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1434:"The mobilization of local ideas about racial difference has been important in generating, and intensifying, civil wars that have occurred since the end of colonial rule in all of the countries that straddle the southern edge of the Sahara Desert. contemporary conflicts often hearken back to an older history in which blackness could be equated with slavery and non-blackness with predatory and uncivilized banditry." (cover text), Hall, Bruce S.,
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the event of an attack by a third party. The Baqt obliged both to exchange annual tribute as a goodwill symbol: the
Nubians sent slaves and the Arabs sent grain. This formality was only a token of the trade that developed between the two. It was not only a trade in slaves and grain but also in horses and manufactured goods brought to Nubia by the Arabs, and in ivory, gold, gems,
212:
1423:
independence from Anglo-Egyptian condominium it has its own political party. The multitude of sects and the differences between them do not permit to speak of a Muslim community; over time, the differences between these sects have generated conflicts, fighting against each other allowing the
British and Egyptians to successfully apply the adage 'divide at impera.'
47:
1599:
483:
Acceptance of the Baqt did not indicate Nubian submission to the Arabs; however, the treaty did impose conditions for Arab friendship that eventually permitted Arabs to achieve a privileged position in Nubia. Arab merchants established markets in Nubian towns to facilitate the exchange of grain and
413:
in the south motivating much of the conflict, as these nations sustain the centuries-old pattern of hereditary servitude that arose following early Muslim conquests. Ethnic strife between
Arabized and non-Arab black populations has led to various internal conflicts in the Sudan region, most notably
1121:
granted the local population the right to use arable land. The diverse groups that inhabited each dar eventually regarded themselves as units of tribes. Movement from one dar to another entailed a change in tribal identification. (Tribal distinctions in these areas in modern Sudan can be traced to
475:
The Arabs realized the commercial advantages of peaceful relations with Nubia and used the Baqt to ensure that travel and trade proceeded unhindered across the frontier. The Baqt also contained security arrangements whereby both parties agreed that neither would come to the defense of the other in
1261:
The sultans operated the slave trade as a monopoly. They levied taxes on traders, and export duties on slaves sent to Egypt, and took a share of the slaves brought into Darfur. Some household slaves advanced to prominent positions in the courts of sultans, and the power exercised by these slaves
1422:
Islam has been introduced in Sudan by several religious orders, each with their own interpretations and dogmas, being able to talk about different sects (tariqa), the Muslim
Brotherhood corresponding the schools of Muslim thinking. Each Muslim cult has its own structure, leader, space and after
507:
Traditional genealogies trace the ancestry of the Nile Valley's mixed population to Arab tribes that migrated into the region during this period. Even many non-Arabic-speaking groups claim descent from Arab forebears. The two most important Arabic-speaking groups to emerge in Nubia were the
1242:(1596–1637), supplanted a rival clan and became Darfur's first sultan. Sulayman Solong decreed Islam to be the sultanate's official religion. However, large-scale religious conversions did not occur until the reign of Ahmad Bakr (1682–1722), who imported teachers, built
1167:
Abu Duqn (1642–81) sought to centralize the government of the confederacy of Sennar. To implement this policy, Badi introduced a standing army of slave soldiers that would free Sennar from dependence on vassal sultans for military assistance, and would provide the
1108:
The sultanate's economy depended on the role played by the Funj in the slave trade. Farming and herding also thrived in Al
Jazirah and in the southern rainforests. Sennar apportioned tributary areas into tribal homelands each one termed a
1096:
to settle local disorders and to resolve internal disputes. The Funj stabilized the region and interposed a military bloc between the Arabs in the north, the
Abyssinians in the east, and the non-Muslim blacks in the south.
1262:
provoked a violent reaction among the traditional class of Fur officeholders in the late eighteenth century. The rivalry between the slave and traditional elites caused recurrent unrest throughout the next century.
520:, the Prophet Muhammad's tribe. Historically, the Ja'ali have been involved in the slave trade, making up an important subsection of the nomadic, slave trading jallaba, along with other tribes such as the
1176:, and placed one of their own ranks on the throne of Sennar in 1718. The mid-18th century witnessed another brief period of expansion when the Funj turned back an Abyssinian invasion, defeated the
444:
Contacts between
Nubians and Arabs long predated the coming of Islam, but the Arabization of the Nile Valley was a gradual process that occurred over a period of nearly one thousand years. Arab
1199:, relegating the sultan to a figurehead role. Sennar's hold over its vassals diminished, and by the early 19th century, more remote areas ceased to recognize even the nominal authority of the
536:. They were descended from Arabs who migrated after the 13th century into an area that extended from the savanna and semi-desert west of the Nile to the Abyssinian foothills east of the
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1195:(chancellors), chiefs of a non-Funj tributary tribe who managed court affairs. In 1761, the vizier Muhammad Abu al Kaylak, who had led the Funj army in wars, carried out a palace
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ports for spices and slaves. Intermarriage and assimilation also facilitated
Arabization. After the initial attempts at military conquest failed, the Arab commander in
1246:, and compelled his subjects to become Muslims. In the eighteenth century, several sultans consolidated the dynasty's hold on Darfur, established a capital at
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963:
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eventually became the keystone of the Funj Empire. By the mid-sixteenth century, Sennar controlled Al
Jazirah and commanded the allegiance of
870:
1539:
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Although not all
Muslims in the region were Arabic-speaking, acceptance of Islam facilitated the Arabization process. There was no policy of
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that governed relations between the two peoples for more than six hundred years with only brief interruptions. This treaty was known as the
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absorbed Arab migrants who settled among them. Beja ruling families later derived their legitimacy from their claims of Arab ancestry.
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1385:
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771:
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563:, however. Islam penetrated the area over a long period of time through intermarriage and contacts with Arab merchants and settlers.
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Nubian kingdoms, and were in frequent conflict with one another and with neighboring non-Arabs. In some instances, such as with the
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played a significant role in the spread of Islam from the 9th to 14th centuries, and they proselytized across trade routes between
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with the means to enforce his will. The move alienated the dynasty from the Funj warrior aristocracy which deposed the reigning
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received tribute, levied taxes, and called on his vassals to supply troops in times of war. Vassal states in turn relied on the
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468:. Relations between Egypt and Nubia were peaceful whilst Egypt was under Arabian control with tensions arising whilst the
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were the first to experience Arab incursion starting in the 7th century. They held out through the Middle Ages until the
1188:, and the demands of defending the sultanate, had overextended the warrior society's resources and sapped its strength.
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remains especially pronounced in these countries, with severe divides between the Arabized population of the north and
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The Funj state included a loose confederation of sultanates and dependent tribal chieftains drawn together under the
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516:. Both showed physical continuity with the indigenous pre-Islamic population. The former claimed descent from the
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continually wandered into the region in search of fresh pasturage, and Arab seafarers and merchants traded at
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The proliferation of Islamic influence was largely a gradual process. The Christian kingdoms of
1134:) to govern each dar. Nawazir administered dur according to customary law, paid tribute to the
1674:, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art (October 2001).
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homeland. Renowned as cavalrymen, Fur clans frequently allied with, or opposed their kin, the
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At the same time that the Ottomans brought northern Nubia into their orbit, a new power, the
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slaves. Arab engineers supervised the operation of mines east of the Nile in which they used
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Another reason for Sennar's decline may have been the growing influence of its hereditary
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Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups Around the World A-Z
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The geographic division between the majority religions of Islam and Christianity in
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and compelled many of them to submit to Funj authority. After this victory, the
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became one of the most important Islamic cultural centers in the Sahara.
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underwent a period of internally motivated conversion following the 1324
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also derived income from crown lands set aside for his use in each dar.
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In God's Path: The Arab Conquest and the Creation of an Islamic Empire
1403:"The Sudanese civil war – the effect of arabisation and islamisation"
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524:. The nomadic Juhayna comprised a family of tribes that included the
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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History of the Sudan: From the Coming Islam to the present day
1526:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 171–217, 2015-08-25,
350:, the last holdout of Christian Nubia, was destroyed by the
1342:
The "Sudan region" encompasses not just the history of the
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to extract gold and emeralds. Muslim pilgrims en route to
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and trade relations, spanning the 8th to 16th centuries.
155:
Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques
373:
Consequently, much of the contemporary Sudan region is
362:
work with their missions focused on the spread of both
1104:
Simple village mosque in Upper Nubia, mid-19th century
282:. Much of this contact was motivated by interest in
1651:A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600–1960
1436:A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600–1960
1145:At the peak of its power in the mid-17th century,
1401:Duta, Paul; Ungureanu, Roxelana (November 2016).
1493:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 77.
500:, ports that also received cargoes bound from
1021:
181:
8:
492:traveled across the Red Sea on ferries from
317:. They were also responsible for setting up
381:(after the secession of Christian-majority
1028:
1014:
570:
301:both collapsed in the early 14th century.
188:
174:
105:Islamization and Turkification of Xinjiang
29:
1455:, Routledge, pp. 13–24, 2002-09-11,
1066:and tribal districts as far north as the
1368:Holt, Peter M.; Daly, Martin W. (1971).
540:. Both groups formed a series of tribal
27:Spread of Islam after the Arab conquests
1672:Trade and the Spread of Islam in Africa
1335:
914:
891:
743:
626:
603:
584:
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424:Islamist insurgency in Northern Nigeria
37:
1149:repulsed the northward advance of the
110:Islamization of Bosnia and Herzegovina
366:and textual literacy as far south as
354:in 1504. During the 19th century the
266:began leading trade expeditions into
60:Late Antiquity - Middle Ages - Modern
7:
1653:. Cambridge University Press, 2011,
1646:. Cambridge University Press, 2004.
1644:Muslim Societies in African History
1438:. Cambridge University Press, 2011.
150:Conversion to Islam in U.S. prisons
1350:, drawn in 1899) but of the wider
25:
1560:Minahan, James B. (30 May 2002).
1508:. Sutton: Gloucester. p. 55.
120:Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia
1629:. Oxford University Press, 1962.
1597:
595:
286:, particularly the slave trade.
115:Islamization of the Sudan region
45:
1627:History of Islam in West Africa
646:
260:Muslim conquest of North Africa
1639:. Ohio University Press, 2000.
1637:The History of Islam in Africa
1635:and Randall L. Pouwels (eds).
1273:Muslim conquest of the Maghreb
1180:, and took control of much of
407:slavery in contemporary Africa
145:Conversion to Islam in prisons
1:
642:
544:that succeeded the crumbling
358:order was highly involved in
1532:10.1017/cbo9781139030465.007
1346:(whose borders are those of
125:Spread of Islam in Indonesia
1138:, and collected taxes. The
75:Islamic missionary activity
1724:
1407:Research and Science Today
1068:third cataract of the nile
1039:
433:
254:Following the 7th century
1688:Cultural history of Sudan
1615:Federal Research Division
1566:. ABC-CLIO. p. 625.
1378:Weidenfeld & Nicolson
1358:"the land of the blacks".
705:c. 9th cent. – 19th cent.
691:Christian Nubian Kingdoms
385:), the northern parts of
160:List of converts to Islam
85:Islamization of Jerusalem
80:Islamization of Palestine
1524:The Archaeology of Malta
1506:The Sword of the Prophet
1489:Hoyland, Robert (2015).
1278:Muslim conquest of Egypt
1070:and as far south as the
472:were in power in Egypt.
256:Muslim conquest of Egypt
227:The central and eastern
135:Islamization in Pakistan
1504:Nicoll, Fergus (2004).
1461:10.4324/9780203455685-4
1126:appointed a chieftain (
274:, and later across the
130:Islamization of Albania
1105:
695:6th cent. – 15th cent.
420:Northern Mali conflict
232:
220:
208:
1354:, in Arabic known as
1308:History of Mauritania
1103:
661: – 16th cent. BC
434:Further information:
411:dark-skinned Africans
323:on the shores of the
226:
214:
203:
95:Islamization of Egypt
90:Islamization of Syria
18:Islamization of Sudan
1625:Spencer Trimingham,
1453:Arabia and the Arabs
1348:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
1250:, and contested the
1234:, the leader of the
731:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
711:Turco-Egyptian Sudan
685: – 4th cent. AD
673: – 9th cent. BC
667:New Kingdom of Egypt
377:. This includes the
258:and the 8th-century
100:Islamization of Iran
1088:. As overlord, the
787:Democratic Republic
284:trans-Saharan trade
231:in the 18th century
219:in the 17th century
206:contemporary Africa
140:Conversion to Islam
33:Part of a series on
1122:this period.) The
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458:Abd Allah ibn Saad
295:Kingdom of Makuria
268:Sub-Saharan Africa
233:
221:
209:
1541:978-1-139-03046-5
1520:"East Meets West"
1470:978-0-203-45568-5
1344:Republic of Sudan
1318:Islam in Ethiopia
1313:Kingdom of Sennar
1283:Sahelian kingdoms
1056:Kingdom of Sennar
1042:Kingdom of Sennar
1038:
1037:
887:
886:
848:Republic of Sudan
820:Republic of Sudan
764:Republic of Sudan
739:
738:
554:indigenous people
405:. The problem of
379:Republic of Sudan
249:military conquest
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16:(Redirected from
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1298:History of Niger
1288:History of Sudan
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1303:History of Mali
1293:History of Chad
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1069:
1065:
1064:vassal states
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1043:
1031:
1026:
1024:
1019:
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985:
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947:
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748:
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724:
722:
721:Mahdist State
719:
718:
714:
712:
709:
708:
704:
702:
699:
698:
694:
692:
689:
688:
682:
680:
677:
676:
671:16th cent. BC
670:
668:
665:
664:
658:
656:
655:Kerma culture
653:
652:
640:
638:
635:
634:
631:
630:
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619:
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421:
417:
416:War in Darfur
412:
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68:
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63:
62:
61:
56:Islamizations
53:
52:
48:
44:
43:
40:
36:
32:
31:
19:
1693:Islamization
1650:
1643:
1636:
1626:
1609:
1577:. Retrieved
1562:
1555:
1545:, retrieved
1523:
1514:
1505:
1499:
1490:
1484:
1474:, retrieved
1452:
1443:
1435:
1430:
1421:
1415:. Retrieved
1410:
1406:
1396:
1369:
1363:
1355:
1338:
1260:
1232:Bornu Empire
1226:, in modern
1210:
1200:
1190:
1173:
1169:
1161:
1144:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1107:
1093:
1089:
1083:
1081:of Sennar's
1076:
1052:Amara Dunqas
1045:
701:Islamization
700:
683:9th cent. BC
558:
506:
482:
474:
443:
372:
329:
318:
307:North Africa
288:
264:Arab Muslims
253:
241:Sudan region
237:Islamization
234:
215:The western
114:
65:Islamization
59:
39:Islamization
1579:29 December
1413:(12): 50–59
1072:rainforests
969:Photography
964:Decorations
627:Before 1956
586:History of
561:proselytism
486:slave labor
383:South Sudan
332:Mali Empire
325:River Niger
313:kingdom of
311:sub-Saharan
303:Sufi orders
299:Old Dongola
280:West Africa
1682:Categories
1547:2023-07-04
1476:2023-07-04
1417:2020-08-05
1330:References
1184:. But the
1158:White Nile
1079:suzerainty
989:Television
949:Literature
939:Demography
744:Since 1955
637:Prehistory
542:shaykhdoms
504:to Egypt.
478:gum arabic
422:, and the
399:Mauritania
393:, most of
360:missionary
336:pilgrimage
1248:Al-Fashir
1186:civil war
1060:Sultanate
944:Languages
892:By region
866:2021 Coup
861:2019 Coup
842:1986–2019
833:1989 Coup
828:1985 Coup
814:1983–2005
804:1969–1985
795:1969 Coup
781:1956–1969
758:1955–1972
735:1899–1956
725:1885–1899
715:1820–1885
546:Christian
538:Blue Nile
430:The Arabs
368:Lake Chad
1266:See also
1256:Kurdufan
1214:was the
1182:Kurdufan
1086:(sultan)
1004:Timeline
974:Religion
934:Economic
915:By topic
906:Khartoum
871:2023 War
577:a series
575:Part of
567:The Funj
534:Shukriya
526:Kababish
514:Juhaynah
512:and the
344:Timbuktu
309:and the
1244:mosques
1228:Nigeria
1207:The Fur
1193:viziers
1165:Badi II
1156:up the
1151:Nilotic
1132:nawazir
1130:; pl.,
1058:. This
979:Slavery
882:present
641:before
530:Baqqara
522:Danagla
518:Quraysh
510:Ja'alin
470:Mamluks
462:Nubians
450:Red Sea
436:Makuria
403:Senegal
320:zawiyas
239:of the
1657:
1606:.
1570:
1538:
1467:
1384:
1374:London
1238:clan,
1220:Kanuri
1212:Darfur
1147:Sennar
1113:(pl.,
929:Cinema
901:Darfur
618:Anthem
613:Emblem
579:on the
552:, the
532:, and
498:Suakin
494:Aydhab
446:nomads
440:Alodia
418:, the
375:Muslim
356:Sanusi
348:Alodia
276:Sahara
1698:Sahel
1621:Sudan
1352:Sahel
1236:Keira
1224:Borno
1128:nazir
994:Women
984:Sport
959:Music
954:Media
924:Coups
880:2019–
647:cent.
645:25th
588:Sudan
502:India
490:Mecca
454:Egypt
391:Niger
364:Islam
291:Nubia
278:into
272:Nubia
245:Sahel
1655:ISBN
1581:2015
1568:ISBN
1536:ISBN
1465:ISBN
1382:ISBN
1252:Funj
1197:coup
1048:Funj
608:Flag
550:Beja
496:and
466:Baqt
438:and
414:the
401:and
395:Mali
389:and
387:Chad
330:The
315:Mali
297:and
235:The
1528:doi
1457:doi
1222:of
1216:Fur
1201:mek
1178:Fur
1174:mek
1170:mek
1162:mek
1140:mek
1136:mek
1124:mek
1119:mek
1115:dur
1111:dar
1094:mek
1090:mek
1084:mek
338:of
1684::
1619:–
1613:.
1534:,
1522:,
1463:,
1451:,
1420:.
1409:.
1405:.
1380:.
1376::
1372:.
1258:.
1203:.
1074:.
649:BC
643:c.
528:,
456:,
426:.
397:,
370:.
327:.
262:,
1661:.
1617:.
1583:.
1530::
1459::
1411:2
1390:.
1029:e
1022:t
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243:(
189:e
182:t
175:v
20:)
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