace types 2304:History of metallurgy in China § Iron 1324:. The development of the now-conventional 1071: 1057: 686: 675: 661: 330: 319: 305: 38: 4929: 4626:. Cambridge University Press. p. 64. 4296: 4294: 3857: 3821:on 1 December 2007 – via Freeserve. 3719: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3454: 3429: 3427: 3289: 2985:Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron Age 2552:Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron Age 2395:has been associated tentatively with the 2333:Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron Age 2254:began when iron objects appear among the 5504:. Great Britain: Institute of Materials. 5105: 4021:Hallstatt | archaeological site, Austria 3748: 3746: 3644:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 2120: 1787: 1353:, the sixth largest in the world, is an 5540:A site with a focus on Iron Age Britain 5017:"Early iron in West and Central Africa" 4538:K. Venkateshwarlu (10 September 2008). 3223:von Rotteck, K.; Welcker, K.T. (1864). 3051: 3030:List of archaeological sites by country 689: 342: 50: 5247:The Review of Economics and Statistics 4367:. Richmond, Surrey: Psychology Press. 4278: 4276: 4261:Keally, Charles T. (14 October 2002). 4195:Keightley, David N. (September 1983). 3759:Essays on Geology, History, and People 3564: 2176:Iron swords, heavy knives, lanceheads 2399:described by early Tibetan writings. 1634:transitions almost directly into the 1173:, the Iron Age began during the late 7: 5241:Bakker, Jan David; Maurer, Stephan; 4338:Archaeological Review from Cambridge 3116:Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 2940:in the 3rd century BC, reaching the 2641:. The name "Ko Veta" is engraved in 2470:Iron objects were introduced to the 1281:of Scandinavia is considered to end 5457:. BAR international series. B.A.R. 4852:Glover, I. C.; Bellina, B. (2011). 4560:Diakonoff, I. M. (27 August 1991). 4197:The Origins of Chinese Civilization 4094:. Translated by Andreia Cunha Silva 4066:. Dorrance Publishing. p. 45. 3838:Meteoritics & Planetary Science 3035:Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America 2913:: dating to 2000 BC at the site of 2668:The earliest undisputed deciphered 2618:mention metallurgy. and the Indian 2357:800 BC). Therefore, in China 2171:S-shaped, spiral and round designs 5561:National Museum of Natural History 4623:The New Cambridge History of India 4039:Exploring The World of "The Celts" 3706:from the original on 16 June 2022. 3359:McClellan, J.E.; Dorn, H. (2006). 3076:Milisauskas, Sarunas, ed. (2002). 2936:, from the Cameroon region to the 2482:but prior to the beginning of the 2024:Third Intermediate Period of Egypt 1154:tools and weapons) replaces their 25: 5594:in Derbyshire. BBC. 17 April 2011 5270:Chang, Claudia (16 August 2017). 4540:"Iron Age burial site discovered" 3270:Journal of Archaeological Science 3248:Oriental Institute Communications 2698:Sohgaura copper plate inscription 1131:. The indigenous cultures of the 1043:Outline of prehistoric technology 950:History of electrical engineering 6387:2nd-millennium BC establishments 4223:The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia 3955:History of Europe – The Iron Age 3811:"Metalworking in Ancient Greece" 3395:Anatolian Archaeological Studies 1460:in the product) appeared in the 1135:did not develop an iron economy 4989:A History of Sub-Saharan Africa 4860:. Vol. 2. pp. 17–45. 4800:Intirapālā, Kārttikēcu (2005). 4119:(in Portuguese). Archived from 3204:. University of Nigeria, Nsukka 2458:chest and neck armour from the 2430:. The Kofun and the subsequent 1008:Timeline of historic inventions 6182:Liaoning bronze dagger culture 5984:List of archaeological periods 5513:. Vol. 54–55. P. Aström. 5438:10.5615/neareastarch.74.2.0105 5371:10.5615/neareastarch.74.1.0050 5249:. MIT Press - Journals: 1–14. 5046:The Journal of African History 4724:(Thesis) – via ProQuest. 4226:. Cambridge University Press. 4182:Rannyi zheleznyi vek Priamuria 3629:. London: Thames & Hudson. 3493:The Journal of African History 3025:List of archaeological periods 2696:relic casket inscription, the 2688:relic casket inscription, the 2680:of the 3rd century BC, in the 2037:, dating before 2000 BC, 1369:, which were found in burials 554: 249: 1: 5894:History of ferrous metallurgy 5175:10.1126/science.201.4361.1085 4918:African Archaeological Review 4890:Early Mainland Southeast Asia 4825:Dilip K. Chakrabarty (2009). 4779:10.1080/02666030.1989.9628379 4718:Deraniyagala, Siran Upendra. 4519:Ranjan, Amit (January 2014). 4315:10.1080/00438243.1989.9980082 3874:Walsh, Declan (2 June 2016). 3753:Cowen, Richard (April 1999). 3660:The Coming of the Age of Iron 3627:Arms and Armour of the Greeks 3079:European Prehistory: A Survey 3016:, example in northwest France 2415: 2407: 2354: 2277: 2156:Heavy iron and bronze swords 1709:smelting of iron is found at 1702: 1643: 1601: 1590: 1576: 1565: 1554: 1547: 1282: 1263: 1178: 985:History of nuclear technology 228: 205: 188:Southeast Asia (1000–200 BC) 6232:South-Western Iberian Bronze 5553:Human Timeline (Interactive) 5549:from resourcesforhistory.com 5495:. Aryan Books International. 5231:Resources in other libraries 5132:10.1126/science.323.5911.200 3755:"Chapter 5: The Age of Iron" 2442:is Japanese for the type of 1705:1300 BC). The earliest 1611:), roughly the beginning of 1288:, with the beginning of the 965:History of materials science 945:History of computer hardware 902:Arab Agricultural Revolution 817:Fourth Industrial Revolution 777:Second Industrial Revolution 4684:Weligamage, Lahiru (2005). 3658:; J.D. Muhly, eds. (1979). 3586:Alpern, Stanley B. (2005). 3158:Journal of World Prehistory 3014:Jublains archeological site 2928:Iron and copper working in 2391:An Iron Age culture of the 2377:belongs to the mid-to-late 2343:Chinese bronze inscriptions 2151:Pottery made of polychrome 1589:is considered to last from 1318:Christian Jürgensen Thomsen 1158:equivalents in common use. 802:Third Industrial Revolution 767:First Industrial Revolution 6408: 6282:Wilburton-Wallington Phase 5453:Medvedskaya, I.N. (1982). 4931:10.1007/s10437-023-09545-6 4180:Derevianki, A. P. (1973). 3906:Panko, Ben (2 June 2016). 3794:Waldbaum, Jane C. (1978). 3761:. UC Davis. Archived from 3110:Waldbaum, Jane C. (1978). 2807: 2801: 2520: 2301: 2060: 2021: 1335: 1236:, through to the reign of 1213:was somewhat delayed, and 29: 6359: 6167:Indus Valley Civilisation 6077:Armorican Tumulus culture 6037: 5979: 5409:10.1179/lev.1997.29.1.157 5301:. London: B.T. Batsford. 5226:Resources in your library 5058:10.1017/s0021853700025949 4866:10.1355/9789814311175-005 4421:10.1017/s0003598x00092590 4363:Barnes, Gina Lee (2001). 4159:10.1017/s0003598x00085781 3864:Free full text available. 3571:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 3505:10.1017/s0021853700025949 3465:10.1017/S0003598X00092590 3414:Mediterranean Archaeology 3338:. Springer. p. 125. 3291:10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.002 3170:10.1007/s10963-009-9030-6 2882:from around this period. 2804:Iron metallurgy in Africa 2762:Lingling-o earrings from 2560:The earliest evidence of 1764:(North Africa, southwest 1619:, marking the end of the 1361:Meteoric iron, a natural 1342:Archaeometallurgical slag 1230:Painted Grey Ware culture 1018:Complete list by category 980:History of simple machine 283:Archaeometallurgical slag 5545:18 February 2007 at the 5426:Near Eastern Archaeology 5359:Near Eastern Archaeology 5019:. In Breunig, P. (ed.). 5015:Eggert, Manfred (2014). 4892:. Bangkok: River Books. 4220:Higham, Charles (1996). 3781:Near Eastern Archaeology 3640:Snodgrass, A.M. (1971). 3625:Snodgrass, A.M. (1966). 2846:and much of the rest of 2704:Brahmi inscription, the 2690:Badli pillar inscription 2460:National Museum of Korea 1494:Krieger von Hirschlanden 1371:at Gerzeh in Lower Egypt 1253:historiographical record 1187:Late Bronze Age collapse 1013:Technological revolution 955:History of manufacturing 940:History of communication 935:History of biotechnology 6127:Deverel–Rimbury culture 5717:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B 5712:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A 5509:Waldbaum, J.C. (1978). 5502:A History of Metallurgy 5500:Tylecote, R.F. (1975). 5316:Cunliffe, B.W. (2004). 4686:"The Ancient Sri Lanka" 4618:Bayly, Christopher Alan 4506:South Asian Archaeology 4287:(in Korean) (31): 1–29. 4087:Francisco Sande Lemos. 4026:Encyclopædia Britannica 4009:Encyclopædia Britannica 3992:Encyclopædia Britannica 3960:Encyclopædia Britannica 3850:2016M&PS...51.1301C 3736:Encyclopædia Britannica 3434:Tewari, Rakesh (2003). 3386:Akanuma, Hideo (2008). 3064:Encyclopædia Britannica 3020:List of Iron Age states 2894:in the 7th century BC. 2633:and Aligala shelter in 2035:Black Pyramid of Abusir 1490:Warrior of Hirschlanden 761:Proto-industrialization 5645:Prehistoric technology 5472:Shinnie, P.L. (1971). 4388:Lee, Sung-joo (1998). 4114:"Citânia de Briteiros" 4089:"Citânia de Briteiros" 3642:The Dark Age of Greece 3226:Das Staats-Lexikon: Bd 2960: 2827: 2770: 2467: 2446:dating from that era. 2274:archaeological culture 2217: 2197: 2079: 1513: 1358: 1304: 1296:History of the concept 1181:1300 BC). In the 970:History of measurement 930:History of agriculture 897:Medieval Islamic world 807:Digital transformation 604:Post-classical history 470:Cradle of civilization 232: 400 BC – 100 AD 5707:Pre-Pottery Neolithic 5491:Tripathi, V. (2001). 5386:Jacobson, E. (1987). 5299:The European Iron Age 5297:Collis, John (1984). 5280:10.4324/9781315173696 5243:Pischke, Jörn-Steffen 4637:Juleff, Gill (1996). 4062:Ransone, Rob (2019). 3974:The European Iron Age 3972:Collis, John (1989). 3604:10.1353/hia.2005.0003 3332:Hummel, R.E. (2004). 3196:Eze–Uzomaka, Pamela. 2958: 2825: 2761: 2480:Warring States Period 2454: 2302:Further information: 2195: 2114:(early Iron Age) and 2086:and the first of the 2078:are known in Britain. 2070: 1573:Northern Scandinavian 1487: 1355:iron–nickel meteorite 1349: 1303: 1111:(subdivided into the 1038:Outline of technology 924:By type of technology 851:By historical regions 839:Emerging technologies 699:By technological eras 691:History of technology 27:Archaeological period 6197:Mumun pottery period 5989:List of time periods 5724:Neolithic Revolution 5474:The African Iron Age 5255:10.1162/rest_a_00902 5081:Current Anthropology 4267:Japanese Archaeology 4250:. McGraw-Hill. 1964. 3702:. 15 December 2006. 3700:Encyclopædia Iranica 3521:Current Anthropology 3096:on 23 November 2022. 2905:region of southeast 2854:Archaeometallurgical 2495:Proto-historic Korea 2205:Citânia de Briteiros 1681:The Iron Age in the 1585:The Iron Age in the 1441:archaeometallurgical 1378:smelted steel alloys 1351:Willamette Meteorite 1332:Definition of "iron" 1002:Technology timelines 990:History of transport 728:Neolithic Revolution 442:Behavioral modernity 209: 2000 – 100 BC 6192:Minoan civilization 6122:Deer stones culture 6082:Atlantic Bronze Age 6062:Aegean civilization 5809:Bronze Age collapse 5476:. Clarendon Press. 5169:(4361): 1085–1089. 4888:Higham, C. (2014). 4767:South Asian Studies 4655:1996Natur.379...60J 4616:; Johnson, Gordon; 3796:From Bronze to Iron 3765:on 19 January 2018. 3674:"Iron Age Caucasia" 3305:Rapp, G.R. (2002). 3282:2013JArSc..40.4785R 2938:African Great Lakes 2674:Indian subcontinent 2484:Western Han dynasty 2397:Zhang Zhung culture 2107:Prehistoric Ireland 2030:Neo-Assyrian Empire 1790: 1777:Bronze Age collapse 1638:of imperial China. 1598:Bronze Age collapse 1564:Northern Europe in 1522:Bronze Age collapse 1195:Mediterranean Basin 975:History of medicine 960:History of maritime 867:Indian subcontinent 521:Bronze Age collapse 278:Iron Age metallurgy 83:Bronze Age collapse 6341:Leyla-Tepe culture 6298:and Transcaucasia) 6112:Chinese Bronze Age 6092:Bronze Age Britain 5670:Middle Paleolithic 4696:on 10 January 2020 4690:LankaLibrary Forum 4479:The Times of India 3881:The New York Times 3859:10.1111/maps.12664 3783:. pp. 174–83. 2961: 2930:Sub-Saharan Africa 2890:from Egypt by the 2828: 2771: 2624:crucible technique 2468: 2198: 2084:prehistoric Europe 2080: 1788: 1562:pre-Roman Iron Age 1514: 1386:ferrous metallurgy 1359: 1305: 1232:, dating from the 912:Renaissance Europe 424:Middle Paleolithic 260:(2600 BC – 500 AD) 196:(1000 BC – 200 AD) 133:(1100 BC – 150 AD) 6369: 6368: 6252:Terramare culture 6207:Nordic Bronze Age 6157:Hallstatt culture 6102:Canegrate culture 6097:Bronze Age Europe 6067:Andronovo culture 5997: 5996: 5975: 5974: 5880: 5879: 5790: 5789: 5675:Upper Paleolithic 5665:Lower Paleolithic 5520:978-91-85058-79-2 5483:978-0-19-813158-8 5464:978-0-86054-156-1 5349:978-1-885979-00-1 5336:Davis-Kimball, J. 5327:978-0-00-704186-2 5308:978-0-7134-3452-1 5289:978-1-315-17369-6 5207:Library resources 5126:(5911): 200–202. 4998:978-0-521-68708-9 4898:978-616-7339-44-3 4875:978-981-4345-10-1 4838:978-0-19-908814-0 4586:Olivelle, Patrick 4303:World Archaeology 4233:978-0-521-56505-9 4206:978-0-520-04229-2 4048:978-0-500-27998-4 3941:Brill's New Pauly 3592:History in Africa 3372:978-0-8018-8360-6 3345:978-0-387-20939-5 3318:978-3-540-42579-3 3308:Archaeomineralogy 3276:(12): 4785–4792. 2989:Historic Iron Age 2754:Historic Iron Age 2708:coin legend, the 2556:Historic Iron Age 2523:Iron Age in India 2466:(3rd century AD). 2347:large seal script 2337:Historic Iron Age 2237:) revealed here. 2190: 2189: 2112:Hallstatt culture 2013:Historic Iron Age 1982: 1981: 1699:2nd millennium BC 1683:Ancient Near East 1677:Ancient Near East 1587:Ancient Near East 1532:Anthony Snodgrass 1526:ancient Near East 1454:Middle Bronze Age 1431:Earliest evidence 1428: 1427: 1363:iron–nickel alloy 1279:Germanic Iron Age 1261:Achaemenid Empire 1226:Iron Age in India 1183:Ancient Near East 1175:2nd millennium BC 1129:Ancient Near East 1081: 1080: 882:Hellenistic world 877:Maya civilization 685: 684: 437:Upper Paleolithic 399:Lower Paleolithic 329: 328: 252:(500 BC – 300 AD) 219:(500 BC – 200 AD) 165:(500 BC – 800 AD) 157:(800 BC – 100 AD) 75:Ancient Near East 16:(Redirected from 6399: 6299: 6272:Urnfield culture 6237:Srubnaya culture 6202:Mycenaean Greece 6187:Lusatian culture 6137:Ewart Park Phase 6117:Cycladic culture 6107:Catacomb culture 6072:Apennine culture 6057:Abashevo culture 6024: 6017: 6010: 6001: 5910: 5815: 5730: 5692:Middle Stone Age 5629:Three-age system 5622: 5615: 5608: 5599: 5524: 5505: 5496: 5487: 5468: 5455:Iran: Iron Age I 5449: 5420: 5391: 5382: 5353: 5331: 5318:Iron Age Britain 5312: 5293: 5266: 5195: 5194: 5158: 5152: 5151: 5115: 5109: 5104: 5076: 5070: 5069: 5041: 5035: 5034: 5012: 5003: 5002: 4984: 4978: 4977: 4966: 4960: 4959: 4933: 4909: 4900: 4886: 4880: 4879: 4849: 4843: 4842: 4822: 4816: 4815: 4797: 4791: 4790: 4762: 4756: 4755: 4747: 4741: 4740: 4732: 4726: 4725: 4715: 4706: 4705: 4703: 4701: 4692:. Archived from 4681: 4675: 4674: 4663:10.1038/379060a0 4634: 4628: 4627: 4610: 4604: 4603: 4582: 4576: 4575: 4557: 4548: 4547: 4535: 4529: 4528: 4516: 4510: 4509: 4497: 4491: 4490: 4488: 4486: 4471: 4465: 4464: 4462: 4460: 4451: 4443: 4437: 4436: 4404: 4398: 4397: 4385: 4379: 4378: 4360: 4354: 4353: 4333: 4327: 4326: 4298: 4289: 4288: 4285:Yongnam Kogohak 4280: 4271: 4270: 4258: 4252: 4251: 4244: 4238: 4237: 4217: 4211: 4210: 4192: 4186: 4185: 4177: 4171: 4170: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4133: 4131: 4125: 4118: 4110: 4104: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4093: 4084: 4078: 4077: 4073:978-1-64426237-5 4059: 4053: 4052: 4035: 4029: 4018: 4012: 4001: 3995: 3984: 3978: 3977: 3969: 3963: 3952: 3946: 3945: 3935: 3929: 3928: 3926: 3924: 3903: 3897: 3896: 3891: 3889: 3871: 3865: 3863: 3861: 3829: 3823: 3822: 3817:. Archived from 3806: 3800: 3799: 3791: 3785: 3784: 3776: 3767: 3766: 3750: 3741: 3740: 3732: 3730:"Iron Age" 3721: 3708: 3707: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3680:. Archived from 3670: 3664: 3663: 3656:Theodore Wertime 3652: 3646: 3645: 3637: 3631: 3630: 3622: 3616: 3615: 3583: 3577: 3576: 3570: 3562: 3551: 3545: 3544: 3516: 3488: 3477: 3476: 3458: 3449:(297): 536–545. 3440: 3431: 3422: 3421: 3409: 3403: 3402: 3392: 3383: 3377: 3376: 3356: 3350: 3349: 3329: 3323: 3322: 3302: 3296: 3295: 3293: 3267: 3257: 3251: 3245: 3239: 3238: 3236: 3234: 3220: 3214: 3213: 3211: 3209: 3193: 3182: 3181: 3153: 3140: 3139: 3131: 3120: 3119: 3107: 3098: 3097: 3092:. Archived from 3073: 3067: 3056: 3040:Roman metallurgy 2988: 2984: 2981: 2787:Sa Huynh culture 2753: 2746:Prehistoric (or 2745: 2678:Edicts of Ashoka 2569:Indian state of 2555: 2551: 2548: 2472:Korean peninsula 2417: 2409: 2356: 2336: 2332: 2329: 2282: 2279: 2250:The Iron Age in 2236: 2233: 2230: 2227: 2224: 2220: 2121: 2093:Migration Period 2012: 2005:Prehistoric (or 2004: 2001: 1850: 1848:Total Bronze Age 1791: 1704: 1697:during the late 1695:Southeast Europe 1648: 1645: 1632:Bronze Age China 1621:proto-historical 1606: 1603: 1595: 1592: 1581: 1578: 1570: 1567: 1559: 1556: 1552: 1549: 1504:warrior made of 1415: 1414: 1287: 1284: 1268: 1265: 1180: 1171:Southeast Europe 1073: 1066: 1059: 892:Byzantine Empire 687: 677: 670: 663: 652: 651: 645: 637: 591:Earliest records 576:Recorded history 377: 376: 370: 359: 352: 331: 321: 314: 307: 243: 235: 233: 230: 220: 212: 210: 207: 197: 174: 166: 158: 150: 142: 134: 126: 118: 101: 86: 39: 21: 6407: 6406: 6402: 6401: 6400: 6398: 6397: 6396: 6392:Historical eras 6372: 6371: 6370: 6365: 6355: 6351:Khojaly–Gadabay 6321:Shulaveri-Shomu 6297: 6296:(North Caucasus 6295: 6294: 6286: 6267:Únětice culture 6262:Tumulus culture 6177:Karasuk culture 6162:Helladic period 6152:Argaric culture 6147:Glazkov culture 6043: 6033: 6028: 5998: 5993: 5971: 5908: 5876: 5813: 5786: 5728: 5697:Later Stone Age 5631: 5626: 5547:Wayback Machine 5531: 5521: 5508: 5499: 5490: 5484: 5471: 5465: 5452: 5423: 5394: 5385: 5356: 5350: 5342:. Zinat Press. 5334: 5328: 5315: 5309: 5296: 5290: 5269: 5240: 5237: 5236: 5235: 5215: 5214: 5210: 5203: 5201:Further reading 5198: 5160: 5159: 5155: 5117: 5116: 5112: 5078: 5077: 5073: 5043: 5042: 5038: 5031: 5030:978-393724846-2 5014: 5013: 5006: 4999: 4986: 4985: 4981: 4976:on 4 July 2017. 4968: 4967: 4963: 4911: 4910: 4903: 4887: 4883: 4876: 4851: 4850: 4846: 4839: 4824: 4823: 4819: 4812: 4799: 4798: 4794: 4764: 4763: 4759: 4749: 4748: 4744: 4734: 4733: 4729: 4717: 4716: 4709: 4699: 4697: 4683: 4682: 4678: 4649:(6560): 60–63. 4636: 4635: 4631: 4614:Richards, J. F. 4612: 4611: 4607: 4600: 4584: 4583: 4579: 4572: 4562:Early Antiquity 4559: 4558: 4551: 4537: 4536: 4532: 4518: 4517: 4513: 4499: 4498: 4494: 4484: 4482: 4473: 4472: 4468: 4458: 4456: 4449: 4445: 4444: 4440: 4406: 4405: 4401: 4387: 4386: 4382: 4375: 4362: 4361: 4357: 4335: 4334: 4330: 4300: 4299: 4292: 4282: 4281: 4274: 4260: 4259: 4255: 4246: 4245: 4241: 4234: 4219: 4218: 4214: 4207: 4194: 4193: 4189: 4184:(in Ukrainian). 4179: 4178: 4174: 4144: 4143: 4139: 4129: 4127: 4123: 4116: 4112: 4111: 4107: 4097: 4095: 4091: 4086: 4085: 4081: 4074: 4061: 4060: 4056: 4049: 4037: 4036: 4032: 4019: 4015: 4002: 3998: 3985: 3981: 3971: 3970: 3966: 3953: 3949: 3937: 3936: 3932: 3922: 3920: 3905: 3904: 3900: 3887: 3885: 3873: 3872: 3868: 3831: 3830: 3826: 3808: 3807: 3803: 3793: 3792: 3788: 3778: 3777: 3770: 3752: 3751: 3744: 3723: 3722: 3711: 3694: 3693: 3689: 3672: 3671: 3667: 3654: 3653: 3649: 3639: 3638: 3634: 3624: 3623: 3619: 3585: 3584: 3580: 3563: 3553: 3552: 3548: 3518: 3490: 3489: 3480: 3456:10.1.1.403.4300 3438: 3433: 3432: 3425: 3411: 3410: 3406: 3390: 3385: 3384: 3380: 3373: 3358: 3357: 3353: 3346: 3331: 3330: 3326: 3319: 3304: 3303: 3299: 3265: 3259: 3258: 3254: 3246: 3242: 3232: 3230: 3222: 3221: 3217: 3207: 3205: 3195: 3194: 3185: 3155: 3154: 3143: 3133: 3132: 3123: 3109: 3108: 3101: 3090: 3075: 3074: 3070: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3044: 2999: 2993: 2986: 2982: 2979: 2973: 2971: 2934:Bantu expansion 2909:in what is now 2820: 2818:Bantu expansion 2806: 2800: 2751: 2743: 2737: 2735: 2722: 2589:in present-day 2553: 2549: 2546: 2540: 2538: 2525: 2519: 2393:Tibetan Plateau 2334: 2330: 2327: 2321: 2319: 2306: 2300: 2292:Altay Mountains 2280: 2272:is an Iron Age 2270:Pazyryk culture 2261:in present-day 2248: 2243: 2234: 2231: 2228: 2225: 2185: 2180: 2175: 2170: 2160: 2155: 2150: 2145: 2065: 2063:Iron Age Europe 2059: 2026: 2020: 2010: 2002: 1999: 1993: 1991: 1957: 1846: 1734: 1679: 1674: 1672: 1646: 1604: 1593: 1579: 1571:, and reaching 1568: 1560:, beginning in 1557: 1550: 1482: 1437:Kaman-Kalehöyük 1433: 1424: 1422: 1413: 1344: 1336:Main articles: 1334: 1298: 1285: 1275:Roman conquests 1266: 1257:written history 1234:15th century BC 1215:Northern Europe 1191:12th century BC 1125:Iron Age Europe 1077: 1048: 1047: 1033: 1031:Article indices 1023: 1022: 1003: 995: 994: 925: 917: 916: 907:Medieval Europe 852: 844: 843: 834:Post-industrial 822:Imagination Age 812:Information Age 772:Standardization 700: 681: 643: 642: 641: 635: 630: 629: 626: 600: 583:Ancient history 578: 568: 567: 564: 516: 461: 452:Epipalaeolithic 420: 387: 368: 367: 366: 357: 347: 346: 325: 295:Ancient history 288: 287: 273: 265: 264: 242:(5 BC – 500 AD) 238: 231: 223: 215: 208: 200: 192: 173:(800 BC – 1 AD) 169: 163:Northern Europe 161: 153: 145: 137: 129: 121: 113: 89: 81: 69: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6405: 6403: 6395: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6374: 6373: 6367: 6366: 6360: 6357: 6356: 6354: 6353: 6348: 6343: 6338: 6336:Maykop culture 6333: 6328: 6323: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6302: 6300: 6288: 6287: 6285: 6284: 6279: 6277:Wessex culture 6274: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6219: 6214: 6212:Okunev culture 6209: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6059: 6053: 6051: 6045: 6044: 6038: 6035: 6034: 6029: 6027: 6026: 6019: 6012: 6004: 5995: 5994: 5992: 5991: 5986: 5980: 5977: 5976: 5973: 5972: 5970: 5969: 5968: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5937: 5936: 5935: 5930: 5922: 5916: 5914: 5907: 5906: 5901: 5899:Iron meteorite 5896: 5890: 5888: 5882: 5881: 5878: 5877: 5875: 5874: 5873: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5842: 5841: 5840: 5835: 5827: 5821: 5819: 5812: 5811: 5806: 5800: 5798: 5792: 5791: 5788: 5787: 5785: 5784: 5783: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5762: 5757: 5756: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5736: 5734: 5727: 5726: 5721: 5720: 5719: 5714: 5704: 5702:Epipaleolithic 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5678: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5641: 5639: 5633: 5632: 5627: 5625: 5624: 5617: 5610: 5602: 5596: 5595: 5584: 5583: 5579: 5578: 5570: 5569: 5565: 5564: 5563:(August 2016). 5550: 5536: 5535: 5530: 5529:External links 5527: 5526: 5525: 5519: 5506: 5497: 5488: 5482: 5469: 5463: 5450: 5432:(2): 105–111. 5421: 5403:(1): 157–167. 5392: 5383: 5354: 5348: 5332: 5326: 5313: 5307: 5294: 5288: 5267: 5234: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5217: 5216: 5205: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5196: 5153: 5110: 5093:10.1086/200878 5071: 5036: 5029: 5004: 4997: 4979: 4961: 4924:(3): 531–543. 4901: 4881: 4874: 4844: 4837: 4817: 4810: 4792: 4757: 4742: 4727: 4707: 4676: 4629: 4605: 4598: 4577: 4570: 4549: 4530: 4511: 4492: 4466: 4438: 4399: 4380: 4373: 4355: 4328: 4309:(3): 422–433. 4290: 4272: 4253: 4239: 4232: 4212: 4205: 4187: 4172: 4137: 4126:on 16 May 2018 4105: 4079: 4072: 4054: 4047: 4030: 4013: 3996: 3979: 3964: 3947: 3930: 3898: 3866: 3824: 3801: 3786: 3768: 3742: 3727:, ed. (1911). 3725:Chisholm, Hugh 3709: 3687: 3665: 3647: 3632: 3617: 3578: 3546: 3533:10.1086/200878 3478: 3423: 3404: 3378: 3371: 3351: 3344: 3324: 3317: 3297: 3252: 3240: 3215: 3183: 3164:(4): 415–438. 3141: 3121: 3099: 3089:978-0306467936 3088: 3068: 3059:The Metal Ages 3050: 3048: 3045: 3043: 3042: 3037: 3032: 3027: 3022: 3017: 3011: 3006: 3000: 2998: 2995: 2991: 2990: 2962: 2888:Nubian dynasty 2865:Central Africa 2802:Main article: 2799: 2796: 2756: 2755: 2748:Proto-historic 2723: 2721: 2720:Southeast Asia 2718: 2608:Southern India 2558: 2557: 2526: 2521:Main article: 2518: 2515: 2379:Warring States 2363:Yangtse Valley 2339: 2338: 2307: 2299: 2296: 2247: 2244: 2242: 2239: 2232:handsome stone 2188: 2187: 2182: 2177: 2172: 2167: 2163: 2162: 2157: 2152: 2147: 2142: 2138: 2137: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2061:Main article: 2058: 2055: 2039:Gaston Maspero 2022:Main article: 2019: 2016: 2015: 2014: 2007:Proto-historic 1983: 1980: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1961: 1958: 1955:Total Iron Age 1951: 1950: 1947: 1944: 1941: 1938: 1935: 1932: 1929: 1925: 1924: 1921: 1918: 1915: 1912: 1909: 1906: 1903: 1899: 1898: 1895: 1892: 1889: 1886: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1873: 1872: 1869: 1866: 1863: 1860: 1857: 1854: 1851: 1843: 1842: 1839: 1836: 1833: 1830: 1827: 1824: 1821: 1817: 1816: 1813: 1810: 1807: 1804: 1801: 1798: 1795: 1733: 1730: 1678: 1675: 1651: 1613:historiography 1594: 1200 BC 1481: 1478: 1466:Southeast Asia 1432: 1429: 1426: 1425: 1418: 1412: 1409: 1380:with an added 1333: 1330: 1297: 1294: 1242:3rd century BC 1219:5th century BC 1211:Central Europe 1207:Eastern Europe 1197:region and to 1079: 1078: 1076: 1075: 1068: 1061: 1053: 1050: 1049: 1046: 1045: 1040: 1034: 1029: 1028: 1025: 1024: 1021: 1020: 1015: 1010: 1004: 1001: 1000: 997: 996: 993: 992: 987: 982: 977: 972: 967: 962: 957: 952: 947: 942: 937: 932: 926: 923: 922: 919: 918: 915: 914: 909: 904: 899: 894: 889: 884: 879: 874: 869: 864: 859: 857:Ancient Africa 853: 850: 849: 846: 845: 842: 841: 836: 830: 829: 825: 824: 819: 814: 809: 804: 799: 794: 789: 784: 779: 774: 769: 764: 756: 755: 751: 750: 745: 740: 735: 730: 725: 715: 709: 708: 706:Pre-industrial 701: 698: 697: 694: 693: 683: 682: 680: 679: 672: 665: 657: 654: 653: 648:Holocene epoch 632: 631: 628: 627: 625: 624: 619: 613: 611: 609:Modern history 606: 601: 599: 598: 593: 587: 585: 579: 574: 573: 570: 569: 566: 565: 563: 562: 557: 552: 550:Southeast Asia 547: 542: 537: 531: 529: 524: 517: 515: 514: 509: 504: 499: 493: 491: 486: 481: 475: 474: 473: 472: 467: 460: 459: 454: 448: 446: 445: 444: 439: 434: 426: 421: 419: 418: 411: 403: 401: 394: 388: 383: 382: 379: 378: 373:Pliocene epoch 354: 353: 340: 339: 327: 326: 324: 323: 316: 309: 301: 298: 297: 290: 289: 286: 285: 280: 274: 272:Related topics 271: 270: 267: 266: 263: 262: 254: 246: 245: 244: 236: 221: 213: 198: 185: 177: 176: 175: 171:Western Europe 167: 159: 151: 147:Central Europe 143: 141:(900 – 650 BC) 139:Eastern Europe 135: 127: 119: 104: 103: 102: 87: 85:(1200–1150 BC) 70: 67: 66: 63: 62: 55: 54: 48: 47: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6404: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6379: 6377: 6364: 6358: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6303: 6301: 6293: 6289: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6242:Tagar culture 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6227:Samus culture 6225: 6223: 6222:Penard Period 6220: 6218: 6217:Ordos culture 6215: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6142:Ezero culture 6140: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6054: 6052: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6036: 6032: 6025: 6020: 6018: 6013: 6011: 6006: 6005: 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Routledge. 5273: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5239: 5238: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5200: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5157: 5154: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5114: 5111: 5107: 5106:Tylecote 1975 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5075: 5072: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5040: 5037: 5032: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5011: 5009: 5005: 5000: 4994: 4990: 4983: 4980: 4975: 4971: 4965: 4962: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4908: 4906: 4902: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4885: 4882: 4877: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4848: 4845: 4840: 4834: 4830: 4829: 4821: 4818: 4813: 4811:0-646-42546-3 4807: 4803: 4796: 4793: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4761: 4758: 4753: 4746: 4743: 4738: 4731: 4728: 4723: 4722: 4714: 4712: 4708: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4680: 4677: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4633: 4630: 4625: 4624: 4619: 4615: 4609: 4606: 4601: 4599:0-19-283576-9 4595: 4591: 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Astroem. 3047:References 2808:See also: 2659:Pilapitiya 2657:, Matota, 2655:Kandarodai 2616:Upanishads 2604:East India 2517:South Asia 2488:Geum River 2476:Yellow Sea 2359:prehistory 2341:In China, 2288:permafrost 2281: 6th 2179:300–100 BC 2174:390–300 BC 2169:450–390 BC 2159:600–475 BC 2154:700–600 BC 2141:Hallstatt 1740:states of 1640:"Iron Age" 1518:Bronze Age 1500:of a nude 1470:South Asia 1411:Chronology 1397:Bronze Age 1290:Viking Age 1221:(500 BC). 1199:South Asia 1117:Mesolithic 1101:prehistory 1097:Bronze Age 1089:Metal Ages 787:Atomic Age 738:Bronze Age 733:Copper Age 545:South Asia 507:South Asia 489:Bronze Age 484:Copper Age 457:Mesolithic 385:Prehistory 350:prehistory 181:South Asia 60:Bronze Age 6257:Trzciniec 5950:Pre-Roman 5913:Continent 5818:Continent 5733:Continent 5687:Neolithic 5637:Stone Age 5592:hill fort 5446:1094-2076 5417:0075-8914 5379:1094-2076 5263:0034-6535 5183:0036-8075 5148:206583802 5101:0011-3204 5066:0021-8537 4956:261858183 4940:0263-0338 4787:0266-6030 4671:1476-4687 4590:Upaniṣads 4544:The Hindu 4500:Rao, Kp. 4485:3 January 4459:3 January 4429:0003-598X 4409:Antiquity 4350:0261-4332 4323:0043-8243 4167:0003-598X 4147:Antiquity 3815:Wolf tree 3612:0361-5413 3541:0011-3204 3513:0021-8537 3451:CiteSeerX 3443:Antiquity 3420:: 189–93. 3178:161611760 2892:Assyrians 2670:epigraphy 2587:Allahabad 2571:Telangana 2386:Zhongyuan 2298:East Asia 2209:Guimarães 2184:100–15 BC 2076:hillforts 2047:Merneptah 1812:Anatolia 1762:Near East 1732:West Asia 1617:Herodotus 1506:sandstone 1492:(German: 1480:Beginning 1271:Herodotus 1142:Although 1133:New World 1121:Neolithic 1109:Stone Age 797:Space Age 718:Stone Age 555:East Asia 540:Near East 512:East Asia 502:Near East 465:Neolithic 392:Stone Age 250:East Asia 225:Indonesia 68:By region 6382:Iron Age 6363:Iron Age 6331:Trialeti 6326:Colchian 5960:Germanic 5886:Iron Age 5850:Atlantic 5543:Archived 5212:Iron Age 5191:17830304 5140:19131604 4620:(2005). 4588:(1998). 4525:Manaviki 3944:. Brill. 3704:Archived 3567:cite web 3473:14951163 3202:Academia 2997:See also 2950:Tanzania 2911:Igboland 2836:Tanzania 2714:Sophytes 2686:Piprahwa 2676:are the 2635:Sigiriya 2566:Mundigak 2507:Goguryeo 2367:Changsha 2285:Siberian 2263:Xinjiang 2213:amphoras 2166:La Tène 2136:Phase D 2133:Phase C 2130:Phase B 2127:Phase A 2124:Culture 2103:Caucasus 1773:Hittites 1758:Anatolia 1756:tomb in 1715:C dating 1707:bloomery 1691:Caucasus 1687:Anatolia 1623:period. 1167:Caucasus 1165:and the 1163:Anatolia 1127:and the 1085:Iron Age 743:Iron Age 527:Iron Age 336:a series 334:Part of 217:Malaysia 202:Thailand 95:Caucasus 91:Anatolia 52:Iron Age 44:a series 42:Part of 18:Iron age 5945:British 5870:Romania 5855:British 5780:British 5534:General 5163:Science 5120:Science 4651:Bibcode 4454:Harappa 4023:at the 4006:at the 3989:at the 3957:at the 3913:Science 3846:Bibcode 3278:Bibcode 3233:19 July 3061:at the 2907:Nigeria 2783:Vietnam 2620:Mauryan 2579:Kosambi 2375:Lingnan 2371:Nanjing 2290:in the 2226: 2116:La Tène 1815:Totals 1806:Cyprus 1803:Greece 1800:Aegean 1750:Assyria 1736:In the 1544:Central 1524:in the 1246:2000 BC 1240:in the 792:Jet Age 748:Ancient 361:before 194:Vietnam 131:Balkans 6306:Kurgan 5940:Europe 5924:Asian 5920:Africa 5865:Nordic 5845:Europe 5833:Levant 5825:Africa 5804:Bronze 5775:Nordic 5770:Poland 5765:Europe 5760:Africa 5517: 5480: 5461: 5444: 5415: 5397:Levant 5377: 5346: 5324: 5305: 5286: 5261: 5209:about 5189: 5181: 5146: 5138: 5099: 5064: 5027: 4995: 4954: 4946: 4938: 4896: 4872: 4835: 4808: 4785: 4669: 4643:Nature 4596: 4568: 4434:scale. 4427: 4371: 4348: 4321: 4230: 4203: 4165: 4070: 4045: 3923:5 June 3888:4 June 3610: 3539: 3511: 3471: 3453: 3369: 3342: 3315: 3176: 3086: 2987: 2983: 2980: 2903:Nsukka 2867:, and 2816:, and 2798:Africa 2785:, the 2752: 2744: 2710:Taxila 2700:, the 2692:, the 2651:Brahmi 2639:Jaffna 2612:Mysore 2595:Malhar 2554: 2550: 2547: 2509:, and 2503:Baekje 2428:Honshū 2424:Kyūshū 2335: 2331: 2328: 2057:Europe 2043:Pepi I 2011: 2003: 2000: 1797:Crete 1754:Hattic 1689:, the 1609:539 BC 1498:statue 1458:nickel 1449:Ganges 1390:bronze 1382:carbon 1340:, and 1314:Hesiod 1238:Ashoka 1209:, and 1156:bronze 828:Future 754:Modern 722:lithic 639:Future 535:Europe 497:Europe 429:Early 258:Africa 115:Aegean 108:Europe 99:Levant 46:on the 6311:Koban 5955:Roman 5933:India 5928:China 5838:India 5829:Asia 5753:Japan 5748:India 5743:China 5739:Asia 5144:S2CID 4952:S2CID 4450:(PDF) 4392:[ 4124:(PDF) 4117:(PDF) 4092:(PDF) 3884:. 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