Ulama - Knowledge

860: 2485:, in 1867. Initially, the intention of the school was to help Indian Muslims, who had become subjects of the British Empire after 1857, to lead their lives according to Islamic law. The Deobandi propagate a Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school, which was the most prevalent madhhab in South Asia. Still today, they aim at a revival of the Islamic society and education. Following the example of Deoband, thousands of madrasas were founded during the late 19th century which adopted the Deobandi way of studying fundamental texts of Islam and commenting on Quran and Hadith. By referring back to traditional Islamic scholars, the Deobandi School aims at defending the traditional Islamic madhhab, especially the Hanafi, against criticism which arose from other Islamic schools like the 2197:) (1849) included some outlines of future reforms and potential improvements in his native country. Although al-Tahtawi had gone through the traditional education of an alim, his interest focused on modern French concepts of administration and economy. He only referred to Islam in order to emphasize that Muslims can adopt practical knowledge and insights from Europe. As such, lt-Tahtawi's report reflects the political efforts of Muhammad Ali Pasha, who did not intend to reform al-Azhar university, but aimed at building an independent educational system sponsored by his government. 1838:). The ulama were responsible for interpreting the religious law, therefore they claimed that their power superseded that of the government. Within the Ottoman hierarchy of ulama, the Shaykh al-Islām held the highest rank. He exerted his influence by issuing fatwas, his written interpretations of the sharia had authority over the entire Ottoman population. In the 16th century, as the support by the ulama of the sultan and the central government was essential for shaping the still-growing empire, the importance of the office rose, and its power increased. As members of the 2566:

decentralised organisation protecting it from state control. In fact, the government's attempt at controlling the religious education focussed largely on the academic institutions and neglected the traditional madrasas. By their continuing ability to provide social support and access to an educational alternative which was propagated as being more orthodox according to Islamic faith, the traditional ulama not only maintained their influence on large parts of the population, but actually increased their political influence and power.

2297:. In his works, he emphasized the special importance of a reform of the traditional madrasa system, which was taken to disadvantage by the parallel establishment of the secular, state-sponsored educational system in Egypt. He strove at reconciling the traditional and modern educational systems, thereby justifying from the point of view of Islam the introduction of modern institutions by the national state. He referred to the Islamic concept of the collective interest or 2057:). By doing so, he was able to overcome the accusation of apostasy and secure the ulama's support. Mahmuds reforms created a new imperial elite class who spoke Western European languages and were knowledgeable of the Western European societies and their political systems. As the political and economic pressure increased on the Ottoman Empire in the course of the 19th century, this new elite carried on the Sultan's reforms and helped initiating a new era of reform, the 1599:. A text which might be widely known within the intellectual circles of one region could be unknown in another. The ability of scholars from one region to support their argument in another might therefore be limited by the familiarity with the respective texts of the community they are working in. In an era without book print or mass communication media, a scholar's reputation might have remain limited if he was unfamiliar with the local canon of texts. As the 2078: 2519:(independent legal reasoning) based on the foundational scriptures of Islam, they oppose the traditional madhhab and criticize their reliance on legal authorities other than the traditional texts. The Ahl-i Hadith was the first organization which printed and spread the works of Muhammad ash-Shawkani, whose writings did also influence the doctrine of the Salafi movement in the Arab Middle East and worldwide. 1713: 813: 40: 2852: 2102:. The second group who benefitted from the weakness of the central authority was the Shi'a ulama. According to Garthwaite (2010), "the ulama constituted one institution that not only provided continuity, but gradually asserted its role over and against royal authority." A process of change began which continued throughout the 19th century and into the present. 1790:, where he brought together the most distinguished Islamic law scholars of his territory. In his 2015 study on the "second formation of Islamic law", Burak has shown in detail how the Ottoman state gradually imposed upon the traditional ulama a hierarchy of "official imperial scholars", appointed and paid by the central government. From the conquest of the 1591:. Both scholars were able to move freely in an "interconnected world of fellow scholars". According to Zaman, their offices and positions as respected scholars were only questioned if they proved themselves unfamiliar with local customs (as happened to Ibn Battuta]), or met resistance from opponents with stronger local roots (ar-Raniri). 1116:(ca. 980–1037 AD). In general, the Islamic philosophers saw no contradiction between philosophy and the religion of Islam. However, according to Hourani, al-Farabi also wrote that philosophy in its pure form was reserved for an intellectual elite, and that ordinary people should rely for guidance on the 1794:

in 1517 onwards, the Ottoman ulama set up their own interpretation of the Sunni Hanafi doctrine which then served as the official religious doctrine of the empire. The formal acknowledgment by decree of the sultan became a prerequisite to issue fatwas. In the 17th century, the annalist al-Hamawi used

2718:"Ba'athist ulama" failed. The faculty, maintaining their ability to recruit competent teachers, was able to resist the political pressure. Consequently, the Syrian government prohibited the faculty to grant doctorates until 1998, and delayed the establishment of another faculty in Aleppo until 2006. 1671:

According to Feldman (2008), under many Muslim caliphate states and later states ruled by sultans, the ulama were regarded as the guardians of Islamic law and prevented the Caliph from dictating legal results, with the ruler and ulama forming a sort of "separation of powers" in government. Laws were

2549:

In most countries, the classical institution of the madrasa as a place of teaching remained largely intact until the beginning of the 20th century. In the Western parts of the Islamic world, national states arose from the disintegration and partition of the Ottoman Empire after the First World War.

1993:

unity of religious and political power was no longer sufficient to legitimise the Shah's authority: Shi'a ulama renounced the monarch's claim to represent the hidden Imam by teaching that descendancy did not necessarily mean representation. Likewise, as the influence of Sufi mysticism weakened, the

1851:

However, by approving scholars and appointing them to offices, over time the sultan's influence increased over the religious scholars, although, as a Muslim, he still stood under the Islamic law. Even the Shaykh al-Islām was subordinate to the sultan; his position, like the ranks of the muftis, was

1703:

was unable to gain similar support by the Shi'a ulama, who retained a more independent position. During the late Safavid empire, the Shi'a ulama developed into one of the warrantors of continuity in a period of instability of the central government, thus securing a relative independency which they

1077:, at latest, the scholars of the emerging Islamic society had become familiar with the classical philosophical and scientific traditions of the world they had conquered. The collection of classical works and their translation into the Arabian language initiated a period which is known today as the 820:

Students of Islamic doctrine do not seek out a specific educational institution, but rather seek to join renowned teachers. By tradition, a scholar who has completed their studies is approved by their teacher. At the teacher's individual discretion, the student is given the permission for teaching

2717:

coup of 1963 brought about a weakening of the state-controlled sharia high schools by the secular government. Many teachers of the Damascus faculty of sharia were forced into exile during the 1960s. Attempts of the regime during the 1980s at changing the curricula of the faculty and create a new

1694:

Safavid Persian dynasties, rulers of the two opponent early modern Islamic empires, both relied on ulama in order to legitimise their power. In both empires, ulama patronised by the royal courts created "official" religious doctrines which supported the dynastic rule. At the high points of their

2763:

This influence from institutions which were financially independent from the state led to a resurgence of the social and political influence of the traditional ulama, while the insufficient state control over the educational institutions, insufficient qualification of the teachers and ideologic

1550:

as well as the use of Arabic, and later also Persian as common languages of discourse constituted the religious authority of the ulama throughout the entire Islamic world. Zaman has demonstrated that, as personal contacts were key to acquiring knowledge, Islamic scholars sometimes travel far in

2788:

Some opinions from within the Muslim world have criticized the lack of scientific training of the ulama, and argued that those proficient in the sciences should qualify for this title. In Egypt, the Al-Azhar University has begun to introduce scientific and practical subjects in its traditional

1728:

of its time. This new self-awareness was associated with the idea to legitimise the new political role by linking the religious scholarship to the political system: Ottoman historians of the 15th and 16th century like Ibn Zunbul or Eyyûbî, described the deeds of the Ottoman sultans in terms of

2565:

Initially giving rise to modernist reforms, up to a certain degree the state-sponsored faculties were able to retain their independence from government control. However, as Pierret has pointed out in detail for Syria, in some countries the orthodox madrasa system remained largely intact, its

2160:

tax was paid to individual imams and not to state-sponsored tax collectors. Both their religious influence and their financial means allowed the Shiite ulama to act, at times, against the Shah. Thus, under the Qajar dynasty, the ulama provided a source of religious legitimacy and served as

2010:(d. 1585). By their teachings, they further developed the Shi'a Islamic teachings and religious practice. However, as religion did no longer suffice to support political power in Persia, Abbas I had to develop independent concepts to legitimise his rule. He did so by creating a new 2352:

movements. The theological differences between the two movements were altogether too large for a complete union of the two doctrines. However, the opening of the Salafi movement towards Wahhabism helped to reconcile the latter with the Islamic public after king

995:

as well as the rational sciences like philosophy, astronomy, mathematics or medicine. The inclusion of these sciences sometimes reflects the personal interests of their donors, but also indicates that scholars often study various different sciences.

1643:

stretches back to the time of the early Muslim communities. In this period, jurists were more concerned with pragmatic issues of authority and teaching than with theory. Progress in theory began to develop with the coming of the early Muslim jurist

1500:(853–944 AD) developed his own form of Kalām, differing from the Ash'ari view in the question of Man's free will and God's omnipotence. Maturidi Kalām was often used in combination with Hanafi fiqh in the northwestern parts of the Islamic world. 1594:

Through their travels and teachings, ulama are able to transmit new knowledge and ideas over considerable distances. However, according to Zaman (2010), scholars have often been required to rely on commonly known texts which could support their

2793:

argued, in his work The Islamic State, that the ulama should not be limited to those versed in religious affairs but include experts in fields such as engineering, science, politics, and education because all knowledge is divine and God-given.

2561:

tried to increase the state control over ancient Islamic institutions like al-Azhar university. The head of al-Azhar was—and still is—appointed directly by the president, and new faculties were created in this ancient Islamic institution.

1231:

had emerged. Whilst, historically, the schools were at times engaged in mutual conflicts, the differences became less controversial over time, and merely represent regional predominances today. The four most important Sunni schools are:

5091:

Law Nr. 677 of 30 November 1925 concerning the prohibition and the closure of the dervish convents, monasteries and mausolea, the prohibition of the office of the mausoleum wardens and the awarding and holding of certain titles.

1089:

We should not be ashamed to acknowledge truth from whatever source it comes to us, even if it is brought to us by former generations and foreign peoples. For him who seeks the truth there is nothing of higher value than truth itself.

1449:

in order to choose from different juridical opinions one which applied best to the local customs, even if they were not supported by the consensus of the majority. More often, the use of sharia led to changes in local customs.

2541:. It aims to resolve the issues faced by the Islamic community by organizing scholarly conferences with the ulama around the world in order to form public Islamic opinions based on principles of moderation, peace and harmony. 1911:

in the person of the sultan. For example, Ebussuud provided a reason why the government could own land, or could levy and increase taxes, as the government was responsible for the protection of the common good of all Muslims.

2497:(1863–1943) is one of the most prominent teachers of Darul Uloom Deoband. Thanwi initiated and edited multi-volume encyclopedic commentaries on the Quran. However, he was also able to reach out to a larger audience: His book 2467:) also taught mathematics, natural sciences, English and history. Since the 1980, the Nahdlatul Ulama schools also offered degrees in economy, jurisdiction, paedagogical and medical sciences. In the 1990s, under their leader 1753:) compiled the biographies of scholars in such ways as to create a concise and coherent tradition of the doctrine and structure of the Ottoman imperial scholarship. During the 16th century, scholars like the Shaykh al-Islām 2400:. The Ottoman despotism "encroaches on the rights of its citizens, keeps them ignorant to keep them passive, denies their right to take an active part in human life". Therefore, the law must be reformed. By the use of 2089:

death in 1722. In the light of the discontinuity and fragmentation of the central government, two social groups maintained continuity and, consequently, rose in power: Tribal chieftains established, amongst others, the

1555:. Due to their common training and language, any scholars travelling from one region of the Islamic world to another can easily integrate themselves into the local Muslim community and hold offices there: The traveller 1799:) to delineate the difference between the officially appointed religious leaders and those who had followed the traditional way of education. Other authors at that time called the Ottoman law scholars "Hanafi of Rūm " 1174:, and demonstrated that the Aristotelian ethics is incompatible with Islamic ethics: The latter is based on the belief in God and in life after death, which together provide the foundation of action in the pursuit of 2759:

doctrine, while the Islamic Republic of Iran used Shiite madrasas to similarly peddle influence. For poorer communities in Pakistan, internationally sponsored madrasas could be the only accessible form of education.

2272:("The firm bond"). The gazette widely spread the pan-islamistic concept of Islam representing a religious bond which was believed to be stronger than nationality or language. From 1876 on, Abduh edited the newspaper 2690:) introduced an entrance exam and a stable curriculum for its Islamic seminary. Graduates were issued a diploma carrying the name of the institution, which bore the signatures of all teachers, signifying individual 1622:, funded a group of Muslims to study the revelations, stories of Muhammed's life, "and other pertinent data, so that when he needed expert advice" he could draw it from these "people of the bench". According to 1495:

school encouraged the use of Kalām as the basis of fiqh, and was followed in this approach by parts of the Shafi'i madhhab. In contrast, the Hanbali and Maliki madhhabs discouraged theological speculation.

947:

Madrasas are considered sacred places of learning. They may provide boarding and salaries to a limited number of teachers, and boarding for a number of students out of the revenue from religious endowments

2730:

put the Al-Azhar University under the direct control of the state. "Azharis were given military uniforms and found themselves marching in step under the orders of army officers." After the independence of

1668:) while specifying that the primary Islamic texts (the Qur'an and the hadith) must be understood according to objective rules of interpretation derived from scientific study of the Arabic language. 4773:

Aura, Azyumardi; Afrianty, Dina; Hefner, Robert W. (7 January 2007). "Pesantren and madrasa: Muslim schools and national ideale in Indonesia". In Hefner, Robert W.; Zaman, Muhammad Qasim (eds.).

2156:

scholars retained their political influence on the Persian society. They also maintained unrestricted access to the financial resources from the religious endowments. In addition, the Islamic

3311:

Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums Bd. III: Medizin – Pharmazie – Zoologie – Tierheilkunde = History of the Arabic literature Vol. III: Medicine – Pharmacology – Veterinary Medicine

2113:(r. 1722–1732) had sought the ulama's support in an attempt to strengthen their authority. Particularly, they associated themselves with a group of ulama who supported the "official" 5216: 972:

the teaching should follow. Moreover, the donor is free to specify in detail the curriculum, as was shown by Ahmed and Filipovic (2004) for the Ottoman imperial madrasas founded by

5060: 2412:

are free from the moral decay and passivity of despotism", the balance of power must shift from the Turks towards the Arabs. The Ottoman dynasty must give up their claim to the

3259:

Ahmed, Shabab; Filipovich, Nenad (2004). "The sultan's syllabus: A curriculum for the Ottoman imperial medreses prescribed in a ferman of Qanuni I Süleyman, dated 973 (1565)".

2682:(2013), Pierret pointed out how the training of Syria's ulama gradually became more institutionalised, based upon the traditional madrasa system. In 1920, the madrasa of the 2431:

Al-Kawākibīs idea that the Arabian doctrine represented a more puristic form of the Islam, according to Cleveland and Bunton (2016), prepared the ground for the 20th century

5613: 3899: 4010:

Understanding a sixteenth-century ottoman scholar-bureaucrat: Ali b. Bali (1527–1584) and his biographical dictionary Al-ʻIqd al-Manzum fi Dhikr Afazil al-Rum. M.A. Thesis

1994:

Shah's role as the head of the Safaviyya lost its significance as a justification for his political role. Abbas I thus sought to associate himself with eminent ulama like

1511:

in the early centuries of Islam among hadith scholars who rejected rationalistic argumentation. In the wake of the Ash'arite synthesis between Mu'tazilite rationalism and

1605:, the scholar's approval by another master, is key to the scholar's reputation, the latter would be greater in regions where the approving masters is more widely known. 2740: 2710:". In 1972, the curriculum of the state-run "Sharia high schools" was reformed again, thus providing access for their students to all faculties of Syrian high schools. 2404:, a "modern and unified system of law" must be created, and "proper religious education" must be provided. Because of the central position of the Arabic peoples in the 2182:

Starting in the first half of the 19th century, direct contacts began and gradually increased between members of the ulama and modern Western Europe. The Egyptian alim

3538: 3457: 2706:. Its curriculum, which included economy and the "current situation of the Muslim world", according to Pierret, "anticipated the 1961 modernist reform of al-Azhar by 1081:. According to Hourani (1991), the works of the classical scholars of antiquity were met with considerable intellectual curiosity by Islamic scholars. Hourani quotes 1128:

865–925 AD), during later times, philosophy "was carried on as a private activity, largely by medical men, pursued with discretion, and often met with suspicion".

2743:

repression in Iraq led to a drop of enrollment in the Shia holy cities of Iraq from 12,000 students in the early 1900s to only 600 scholars and students in 1977.

1826:

The ulama in the Ottoman Empire had a significant influence over politics due to the belief that secular institutions were all subordinate to Islamic law, the

4825:

Metcalf, Barbara D. (2002). ""Traditionalist" Islamic activism: Deoband, tablighis, and talibs". In Calhoun, Craig J.; Price, Paul; Timmer, Ashley S. (eds.).

859: 886:

during the 10th century AD, and spread to other parts of the Islamic world from the late 11th century onwards. The most famous early madrasas are the Sunni

5697: 2891: 2428:, whilst he would hold religious authority over the entire Muslim community, "assisted ... by a consultative council nominated by the Muslim rulers". 3580: 2463:("Reawakening of the ulama"), founded in 1926, form the two largest Muslim organizations in the world. Since the 1930s, their religious boarding schools ( 1120:. The distinction between a scholarly elite and the less educated masses "was to become a commonplace of Islamic thought". As exemplified by the works of 5590:

Zaman, Muhammad Qasim (2010). "Transmitters of authority and ideas across cultural boundaries, eleventh to eighteenth century". In Cook, Michael (ed.).

2373:). Starting with the Pan-Islamic Congress in Mecca in 1926, the pro-Saudi movement developed into one of the most relevant currents of Islamic thought. 1769:, but that it should be consulted in case of eventual disagreements within the school of law. This exemplifies their purpose to establish a canon of 1951: 1876:

gave order to execute the Shaykh al-Islām Ahīzāde Ḥüseyin Efendi. In 1656, Shaykh al-Islām Ḥocazāde Mesʿud Efendi was sentenced to death by sultan

3513:

Elschazlī, Abū-Ḥamid Muḥammad al-Ghazālī. Aus dem Arab. übers., mit einer Einl., mit Anm. und Indices hrsg. von ʻAbd-Elṣamad ʻAbd-Elḥamīd (2006).

3432:

Elschazlī, Abū-Ḥamid Muḥammad al-Ghazālī. Aus dem Arab. übers., mit einer Einl., mit Anm. und Indices hrsg. von ʻAbd-Elṣamad ʻAbd-Elḥamīd (2006).

1995: 2694:. In 1947, courses also included natural sciences and foreign languages. In 1947, the state-run "Faculty of Sharia" was initiated in Damascus by 2152:(r. 1848–1896), whose reign paralleled that of the Ottoman Sultans of the Tanzimat time, failed at obtaining central control over the ulama. The 2137:, continued throughout the 18th century, and shaped the relationship between ulama and government during the reigns of the subsequent dynasties. 2053:(r. 1808–1839) was more successful: He called the new troops, organised according to European models, by the name "Victorious army of Muhammad" ( 1471:, the "science of discourse", also termed "Islamic theology", serves to explain and defend the doctrine of the Quran and Hadith. The concept of 2062: 775:), professors, and high state religious officials. Alternatively, "ulama" may refer specifically to those holding governmental positions in an 630: 1523:

are often called the Sunni "orthodoxy", traditionalist theology has thrived alongside it, laying rival claims to be the orthodox Sunni faith.

5627: 5599: 5576: 5549: 5530: 5511: 5432: 5407: 5375: 5346: 5321: 5296: 5199: 5174: 5149: 5043: 5015: 4990: 4919: 4894: 4867: 4840: 4809: 4782: 4723: 4698: 4673: 4644: 4597: 4524: 4499: 4474: 4446: 4421: 4396: 4369: 4342: 4317: 4289: 4264: 4237: 4218:

Inalcik, Halil. 1973. "Learning, the Medrese, and the Ulemas." In the Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600. New York: Praeger, p. 171.

4171: 4143: 4118: 4093: 4068: 4041: 3991: 3964: 3936: 3870: 3737: 3705: 3680: 3650: 3564: 3522: 3497: 3441: 3411: 3386: 3358: 3333: 3290: 3243: 3103: 3075: 3015: 2970: 2313:

gained special relevance for the future, as it strives at understanding and justifying all aspects of modern life from the Islamic doctrine.

1039:

evolved as a "way of freeing the soul from the distractions of the world". Important early scholars who further elaborated on mysticism were

3722: 2186:(1801–1873) was amongst the first members of the ulama who travelled to Europe. As a religious counsellor to a delegation by the Egyptian 5702: 2698:(1853–1954), a former student of Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905) in Cairo. Until 1954, all Syrian ulama aiming at higher degrees had to join 2538: 2408:

and the Arabic language in the intellectual discourse, but also because "Arabian Islam is ... free from modern corruptions and the

1361: 1156: 79: 5067: 5707: 4740: 2667: 1699:

successfully integrated the imperial ulama into the imperial bureaucracy, and Ottoman secular law into Islamic law. In contrast, Shah

872: 5474: 5262: 5226: 4750: 4551: 3618: 2637: 2603: 2069:. Thus, the ulama lost direct control over their finances, which significantly reduced their capacity to exert political influence. 1433:

established "codes of conduct", examining human actions in the light of the Quran and Hadith. Supplementing the sharia were customs

1765:

to their own time. Explicitly, some authors stated that their work must not only be understood as the historiography of the Hanafi

1645: 2501:, which is still widely read in South Asia, as it details, amongst other topics, the proper conduct and beliefs for Muslim women. 1998:(1574–1621 AD), whom he made Shaykh al-Islām in his new capital, Isfahan. Other famous ulama working under Abbas's patronage were 1135:(932–1030 AD) He combined Aristotelian and Islamic ethics, explicitly mentioning the Nicomachean Ethics and its interpretation by 2886: 2207:

alim and statesman who reformed the administration and jurisdiction of the province. He was able to explain his ideas in French (

2587: 1504: 1298: 1035:(1991) "the sense of the distance and nearness of God ... in the language of love". During the 7th century, the ritual of 991:. The educational activities of the madrasas focuses on the law, but also includes what Zaman (2010) called "Sharia sciences" 3670: 2042: 2219:

from 1852 to 1855. In contrast to al-Tahtawi, Hayreddin Pasha used the religious concept of the Muslim collective interest

4490:

Garthwaite, G.R. (2010). "Transition: The end of the old order – Iran in the eighteenth century". In Cook, Michael (ed.).

3955:

Garthwaite, G.R. (2010). "Transition: The end of the old order – Iran in the eighteenth century". In Cook, Michael (ed.).

1761:(1494–1561), Kınalızāde ʿAli Çelebi (d. 1572) and Ali ben Bali (1527–1584) established a seamless chain of tradition from 1121: 851:). Through time, this practice has established a chain of teachers and pupils who have become teachers in their own time. 2625:

In Iran, contrary to many other Islamic countries, the Shi'a ulama have maintained their religious authority together by

932:(1370–1507 AD) onwards, madrasas have often become part of an architectural complex which also includes a mosque, a Sufi 5659: 4541: 2557:

In Egypt, the establishment of a state-controlled educational system had already begun in the 1820s. From 1961 onwards,

2367:) had occupied and looted the holy towns of Mecca and Medina, thereby destroying monuments which they considered pagan ( 5449: 4960: 2702:

in Cairo. In 1954, however, Syria's first higher faculty of sharia was founded by members of the modernist wing of the

2332:(1759–1839), which had already been discussed since the 1880s, gained greater publicity. Likewise, the writings of the 2703: 2007: 1527: 1459: 956:, allocated to a specific institution by the donor. In later times, the deeds of endowment were issued in elaborate 5672:. 3: Ottomans. Editors: Hasan Celâl Güzel, C.Cem Oğuz, Osman Karatay. Ankara: Yeni Türkiye, 2002, pp. 841–850. 5568: 3063: 623: 52: 1441:

within a given society. Islamic law and regional customs were not opposed to each other: In 15th century Morocco,

1214:

majority, however, reject this concept and maintain that God's will has been completely revealed in the Quran and

5712: 5006:

Zaman, Muhammad Qasim (2010). "The ʿulamā'. Scholarly tradition and new public commentary". In Hefner, R. (ed.).

4359: 3197: 2880: 2377: 2264:(1849–1905), who was granted the degree of 'Alim by al-Azhar university in 1877, was the first who used the term 917:

in 1234 AD, was the first to be founded by a caliph, and also the first known to host teachers of all four major

2268:

in order to denote political and religious reforms. Until 1887 he edited together with al-Afghani the newspaper

5398:

Henry, Clement M. (2010). "Population, urbanisation and the dialectics of globalisation". In Hefner, R. (ed.).

4386: 2258: 2234:

Positions comparable to the Western Islamic ulama were also taken in the Eastern parts of the Islamic world by

2211:– Necessary reforms of the Muslim states. Paris, 1868), which he had learned whilst representing his sovereign 2141: 2091: 1791: 973: 2037:

By the beginning of the 19th century, the Ottoman ulama still retained their political influence. When sultan

1823:) in Istanbul became the highest-ranking Islamic scholar within, and head of the ulama throughout the empire. 1306: 5489:

Al-Turabi, H., Sardar, Z., Jamal, M. and Zuber, M., (1983) The Islamic State. Voices of Resurgent Islam, 241.

3931:. Vol. 3: The Later Ottoman Empire 1603–1839. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. p. 213. 1978:, Shaikh Ṣāfī's genealogy. It was rewritten in order to support the royal family's claim at descendency from 3959:. Vol. 3 (3rd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 504–525, see pp. 507–508. 2815: 2239: 2149: 1872:), to which a candidate was appointed or elevated. Sometimes, the sultans made use of their power: In 1633, 1782: 1480: 1175: 1166: 756:

and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam.

459: 3127:

Makdisi, George (April–June 1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West".

2599: 2118: 2017: 1787: 1721: 1497: 1207: 1147: 1109: 1062: 910: 722: 695: 31: 5250: 5124: 2554:

Turkey sought to distance the nation from the religious traditions and institutions of the Ottoman past.

1387:. The Hanafis hold that strict analogy may at times be supported by a limited use of juristic preference 594: 3067: 3057: 2958: 2329: 2190: 1883:

The use of the Sunni Islam as a legitimisation of the Ottoman dynastic rule is closely linked to Sultan

903: 616: 4494:. Vol. 3 (3rd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 504–525, see p. 506. 4416:. Vol. 3 (3rd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 203–238, see p. 214. 1780:(1432–1481) had established eight madrasas in former Byzantine church buildings, and later founded the 1758: 816:

Ijazah (diploma of competency) in Arabic calligraphy, written by 'Ali Ra'if Efendi in 1206 AH (1791 AD)

2161:

interpreters of religious law in a dual legal system where the state administered law based on custom

968:. The donor could also specify the subjects to be taught, the qualification of the teachers, or which 5316:. Vol. 6: Muslims and modernity. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 191–192. 4592:. Vol. 6: Muslims and modernity. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 107–147. 2183: 2106: 1920: 1777: 1564: 868: 253: 5107: 2789:

theological colleges to help the ulama face the challenges of the modern world. Sudanese politician

5675:

Zilfi, Madeline C. 1986. "The Kadizadelis: Discordant Revivalism in Seventeenth Century Istanbul."

5402:. Vol. 6: Muslims and modernity. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 79–86. 4985:. Vol. 4: Turkey in the modern world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 359. 2948: 2699: 2522: 2474: 2212: 2193:

he stayed in Paris from 1826 to 1831. His report "The Extraction of Gold or an Overview of Paris" (

2085:

In Iran, a period of political instability began with the collapse of the Safavid reign after shah

1724:

in 1453, the leaders and subjects of the Ottoman Empire became increasingly aware of its role as a

1395:, whereas the Maliki school also allows pragmatic considerations in the interest of public welfare 957: 707: 328: 2755:, with Saudi Arabian humanitarian organizations using the sponsorship of madrasas to spread their 1773:

law within the Ottoman imperial scholarship. which modern Ottomanists termed the "Ottoman Islam".

5650: 5561: 5364: 4060:

Contested Conversions to Islam: Narratives of Religious Change in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire

3532: 3451: 3179: 3144: 3109: 2727: 2707: 2683: 2652: 2558: 2134: 2061:. In parallel, the political influence of the ulama was circumvented and reduced step by step. A 1734: 1572: 1568: 1100: 1078: 1070: 1056: 1040: 5668:

Tasar, Murat. "The Ottoman Ulema: their understanding of knowledge and scholarly contribution."

5010:. Vol. 6: Muslims and modernity. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. p. 349. 2471:, the organization adopted an anti-fundamentalistic doctrine, teaching democracy and pluralism. 2121:(1627–1699) during the later decades of Safavid rule. The dispute between the Twelver Shi'a and 1812: 349: 4832: 4826: 5623: 5595: 5572: 5545: 5526: 5507: 5470: 5464: 5428: 5403: 5371: 5342: 5317: 5292: 5258: 5222: 5195: 5170: 5145: 5093: 5039: 5011: 4986: 4915: 4890: 4863: 4836: 4805: 4778: 4746: 4719: 4694: 4669: 4640: 4593: 4547: 4520: 4495: 4470: 4442: 4417: 4392: 4365: 4338: 4313: 4285: 4260: 4233: 4167: 4139: 4114: 4089: 4064: 4037: 3987: 3960: 3932: 3866: 3733: 3701: 3676: 3646: 3614: 3560: 3518: 3493: 3437: 3407: 3382: 3354: 3329: 3286: 3239: 3099: 3071: 3011: 2966: 2962: 2952: 2663: 2579: 2494: 2468: 2413: 2130: 2077: 2046: 2003: 1986: 1700: 1484: 1074: 1044: 907: 599: 4981:

White, Jenny B. (2008). "Islam and politics in contemporary Turkey". In Kasaba, Reşat (ed.).

4935: 4058: 4312:. Vol. 3. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 205–240, see p. 236–238. 3606: 3171: 3136: 3003: 2998:. In P. Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). 2790: 2687: 2591: 2432: 2393: 2095: 1861: 1853: 1831: 1816: 1746: 1738: 1576: 1515:

literalism, its original form survived among a minority of mostly Hanbalite scholars. While

1508: 1429:, which Muslims should follow if they want to live according to God's will. Over time, the 1136: 883: 656: 4441:. Vol. 3 (3rd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 221–224. 3610: 1368:, as briefly summarised by Hourani (1991). The Hanbalis accepted only the consensus of the 5663: 4585: 2896: 2736: 2695: 2460: 2347: 2340:(1263–1328) came to attention again. Ibn Taymiyyah's doctrine provided a link between the 2251: 2235: 2204: 2200: 1939: 1892: 1730: 929: 922: 713: 686: 559: 404: 5504:

The second formation of Islamic Law. The Hanafi School in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire

4308:

Imber, Colin (2006). "Government, administration and law". In Faroqhi, Suraiya N. (ed.).

4282:

The second formation of Islamic Law. The Hanafi School in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire

4164:

The second formation of Islamic Law. The Hanafi School in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire

4136:

The second formation of Islamic Law. The Hanafi School in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire

4034:

The second formation of Islamic Law. The Hanafi School in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire

4013:. Istanbul: Graduate school of social sciences, İstanbul Şehir University. pp. 54–55 2901: 2714: 5312:

Saïd Amir Arjomand (2010). "Islamic resurgence and its aftermath". In Hefner, R. (ed.).

2606:

as a successor to the office of the Shaykh ul-Islam. From 1925 onwards, the traditional

1712: 1695:

political power, respectively, the development took different paths: The Ottoman Sultan

5339:

Denizens of Alien Worlds: A Study of Education, Inequality and Polarization in Pakistan

3771: 3753: 2994: 2992:

Cl. Gilliot; R.C. Repp; K.A. Nizami; M.B. Hooker; Chang-Kuan Lin; J.O. Hunwick (2012).

2641: 2614: 2498: 2261: 1979: 1975: 1935: 1588: 1584: 1032: 1028: 961: 67: 3096:

The transmission of knowledge in medieval Cairo: A social history of Islamic education

759:"Ulama" may refer broadly to the educated class of such religious scholars, including 5691: 5639: 3666: 3007: 2870: 2803: 2645: 2482: 2369: 2337: 2145: 2086: 1884: 1696: 1488: 1314: 895: 891: 864: 776: 764: 574: 439: 429: 419: 4936:"Memberships of Muslim World League in international institutions and organizations" 4588:(2010). "The origins and early development of Islamic reform". In Hefner, R. (ed.). 2477:, next to al-Azhar one of the most influential madrasas, was founded in the city of 1491:, but it continued playing an important role in the formation of Shia theology. The 474: 2954:

Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy

2857: 2504: 2486: 2448: 2243: 2216: 2099: 1623: 1483:(935–1025 AD). From the 11th century on, the Muʿtazila was suppressed by the Sunni 1276: 1143: 937: 899: 494: 258: 238: 4256:

The Müfti of Istanbul. A study in the development of the Ottoman learned hierarchy

1648:(767–820), who codified the basic principles of Islamic jurisprudence in his book 1516: 1476: 534: 5286: 4857: 4254: 3981: 2507:

is a movement which emerged in North India in the mid-19th century. By rejecting

2290:

appeared in print for almost 40 years and was read throughout the Islamic world.

5583: 3306: 2836: 2809: 2773: 2298: 2279: 2126: 1906: 1725: 1556: 1284: 1266: 1211: 544: 399: 4668:(Reprinted ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 272–273. 3162:

Graham, William (1993). "Traditionalism in Islam: An essay in interpretation".

5106:

Amanat, Abbas (1992). "CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION i. Intellectual background".

3927:

Zilfi, Madeline C. (2006). "The Ottoman Ulema". In Faroqhi, Suraiya N. (ed.).

2847: 2764:

indoctrination of such institutions all become considerable issues. Graduates

2751:

In the 1980s and 1990s, competition arose between Sunni and Shia interests in

2452: 2110: 1959: 1762: 1520: 1492: 1280: 1236: 1195: 1171: 1151: 984: 941: 812: 589: 554: 17: 5656: 983:, unlike medieval Western universities, in general madrasas have no distinct 5610:

Ottoman Ulema, Turkish Republic: Agents of Change and Guardians of Tradition

4437:

Quinn, Sholeh A. (2010). "Iran under Safavid rule". In Cook, Michael (ed.).

4412:

Quinn, Sholeh A. (2010). "Iran under Safavid rule". In Cook, Michael (ed.).

2756: 2660: 2456: 2385: 2341: 2320:

on his own. In 1924, he published a collection of writings by some ulama of

2122: 2050: 2038: 1999: 1990: 1971: 1924: 1877: 1754: 1580: 1512: 1310: 1132: 1105: 1095: 1031:(642–728 AD) was one of the first Muslim scholars to describe, according to 1016: 1015:

Early on in Islamic history, a line of thought developed around the idea of

925: 887: 509: 414: 389: 344: 278: 273: 188: 39: 3236:

Empire of the Sultans: Ottoman art from the collection of Nasser D. Khalili

3113: 424: 223: 1104:, had a profound influence on the Islamic scholars of the Golden Age like 3472: 3031: 2926: 2752: 2551: 2354: 2274: 2247: 2058: 1931: 1888: 1873: 1691: 1560: 1398: 1390: 1113: 1082: 782:

By longstanding tradition, ulama are educated in religious institutions (

760: 753: 604: 529: 514: 409: 128: 123: 118: 113: 3732:(3rd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 165. 3517:(in German). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. p. 56. 3436:(in German). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. p. 52. 2148:

consolidated the central power. However, the Qajar Shahs, in particular

1220:

of the Prophet. The capacity of its interpretation lies with the ulama.

4716:

Traditionalist vs. Modernist Islam in Indonesian Politics: Muhammadiyah

4189:

Fawāʿid al-irtiḫāl wa-natā'ij al-safar fi akhbār al-qarn al-ḥādī ʿashar

2875: 2865: 2777: 2732: 2633: 2610: 2607: 2515: 2478: 2417: 2409: 2333: 2228: 2222: 2187: 2114: 1963: 1947: 1766: 1410: 1378: 1369: 1294: 1262: 1244: 1226: 988: 979:

As Berkey (1992) has described in detail for the education in medieval

969: 918: 914: 879: 784: 584: 489: 469: 384: 318: 308: 263: 228: 143: 138: 133: 108: 56: 44: 3601:

Ziadeh, Farhat J. (2009). "Uṣūl al-fiqh". In Esposito, John L. (ed.).

3406:. Vol. 7 (New ed.). Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 143a–144b. 3183: 3148: 2629:

tax. Thus, they maintained their ability to exert political pressure.

3430:. ʿAbdel-ʿAlim Salih (Ed.), Cairo 1326 (1908 AD), p. 10, cited after 2769: 2583: 2578:, traditional Ottoman religious institutions were abolished like the 2575: 2534: 2530: 2509: 2363: 2012: 1927: 1845: 1840: 1827: 1770: 1682:(community), which was most often represented by the legal scholars. 1653: 1601: 1340: 1334: 1322: 1288: 1272: 1258: 1216: 1203: 1189: 1010: 933: 831: 801: 797: 793: 564: 524: 504: 484: 464: 449: 379: 369: 364: 359: 354: 323: 313: 303: 298: 293: 248: 213: 203: 153: 98: 5542: