389:(chancellery of justice) wanted him on trial in Hannover, but the Prussian king, Frederick William I, refused the extradition of his Protected Jew, and a heavy dispute continued for years whether Hannover or Lehmann's Prussian domicile of Halberstadt was the legal venue. Meanwhile, Lehmann tried to bring about a settlement with the Behrens' creditors by partly renouncing his own claims and encouraging the other Jewish creditors to do likewise. He also protested in several letters to King George I, who was also the Hannoverian sovereign, against his relatives' five years' imprisonment and ultimate torture (which did not yield the expected confession of the alleged embezzlemement). There were further losses, so that in 1727 Berend Lehmann's own insolvency was declared. The causes of his failure have not yet been researched. Neither is it clear how he, all the same, succeeded in setting up several foundations. One of them was to hold money to facilitate the marriages of poor orphan boys and girls in the Halberstadt community, another was to secure the livelihood of his
474:, a great-great-great-grandson of Berend Lehmann's and a Dresden liberal lawyer and politician, wrote an essay about him, which for the first time used archival evidence. He pointed out the adroitness of his ancestor in the tactics of his fighting, also admiring the foresight with which the Resident had seen to the long-time functioning of his foundations. Though more realistic as a biographer than his predecessors, Emil Lehmann still had the bias of an admiring descendant. At the turn of the 20th century the Dessau rabbi, Max Freudenthal, researched into Lehmann's merits with respect to Hebrew printing. He cleared up the business circumstances of the Talmud edition of 1697 to 1699, especially Lehmann's stressful relationship with the Christian printer, Michael Gottschalk. For the first time he showed Lehmann's tough business acumen. He also described Lehmann's connection with the printer Israel Abraham of Köthen and Jeßnitz with whom he published several of the works of his Halberstadt
512:, who between 1925 and 1962 first dealt with the conditions of Jews in 17th- and 18th-century Prussia and then with court Jews in particular In her collection of documents his activities for the Halberstadt Jews and the Jewish community in general became more concrete. In her court Jew book she ranked him with the Wertheimers and Oppenheimers of Vienna and even with the Rothschilds of Frankfurt. She contrasted him as the "genuine" court Jew with the less well-reputed Joseph SĂĽĂź Oppenheimer of Stuttgart, and thus idealised him.
83:
69:
53:
40:
398:
of his real estate. Subsequently, his eldest son, Lehmann
Behrend of Dresden, also failed. Lehmann's gravestone, in the oldest Halberstadt Israelitic cemetery, is preserved, and it praises his generosity as a community benefactor and his high reputation in the Christian "palaces" which enabled him to act as a
318:. In 1708, such activities led to the foundation of a Dresden branch of his Halberstadt business, in which his then 18-year-old eldest son, Lehmann Behrend, worked alongside himself and his brother-in-law, Jonas Meyer. Strictly speaking, outside the Leipzig trade fairs the Lehmanns and Meyer were the only
397:
confronted him with a debt claim of 6,000 talers dating back to 1699. It took him some time to borrow the sum in order to have the "execution" of house arrest lifted. After his death on July 9, 1730, claims of several hundred thousand talers could only partly be satisfied through the auction of most
232:
he received the right to buy for himself in
Halberstadt, in addition to the modest house he already possessed, a sizable building he thought fitting of his rank. This was an exception, as having a second house was normally forbidden to Jews. When in the extensive garden grounds he had a new building
292:
geared to the levying of money for the King. On the new premises, apart from offices and private space for a growing family and team of servants, he kept a warehouse and a wine cellar, and "for mercy , so they can perform their divine service", sheltered six poor Jewish families. As one of the three
594:
situated in the grounds of the synagogue destroyed in 1938, document the life of the court Jew and the heritage of colourful later Jewish life in the city. There remains a doorway of a richly decorated baroque building near the museum dating from about 1730 which was taken down in 1986 (although it
291:
community superior by the name of Mendel Beer. At this time he built a whole complex of buildings as an extension of his first modest home in
Halberstadt. In his building ambitions he was permanently hindered by the Prussian local administration, but promoted by the Berlin Hofcammer, an institution
432:
of
Frankfurt on the Main - as one of the most highly respected Jewish personalities in Central and Eastern Europe. His ambition to make an impact on the life of his times made him a baroque figure not unlike his noble Christian contemporaries and it put him in frequent conflict with the Christian
260:
In the meantime he had achieved a considerable religious feat: When the Dessau court Jew Wulff, who was about to have the
Babylonian Talmud printed, ran into financial difficulty, Lehmann took over the project and the printing licence. He "had gold flow from his pocket", so that within two years,
565:
In
Halberstadt the building complex at BakenstraĂźe Nr. 37, which survived the air raid on the city in 1945 and the subsequent neglect of historic architecture in East Germany, is an impressive document of Lehmann's building activity. In one of its outer walls the remnants of a pedestrian bridge
384:
At the same time, he lost a great amount of capital, which was confiscated when his son-in-law, the
Hanover court Jew Isaac Behrends, went bankrupt and Lehmann was accused of having illegally held back securities, jewels and money from the estate for him (the allegation was never verified). The
375:
were also to profit from the partition. Lehmann sought to address the
Emperor through the latter's son-in-law, the Blankenburg prince, Louis Rudolph. The Czar, let in on the plan by Prussia, reacted angrily and demanded strict inquiry and punishment of the Jew. Lehmann was spared the worst by
204:. In 1697 he was commissioned by the young Elector, Augustus the Strong, to procure money needed for the acquisition of the Polish throne. He received authority to sell or pawn lands situated outside the main territory of Saxony and collected loans worth millions of
458:(Jewish People's Library) painted Berend Lehmann's life in episodes (largely invented) as a patriarch and active participant in German and Jewish political life. He stressed Lehmann's support of the Polish Jews in their misery. This 19th-century picture of the
334:(among whom the clergy and traders were particularly active), which Augustus the Strong fended off for a longtime but eventually gave in to. In the mid-1720s the sale of merchandise had to stop, while the banking branch continued in a smaller fashion.
641:
There has been no Jewish religious community in the city since the post-war years when, for a short time, survivors from the concentration camps gathered there. There is an initiative to establish a new community for a number of Jews from the
247:
academy) as the nucleus of a community campus which was also to accommodate a large new synagogue, he was forbidden to carry on. Before he was able to buy two adjacent houses in addition, the property was confiscated for the newly received
450:(History of the Israelitic Community of Halberstadt, 1866) the then rabbi of the city, Auerbach, passed the old stories on with some scepticism but still with great veneration. He was followed in this mood by another orthodox rabbi,
615:), Rosenwinkel 18, was founded by Lehmann in a house near the synagogue and moved to its present location in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, as a rabbinical academy it became one of the strongholds of
350:
allowed him to buy landed property there, a privilege otherwise denied to Jews. Lehmann resided in a stately mansion and founded a Hebrew printing office, which was conducted by the printer Israel
Abraham from
164:
of Bochum, later established in
Hannover. From him, older biographers assume, Berend Lehmann received some business training and then traded in Behrens’ commission. In 1692 he is active together with
462:
as a saint and hero has recently been characterized as "not necessarily having to do with reality but being an identification offer invented at the writing desks of Auerbach and Marcus Lehmann".
180:
of 1687, where subsequently he was a regular visitor at the then three annual seasons. He resided in Halberstadt, where, from 1688, he is listed as married to Miriam, daughter of the deceased
200:
In 1694 he became a mint and general business agent to his own sovereign, the Elector of Brandenburg; a year later he was in a banking connection with the Saxon electoral court at
1315:
500:. They show Lehmann's extensive activities as an army contractor and his aspiration to participate in political processes (which Meisl, however, regarded as amateurish).
540:. With little new evidence, he strengthened the "identification offer" rĂ´le of Berend Lehmann by painting another heroic picture of him. The American orthodox rabbi,
347:
147:
and resident. Thanks to his wealth, privileges as well as social and cultural commitment, he was a Jewish dignitary famous in his day in Central and Eastern Europe.
1330:
1240:
1187:
1148:
1024:
930:
738:
699:
433:
authorities trying to curb his efforts. In his charitable and religious generosity he is the model of a wealthy Jew also being a pious leader of his community.
212:
persuaded the majority of the Polish nobility into electing Augustus the Strong King "in" Poland. In recognition of such services, Augustus made Berend Lehmann
570:(which in its day flowed openly among the houses of the Jewish quarter) testify to his public spirit. He had it built for "the benefit of the general public".
1335:
296:(superiors) of the Halberstadt community of around 1,000 Jews (more than in Berlin), he had the task of "repartitioning" the extra contributions which King
1325:
1320:
446:
Berend Lehmann's later image was first determined by eulogies and legends in the Hebrew and Yiddish chronicles of the community. 150 years later, in the
629:. The academy offers information on Jewish life in the form of conferences, exhibitions and lectures. Its lecture hall is the former synagogue of the
1265:
312:
Back in Dresden, he also worked as a mint agent for the Saxon-and-Polish state. Likewise he procured jewels for Augustus the Strong's show collection
188:, was born and he built his first, modest abode in the Jewish quarter of Halberstadt (BakenstraĂźe 37, partly existent in the building complex of
367:. Lehmann had outstanding debts there and hoped to be able to cash them in from the future Prussian part of the country. The Habsburg Emperor
1008:
805:
798:
Privilegiert in engen Grenzen. Neue Beiträge zu Leben, Wirken und Umfeld des Halberstädter Hofjuden Berend Lehmann. vol.2: Dokumentensammlung
761:
722:
279:
against Sweden. Letters from him to an influential courtier at Dresden show him busy acquiring new loans, and anxious over their repayment.
1270:
552:
Studies from the sources regarding Berend Lehmann were resumed in the first decade of the 21st century by Lucia Raspe and Berndt Strobach.
492:
168:
at the imperial court in Vienna in business transactions to promote Duke Ernst August of Hannover's Duchy of Hannover to an electorate.
754:
Privilegiert in engen Grenzen. Neue Beiträge zu Leben, Wirken und Umfeld des Halberstädter Hofjuden Berend Lehmann. vol.1: Darstellung
643:
536:
In 1970, as a sort of response to these distortions, the French private scholar Pierre Saville published the first monography on the
1305:
1171:
1108:
1059:
1310:
209:
1047:
1001:
Bei Liquiditätsproblemen: Folter. Das Verfahren gegen die jüdischen Kaufleute Gumpert und Isaak Behrens in Hannover, 1721-1726
715:
Bei Liquiditätsproblemen: Folter. Das Verfahren gegen die jüdischen Kaufleute Gumpert und Isaak Behrens in Hannover, 1721-1726
368:
297:
486:
A further step in the direction of a historically unbiased evaluation of Berend Lehmann was taken by the Berlin archivist
363:
In 1721 Lehmann went in for a precarious attempt at causing the sovereigns of Prussia and Saxony-Poland to undertake the
665:
Linnemeier, Bernd-Wilhelm (2012). "Eines Rätsels Lösung. Zur westfäischen Herkunft des Kammeragenten Leffmann Behrens".
220:". This was some sort of a consul's privilege on which Lehmann repeatedly based his demands, more or less successfully.
421:
944:
Sadowski, Dirk (2008). "Gedruckt in der heiligen Gemeinde JeĂźnitz. Der Buchdrucker Israel bar Avraham und sein Werk".
376:
Augustus the Strong; he was only granted back the grace of his patron after sacrificing a precious stone to him.
394:
160:
Lehmann's father belonged to the Jewish upper class of Westphalia, just like his brother-in-law, the court Jew
1300:
616:
520:
The anti-semitism of the National Socialists yielded two contributions about Berend Lehmann, the first, by
229:
140:
963:
Strobach, Berndt (2008). "Hebräischer Buchdruck zwischen Hofjuden-Mäzenatentum und christlicher Zensur".
1052:
Hofjuden : Ökonomie und Interkulturalität : die jüdische Wirtschaftselite im 18. Jahrhundert
252:
refugees. The protest of his protector, Augustus the Strong, against the confiscation proved in vain.
1290:
1285:
364:
342:
From Halberstadt he had a business connection with the sovereign of the nearby petty principality of
331:
314:
1295:
916:
471:
1234:
1181:
1142:
1018:
924:
732:
693:
487:
343:
217:
177:
125:
68:
39:
393:
scholars. It served its purpose for the following two centuries. Early in 1730, the margrave of
273:
Between 1700 und 1704 Berend Lehmann supplied military equipment for Augustus the Strong in the
82:
52:
528:(1953), a one-sided portrait of him as a profiteer and a clever augmenter of Jewish influence.
1167:
1104:
1101:
From court jews to the Rothschilds : art, patronage, and power : 1600 - 1800 ;
1055:
1004:
801:
757:
718:
429:
425:
972:
326:
at LandhausstraĂźe 13) employed and housed up to 70 Jewish employees who were themselves not
288:
262:
213:
165:
161:
129:
208:
from Christian and Jewish banking partners, with the help of which the Saxon field marshal
184:, Joel Alexander. From him he derived his protected status. Two years later his first son,
525:
372:
287:
In 1707 his wife, Miriam, died and soon after he remarried, namely Hannle, daughter of a
910:
451:
137:
1279:
621:
274:
647:
524:(1938), being a caricature of him as the stereotyped "usurer", the second one, by
496:. In 1924 he edited Lehmann's correspondence from the Baltic battlefields of the
261:
from 1697 to 1699, 2,000 copies of a twelve volume edition could be produced in
830:
Freudenthal, Max (1898). "Zum Jubiläum des ersten Talmuddrucks in Deutschland".
509:
417:
121:
76:
976:
265:. A large part of the work went - free of charge - to poor Jewish communities.
521:
413:
352:
181:
117:
584:
144:
143:
of Saxony, King of Poland, and other German princes. He was privileged as a
133:
567:
400:
322:
Jews in all of Saxony. But the large enterprise (proudly residing in the
304:) repeatedly drew from the Jews. He himself shouldered the lion's share.
249:
176:
His activity is first documented, as, at age 26, he did business at the
544:, did the same in several contributions about his "possible ancestor".
293:
235:
205:
201:
590:
244:
240:
113:
46:
588:
in two picturesque half-timbered houses (one containing a former
508:
A great push came into Lehmann's biography through the historian
1103:. With essays by Fritz Backhaus. Munich : Prestel. p. 120.
599:, although there is no evidence that it was connected with him.
541:
330:. This above all provoked the anti-Jewish protest of the Saxon
777:
Meisl, Josef (1924). "Behrend Lehman und der sächsische Hof".
873:
Medaon, Magagzin fĂĽr jĂĽdisches Leben in Forschung und Bildung
832:
Monatsschrift fĂĽr Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums
1088:. Paris: Société Encyclopédique Francaise. pp. XXVIII.
595:
might have been saved), and is locally taken to have been
338:
Agricultural and Hebrew printing activities in Blankenburg
868:
412:
Berend Lehmann ranks among the great court Jews - the
16:
German-Jewish banker, merchant, diplomat and court Jew
493:
Central Archives for the History of the Jewish People
667:
Westfalen.Hefte fĂĽr Geschichte, Kunst und Volkskunde
61:
32:
21:
898:. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. pp. 176–177.
686:Geschichte der israelitischen Gemeinde Halberstadt
448:Geschichte der israelitischen Gemeinde Halberstadt
625:and the 1945 air raid and is now the seat of the
132:as well as army and mint contractor working as a
965:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Religions- und Geistesgeschichte
1048:(Hrsg.), Rotraud Ries / J. Friedrich Battenberg
779:Jahrbuch der jĂĽdisch-literarischen Gesellschaft
355:, but failed for Christian censorship reasons.
1162:Stern, Selma (2001). Marina Sassenberg (ed.).
348:Louis Rudolph, Duke of Brunswick-WolfenbĂĽttel
172:Young family and own business in Halberstadt
8:
1316:People from the Principality of Halberstadt
582:, founded in 2001 by the Halberstadt-based
1239:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1186:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1147:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1023:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
929:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
896:Die Hoffinanz und der moderne Staat, vol.3
737:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
698:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
81:
67:
51:
38:
18:
1229:. Halberstadt. pp. vol.1, 21 and 43.
1164:Der Hofjude im Zeitalter des Absolutismus
657:
1232:
1179:
1140:
1016:
922:
730:
691:
404:(an advocate) of his correligionists.
1331:Merchants from the Kingdom of Prussia
7:
1253:Hartmann: Halberstadt, vol. 5, 14—15
1054:. Hamburg: Christians. p. 199.
1336:Bankers from the Kingdom of Prussia
946:Jahrbuch des Simon-Dubnow-Instituts
869:"Jüdische Spuren im Grünen Gewölbe"
470:Twenty years after the two rabbis,
283:Community benefactor in Halberstadt
230:Frederic William III of Brandenburg
1326:18th-century German businesspeople
1321:17th-century German businesspeople
1135:Der preuĂźische Staat und die Juden
684:Auerbach, Benjamin Hirsch (1866).
224:Building activities in Halberstadt
128:), was a German banker, merchant,
14:
637:New religious community attempted
646:who have settled in Halberstadt
556:Traces and memory in Halberstadt
210:Heino Heinrich Graf von Flemming
1227:Juden in Halberstadt, 6 volumes
1225:Hartmann, Werner (1988–1996).
894:Schnee, Heinrich (1953–1967).
800:. Berlin: epubli. p. 76.
756:. Berlin: epubli. p. 35.
298:Frederick William I of Prussia
1:
989:Strobach:Privilegiert, p. 110
216:of the King of Poland in the
1137:. Berlin, reprint: TĂĽbingen.
1099:Vivian B. Mann, ed. (1996).
857:Strobach:Privilegiert, p. 38
820:Strobach:Privilegiert, p. 42
490:, the later founder of the
380:Financial decline and death
106:Yissakhar ben Yehuda haLevi
1352:
1215:Strobach: Privilegiert, 57
1074:Strobach: Privilegiert, 61
1003:. Berlin. pp. 47–54.
977:10.1163/157007308784742340
688:. Halberstadt. p. 45.
627:Moses Mendelssohn Akademie
585:Moses Mendelssohn Akademie
1271:Moses Mendelssohn Academy
999:Strobach, Berndt (2013).
796:Strobach, Berndt (2011).
752:Strobach, Berndt (2011).
713:Strobach, Berndt (2013).
359:Foreign affairs adventure
28:
1306:17th-century German Jews
1205:. NĂĽrnberg: Der StĂĽrmer.
1084:Saville, Pierre (1970).
1311:People from Halberstadt
867:Liebsch, Heike (2007).
597:Berend Lehmann’s Palace
422:Joseph SĂĽss Oppenheimer
196:Banker to Saxon elector
102:Yissakhar Bermann Segal
94:Issachar Berend Lehmann
23:Issachar Berend Lehmann
1133:Stern, Selma (1962) .
1050:; Lucia Raspe (2002).
909:Lehmann, Emil (1899).
848:Meisl:Hof, pp. 227-252
717:. Berlin. p. 83.
141:Augustus II the Strong
1266:Berend Lehmann Museum
603:Former Teaching House
580:Berend Lehmann Museum
454:of Mainz, who in his
156:Ancestry and training
1201:Deeg, Peter (1939).
912:Gesammelte Schriften
617:neo-orthodox Judaism
516:Anti-semitic setback
482:An unbiased approach
456:JĂĽd. Volksbibliothek
915:. Berlin. pp.
365:partition of Poland
112:(April 23, 1661 in
574:Museum and Academy
561:A building complex
346:. In 1717, Prince
344:Blankenburg (Harz)
218:Lower Saxon Circle
178:Leipzig Trade Fair
126:Kingdom of Prussia
120:– July 9, 1730 in
110:Berman Halberstadt
36:23 June 1661
1010:978-3-8442-4986-6
807:978-3-8442-0215-1
763:978-3-8442-0200-7
724:978-3-8442-4986-6
566:across the river
542:Manfred R. Lehman
428:of Hannover, the
426:Leffmann Behrends
228:So, from Elector
91:
90:
65:9 July 1730
1343:
1254:
1251:
1245:
1244:
1238:
1230:
1222:
1216:
1213:
1207:
1206:
1198:
1192:
1191:
1185:
1177:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1146:
1138:
1130:
1124:
1123:Raspe: Ruhm, 199
1121:
1115:
1114:
1096:
1090:
1089:
1081:
1075:
1072:
1066:
1065:
1044:
1038:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1022:
1014:
996:
990:
987:
981:
980:
960:
954:
953:
941:
935:
934:
928:
920:
906:
900:
899:
891:
885:
884:
882:
880:
864:
858:
855:
849:
846:
840:
839:
827:
821:
818:
812:
811:
793:
787:
786:
774:
768:
767:
749:
743:
742:
736:
728:
710:
704:
703:
697:
689:
681:
675:
674:
662:
289:Frankfurt (Main)
263:Frankfurt (Oder)
166:Leffmann Behrens
162:Leffmann Behrens
130:diplomatic agent
87:
86:
85:
72:
71:
57:
56:
55:
43:
42:
19:
1351:
1350:
1346:
1345:
1344:
1342:
1341:
1340:
1276:
1275:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1231:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1210:
1200:
1199:
1195:
1178:
1174:
1161:
1160:
1156:
1139:
1132:
1131:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1111:
1098:
1097:
1093:
1086:Le Juif de Cour
1083:
1082:
1078:
1073:
1069:
1062:
1046:
1045:
1041:
1037:Meisl: Hof, 233
1036:
1032:
1015:
1011:
998:
997:
993:
988:
984:
962:
961:
957:
943:
942:
938:
921:
908:
907:
903:
893:
892:
888:
878:
876:
866:
865:
861:
856:
852:
847:
843:
829:
828:
824:
819:
815:
808:
795:
794:
790:
776:
775:
771:
764:
751:
750:
746:
729:
725:
712:
711:
707:
690:
683:
682:
678:
664:
663:
659:
655:
639:
605:
576:
563:
558:
550:
534:
526:Heinrich Schnee
518:
506:
484:
468:
444:
439:
410:
382:
373:Peter the Great
361:
340:
310:
285:
271:
269:Army contractor
258:
250:French Reformed
226:
198:
186:Lehmann Behrend
174:
158:
153:
80:
75:
74:
66:
50:
45:
44:
37:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1349:
1347:
1339:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1301:German bankers
1298:
1293:
1288:
1278:
1277:
1274:
1273:
1268:
1261:
1260:External links
1258:
1256:
1255:
1246:
1217:
1208:
1193:
1172:
1154:
1125:
1116:
1109:
1091:
1076:
1067:
1060:
1039:
1030:
1009:
991:
982:
955:
936:
901:
886:
859:
850:
841:
822:
813:
806:
788:
769:
762:
744:
723:
705:
676:
656:
654:
651:
638:
635:
619:. It survived
604:
601:
575:
572:
562:
559:
557:
554:
549:
546:
538:RĂ©sident Royal
533:
530:
517:
514:
505:
502:
483:
480:
467:
464:
460:Royal Resident
452:Marcus Lehmann
443:
442:Saint and hero
440:
438:
435:
424:of Stuttgart,
409:
406:
381:
378:
360:
357:
339:
336:
324:Altes Posthaus
315:Grünes Gewölbe
309:
308:Dresden branch
306:
302:Soldiers’ King
284:
281:
270:
267:
257:
256:Talmud printed
254:
233:erected for a
225:
222:
197:
194:
173:
170:
157:
154:
152:
149:
98:Berend Lehmann
89:
88:
63:
59:
58:
34:
30:
29:
26:
25:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1348:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1281:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1263:
1259:
1250:
1247:
1242:
1236:
1228:
1221:
1218:
1212:
1209:
1204:
1197:
1194:
1189:
1183:
1175:
1173:3-16-147662-X
1169:
1165:
1158:
1155:
1150:
1144:
1136:
1129:
1126:
1120:
1117:
1112:
1110:3-7913-1624-9
1106:
1102:
1095:
1092:
1087:
1080:
1077:
1071:
1068:
1063:
1061:3-7672-1410-5
1057:
1053:
1049:
1043:
1040:
1034:
1031:
1026:
1020:
1012:
1006:
1002:
995:
992:
986:
983:
978:
974:
970:
966:
959:
956:
951:
947:
940:
937:
932:
926:
918:
914:
913:
905:
902:
897:
890:
887:
874:
870:
863:
860:
854:
851:
845:
842:
837:
833:
826:
823:
817:
814:
809:
803:
799:
792:
789:
784:
780:
773:
770:
765:
759:
755:
748:
745:
740:
734:
726:
720:
716:
709:
706:
701:
695:
687:
680:
677:
672:
668:
661:
658:
652:
650:
648:
645:
644:CIS countries
636:
634:
632:
628:
624:
623:
622:Kristallnacht
618:
614:
610:
602:
600:
598:
593:
592:
587:
586:
581:
573:
571:
569:
560:
555:
553:
547:
545:
543:
539:
531:
529:
527:
523:
515:
513:
511:
503:
501:
499:
495:
494:
489:
481:
479:
477:
473:
465:
463:
461:
457:
453:
449:
441:
436:
434:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
407:
405:
403:
402:
396:
392:
388:
387:Justizkanzlei
379:
377:
374:
370:
366:
358:
356:
354:
349:
345:
337:
335:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
316:
307:
305:
303:
299:
295:
290:
282:
280:
278:
277:
268:
266:
264:
255:
253:
251:
246:
242:
238:
237:
231:
223:
221:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
195:
193:
191:
190:Little Venice
187:
183:
182:protected Jew
179:
171:
169:
167:
163:
155:
150:
148:
146:
142:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
84:
78:
70:
64:
60:
54:
48:
41:
35:
31:
27:
20:
1249:
1226:
1220:
1211:
1202:
1196:
1166:. TĂĽbingen.
1163:
1157:
1134:
1128:
1119:
1100:
1094:
1085:
1079:
1070:
1051:
1042:
1033:
1000:
994:
985:
968:
964:
958:
949:
945:
939:
911:
904:
895:
889:
877:. Retrieved
872:
862:
853:
844:
835:
831:
825:
816:
797:
791:
782:
778:
772:
753:
747:
714:
708:
685:
679:
670:
666:
660:
640:
630:
626:
620:
612:
608:
606:
596:
589:
583:
579:
577:
564:
551:
548:New Research
537:
535:
532:New eulogies
519:
507:
498:Northern War
497:
491:
485:
475:
472:Emil Lehmann
469:
466:More realism
459:
455:
447:
445:
418:Oppenheimers
411:
399:
390:
386:
383:
362:
341:
327:
323:
319:
313:
311:
301:
286:
276:Northern War
275:
272:
259:
234:
227:
199:
189:
185:
175:
159:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
92:
1291:1730 deaths
1286:1661 births
971:: 235–253.
510:Selma Stern
504:Selma Stern
488:Josef Meisl
430:Rothschilds
420:of Vienna,
414:Wertheimers
122:Halberstadt
77:Halberstadt
1296:Court Jews
1280:Categories
653:References
522:Peter Deeg
478:scholars.
408:Importance
369:Charles VI
118:Westphalia
1235:cite book
1182:cite book
1143:cite book
1019:cite book
925:cite book
733:cite book
694:cite book
437:Reception
385:Hannover
371:and Czar
328:protected
320:protected
294:parnassim
214:"Resident
145:court Jew
134:court Jew
73:(aged 69)
1203:Hofjuden
952:: 39–69.
838:: 80–89.
673:: 75–91.
568:Holtemme
401:shtadlan
395:Bayreuth
206:guilders
631:yeshiva
613:yeshiva
476:yeshiva
391:yeshiva
353:JeĂźnitz
332:estates
236:yeshiva
202:Dresden
138:Elector
1170:
1107:
1058:
1007:
879:13 May
804:
785:: 226.
760:
721:
591:mikveh
245:Talmud
79:
49:
919:–134.
609:Klaus
300:(the
241:Torah
114:Essen
108:, or
47:Essen
1241:link
1188:link
1168:ISBN
1149:link
1105:ISBN
1056:ISBN
1025:link
1005:ISBN
931:link
881:2011
802:ISBN
758:ISBN
739:link
719:ISBN
700:link
611:(or
607:The
578:The
416:and
151:Life
136:for
62:Died
33:Born
973:doi
875:(1)
239:(a
192:).
1282::
1237:}}
1233:{{
1184:}}
1180:{{
1145:}}
1141:{{
1021:}}
1017:{{
969:60
967:.
948:.
927:}}
923:{{
917:91
871:.
836:42
834:.
783:16
781:.
735:}}
731:{{
696:}}
692:{{
671:90
669:.
649:.
633:.
243:-/
124:,
116:,
104:,
100:,
96:,
1243:)
1190:)
1176:.
1151:)
1113:.
1064:.
1027:)
1013:.
979:.
975::
950:6
933:)
883:.
810:.
766:.
741:)
727:.
702:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
