1000:
1009:
display the relationship between the number of people voting for the party and the consistency of the issue position. The equation “Y = a + bX” is used, where the variable “a” represents the minimal number of people voting for the party, “b” is a variable used to ensure that there is a positive gradient, "X" represents the consistency of the party's issue position, and Y represents the number of people who vote for the party.
647:
50:
919:; there are often many stances one could take. Voters often must settle for the candidate whose stances are closest to their own. This can prove difficult when two or more candidates have similar opinions, or when candidates have positions that are equally far from a voter's. An example of an issue which might be difficult to issue vote on is
1024:
are associated with certain goals or views on an issue, and that the voter's decision in selecting a candidate depends on the actual salience of the issue to the voter. This model is important when considering issue voting because it utilizes election agenda data to predict election outcome. A simple
764:
Voters typically choose a political party to affiliate with in one of two ways. The voter will create an opinion of an issue without consulting what a political party thinks about it, then choose the political party that best fits the opinion they already have, or the voter will study the opinions of
832:
attempted to explain the rise in issue voting through the fall in party voting. This decline of party voting, they claimed, came about because the proportion of the electorate with no party affiliation had fallen, and because the proportion of voters who cast votes for candidates from other parties
827:
published a symposium that hypothesized that there was a rise in issue voting in the 1960s. Nie and
Anderson published an analysis of correlations with issue orientations in 1974 that attempted to revise the Michigan School's theory of the public's political belief systems' inherent limitations. In
820:
Some of the earliest research on issue voting done in 1960 found that voters often did not have enough information to link specific issues to individual candidates. Converse, in 1964, also concluded that voters did not have a sophisticated enough understanding of issues to be able to link them to
737:
stands on every issue, but rather a sense of which candidate they agree with the most. Voters use many different tactics to rationalize their view on a particular issue. Some people look at what has happened in the past and predict how they think a particular issue will affect them in the future.
1008:
The Linear
Position Model attempts to predict how strongly an individual will issue vote in an election. The model suggests that the more a voter and candidate agree on a particular issue, the better chance the candidate has of receiving the individual's vote. In this model, a graph is used to
1016:
attempts to show the perceptions and decisions of voters when issue voting strategies are used in elections. This model assumes that if someone's issue preferences are placed on a hypothetical spatial field along with all possible candidates’ policy positions, the individual will vote for the
966:
A third problem that can complicate issue voting is if there are multiple issues that are equally salient to the voter. A candidate may have a similar position to a given voter on one issue, but may take a considerably different stance on another. An example of this occurred in the
821:
candidates. In 1966, Key was one of the first people to conclude that voters are able to connect issues to certain candidates and cast their vote based on that information. Despite the growing knowledge of the field, reliable evidence didn't begin to appear until the 1970s.
995:
While scholars employ many models to study voting habits, there are three primary models used in statistical studies of issue voting: the linear position model, the spatial model and the salience model. Each model takes a different approach to issue voting into account.
780:. According to Campbell, only 40 to 60 percent of the informed population even perceives party differences, and can thus partake in party voting. This would suggest that it is common for individuals to develop opinions of issues without the aid of a political party.
986:
has argued that voters are generally uninformed and that their actual vote choices do not reflect the vote choices that a fully informed voter would make. He concludes that since voters lack full information, they cannot truly be issue voters.
861:. Identifying as an independent allows voters to avoid the constraints of a polarized political party. An independent voter can hand-pick a candidate based upon their positions on various issues rather than on their political party.
816:
in 1960 determined that party identification was the primary force, which in turn strongly influenced the other two categories. These three factors make up the
Michigan School's approach to modeling voting behavior.
775:
In order for a person to be an issue voter, they must be able to recognize that there is more than one opinion about a particular issue, have formed a solid opinion about it and be able to relate that to a specific
923:
spending. A voter may have a drastically different opinion from the available candidates on how much money should be spent on schools; this could lead the individual to vote based on party affiliation instead.
979:. Many viewed these issues as equally salient, and had a hard time picking one issue to vote on. These three complexities in issue voting have provided problems in using this tactic to choosing candidates.
927:
A second complexity is that, oftentimes, problems do not line up on linear bases. That is, some issues may make it hard to even determine the candidate with the closest position. For example, in the
768:
A voter's understanding of parties' principles is strengthened and developed over time as a person gains experience with more political events. In order for an issue to create the foundation for
875:, which the Republican Party also supports. Extreme party polarization might cause Catholic voters to feel uncomfortable about both Republican and Democratic presidential candidates.
963:, and they cannot be linearly plotted. The voter would instead have to choose the candidate whose opinion represented the closest mix of possible solutions to their own.
1780:
Cho, Sungdai; Endersby, James W. (March 2003). "Issues, the spatial theory of voting, and
British general elections: a comparison of proximity and directional models".
2396:
Schweizer, Peter. (1994) Victory: The Reagan
Administration's Secret Strategy That Hastened the Collapse of the Soviet Union. Atlanta Monthly Press, (1994) 213.
794:
study in 1944, it was assumed by political scientists that voting was based solely on issues. However, this study found little evidence of issue voting in the
367:
857:
from their parties. Since a large portion of
American voters are moderates, an increase has been seen in the number people who choose to affiliate as
745:
study found that voters switch between issue voting and party voting depending on how much information is available to them about a given candidate.
968:
928:
795:
332:
2280:
Ordeshook, Peter C.; Davis, Otto A.; Hinich, Melvin J. (June 1970). "An expository development of a mathematical model of the electoral process".
362:
201:
2358:
Rabinowitz, George; Jacoby, William; Prothro, James W. (February 1982). "Salience as a factor in the impact of issues on candidate evaluation".
1034:
where "a"=Party 1, and "b"=Party 2. The more important the issue becomes, the more a voter favors a particular candidate or party on the issue.
777:
304:
972:
2175:
2116:; Campbell, James E. (January 1979). "Issue voting: an empirical evaluation of individually necessary and jointly sufficient conditions".
1017:
candidate whose political stances are closest to their own. Other models that follow the idea of “closeness” are called proximity models.
507:
982:
A fourth problem is that voters may be unsophisticated and lack the knowledge necessary to vote based on issues. Political scientist
2401:
2321:
2282:
2165:
2084:
2032:
1931:
1875:
Dennison, James; Kriesi, Hanspeter (2023). "Explaining Europe's transformed electoral landscape: structure, salience, and agendas".
1743:
1735:
1724:
823:
850:
846:
675:
742:
2075:
McCarty, Nolan, Keith T. Poole, and Howard
Rosenthal. Polarized America: The Dance of Ideology and Unequal Riches. MIT, 2006.
2235:
1048:
920:
758:
750:
352:
1970:
Garzia, Diego; Marschall, Stefan (2016). "Research on Voting Advice
Applications: State of the Art and Future Directions".
1712:. Diary of a Dark Horse: The 1980 Anderson Presidential Campaign. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press (1983) 24.
802:
loyalties. Research stemming from the study concluded that voters' motivations could be broken down into three categories:
1053:
718:
2007:
868:
629:
289:
280:
2432:
2118:
1938:
1937:
Enelow, James M. & Melvin J. Hinich. The
Spatial Theory of Voting: An Introduction. Cambridge, Cambridgeshire:
309:
246:
2230:
Nie, Norman H., Sidney Verba, and John R. Petrocik. (1999) The
Changing American Voter. Bridgewater, NJ: Replica,
878:
502:
261:
888:
strongly identify with the Democratic Party's advocacy for workers' rights, but unions also tend to not support
2092:
999:
761:, which tend to give voters much more information about each candidate, have the potential to be issue-driven.
337:
841:
In recent years, the United States has seen a rise in issue voting. This can be attributed to the increased
2157:
1782:
1716:
323:
1854:
Dennison, James (2019). "A Review of Public Issue Salience: Concepts, Determinants and Effects on Voting".
772:
choice, a voter must first be concerned about a particular issue and have some knowledge about that issue.
2427:
896:
842:
517:
418:
299:
1058:
746:
372:
357:
256:
2241:
Niemi, Richard G.; Bartels, Larry M. (November 1985). "New measures of issue salience: an evaluation".
2090:
McCullough, B. Claire (Summer 1978). "Effects of variables using panel data: a review of techniques".
1906:
Denver, David; Hands, Gordon (March 1990). "Issues, principles or ideology? How young voters decide".
1528:
803:
668:
2360:
2319:
Rabinowitz, George; Macdonald, Stuart Elaine (March 1989). "A directional theory of issue voting".
2243:
2194:
1945:
Frank, Miriam (Spring–Summer 2001). "Hard hats & homophobia: lesbians in the building trades".
858:
413:
2422:
2385:
2377:
2346:
2338:
2307:
2299:
2268:
2260:
2219:
2211:
2145:
2057:
2049:
1958:
1842:
1807:
1799:
1768:
1760:
1013:
960:
936:
900:
872:
812:
624:
583:
173:
158:
112:
107:
80:
24:
853:. Both of these parties have become more extreme in their issue viewpoints. This has alienated
2397:
2231:
2171:
2161:
2080:
1954:
1927:
1731:
1720:
733:
A voter does not need to have an in-depth understanding of every issue and knowledge of how a
593:
573:
512:
461:
342:
294:
228:
153:
143:
122:
117:
34:
2369:
2330:
2291:
2252:
2203:
2135:
2127:
2113:
2101:
2041:
2016:
1987:
1979:
1915:
1892:
1884:
1863:
1832:
1791:
1752:
952:
527:
456:
408:
251:
237:
2417:
2182:
944:
864:
799:
789:
769:
710:
702:
661:
651:
578:
561:
497:
423:
377:
75:
971:. During this election, two issues dominating attention were the economy and the wars in
754:
709:
which have been or are a matter of controversy and are sources of disagreement between
522:
466:
271:
266:
211:
206:
2186:
1741:
Carmines, Edward G.; Stimson, James A. (March 1980). "The two faces of issue voting".
646:
2411:
2389:
2350:
2272:
2223:
2149:
2061:
1919:
1846:
1811:
1772:
1043:
1021:
983:
940:
939:
was a salient issue for voters. There were many proposed solutions to this problem;
904:
895:
In Europe, issue voting has been used to explain the growth in electoral support for
706:
619:
537:
532:
192:
168:
163:
85:
20:
2003:"The contextual causes of issue and party voting in American Presidential elections"
2311:
1709:
948:
614:
598:
546:
437:
428:
183:
148:
956:
885:
588:
471:
451:
178:
2131:
2068:
Kirkendall, Richard S. "Carter, Jimmy. Presidents: A Reference History. 2002.
2021:
2002:
1888:
1837:
1820:
1795:
943:
endorsed military intimidation through increased spending and innovation (the
889:
446:
314:
138:
98:
1867:
867:
face the "issue voting vs. party voting" dilemma. Many Catholics support the
765:
the different parties and decide which party he or she agrees with the most.
2076:
1730:
Campbell, Angus. The American Voter: An Abridgement. 1964, New York: Wiley,
932:
916:
807:
734:
722:
714:
94:
976:
854:
698:
347:
2187:"Mass belief systems revisited: political change and attitude structure"
1962:
1803:
1030:
Vote=a(Saliency of the party's issues)+b(Saliency of the party's issues)
2381:
2342:
2303:
2264:
2215:
2140:
2053:
1764:
1715:
Borre, Ole. Issue voting : an introduction. Aarhus; Oakville, CT:
915:
Many factors can complicate issue voting. First, issues are not always
1992:
1897:
725:
perceived competence on an issue in order to decide for whom to vote.
49:
1983:
1926:
Donsbach, Wolfgang. The International Encyclopedia of Communication.
694:
66:
41:
2373:
2334:
2295:
2256:
2207:
2045:
2030:
Kessel, John H. (June 1972). "Comment: the issues in issue voting".
1756:
23:
rules that allow voters to express opinions on multiple issues, see
2105:
998:
705:. In the context of an election, issues include "any questions of
2170:
Nicholson, Stephen P. (2005) Voting the Agenda. Princeton, NJ.
951:
proposed diplomatic efforts to keep peace, and the independent
871:
stance which is backed by Republicans, but strongly oppose the
713:." According to the theory of issue voting, voters compare the
2069:
1020:
The Salience Model asserts that the two major parties in the
892:, a stance which more closely aligns with Republican views.
2156:
Moore, John Leo. Elections A to Z. 1999, Washington, D.C.:
741:
Issue voting is often contrasted with party voting. A 2010
1025:
view of this model can be summarized with the equation:
798:. Rather, the researchers found that issues reinforced
1821:"The nature of belief systems in mass publics (1964)"
669:
8:
881:can contribute to and impact issue voting.
796:United States presidential election of 1940
378:Parallel voting (Mixed member majoritarian)
676:
662:
567:
491:
397:
343:Mixed single vote (positive vote transfer)
281:Proportional and semi-proportional systems
233:
62:
29:
2139:
2020:
1991:
1896:
1836:
1069:
606:
545:
436:
322:
279:
236:
191:
130:
93:
65:
40:
7:
1819:Converse, Philip E. (January 2006).
959:strategy. None of these answers are
911:Complications regarding issue voting
810:orientation, and issue orientation.
2001:Highton, Benjamin (January 2010).
1529:"How smart is the American voter?"
238:Plurality and majoritarian systems
14:
2322:American Political Science Review
2283:American Political Science Review
2033:American Political Science Review
1877:European Political Science Review
1744:American Political Science Review
824:American Political Science Review
348:Scorporo (negative vote transfer)
1527:Bartels, Larry M. (2008-11-03).
845:in the last century between the
645:
48:
743:University of California, Davis
1049:Experimental political science
753:, would thus be determined by
721:against their own or rank the
353:Mixed ballot transferable vote
1:
1373:Garzia and Marschall, 376–390
1054:Politics of the United States
969:2008 US presidential election
929:1980 US presidential election
1920:10.1016/0261-3794(90)90039-B
1391:Dennison and Kriesi, 483-501
1003:Linear Model of Issue Voting
630:End-to-end verifiable voting
290:Single non-transferable vote
1517:Carmines and Stimson, 78-91
1454:Carmines and Stimson, 78-91
1436:Carmines and Stimson, 78-91
1346:Carmines and Stimson, 78-91
830:The Changing American Voter
488:Voting patterns and effects
2449:
2132:10.1177/1532673X7900700102
2119:American Politics Research
1939:Cambridge University Press
955:advocated a return to the
879:Voting advice applications
310:Single transferable voting
247:First-past-the-post voting
18:
2022:10.1007/s11109-009-9104-2
1889:10.1017/S1755773923000085
1838:10.1080/08913810608443650
1579:Meier and Campbell, 26-43
1561:Meier and Campbell, 26-43
747:Low-information elections
503:Voting advice application
333:Mixed-member proportional
262:Plurality-at-large voting
2093:Public Opinion Quarterly
1868:10.1177/1478929918819264
1856:Political Studies Review
1256:Donsbach, "Issue Voting"
751:congressional candidates
368:Rural–urban proportional
363:Dual-member proportional
338:Additional member system
2158:Congressional Quarterly
1796:10.1023/A:1022616323373
1717:Aarhus University Press
784:History of issue voting
1004:
991:Models of issue voting
931:the growing threat of
759:presidential elections
518:Passive electioneering
419:Straight-ticket voting
1972:Policy & Internet
1597:Davis et al., 426-429
1059:Single-issue politics
1002:
373:Majority bonus system
358:Alternative Vote Plus
257:Instant-runoff voting
837:Rise in issue voting
828:1979, Nie et al. in
804:party identification
749:, such as those for
324:Mixed-member systems
2361:Journal of Politics
2244:Journal of Politics
2195:Journal of Politics
791:The People's Choice
697:cast their vote in
652:Politics portal
414:Split-ticket voting
2008:Political Behavior
1633:Rabinowitz, 93, 96
1292:Nie (1974) 541-591
1005:
961:mutually exclusive
937:Eastern Hemisphere
813:The American Voter
625:Voter registration
584:Voter intimidation
108:Write-in candidate
81:Provisional ballot
25:multi-issue voting
2433:Politics by issue
2176:978-0-691-11684-6
2114:Meier, Kenneth J.
1908:Electoral Studies
1687:Davis et al., 426
1624:McCullough,199-22
1355:McCarty et al., 2
1337:McCarty et al., 2
1328:McCarty et al., 2
1310:McCarty et al., 2
1265:Campbell, 109-102
711:political parties
686:
685:
637:
636:
594:Voter suppression
574:Ballot harvesting
552:
551:
513:Paradox of voting
479:
478:
462:None of the above
394:Voting strategies
385:
384:
295:Cumulative voting
229:Electoral systems
219:
218:
154:Electronic voting
144:Compulsory voting
2440:
2393:
2354:
2315:
2276:
2251:(4): 1212–1220.
2227:
2191:
2183:Andersen, Kristi
2181:Nie, Norman H.;
2153:
2143:
2109:
2070:Encyclopedia.com
2065:
2026:
2024:
1997:
1995:
1984:10.1002/poi3.140
1966:
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1193:Campbell, 79, 98
1191:
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1157:Highton, 455-458
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1101:
1095:
1092:
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1083:
1077:
1074:
851:Republican Party
847:Democratic Party
703:political issues
678:
671:
664:
650:
649:
568:
528:Political apathy
492:
457:Election boycott
398:
252:Two-round system
234:
63:
52:
30:
2448:
2447:
2443:
2442:
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2438:
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2408:
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2406:
2374:10.2307/2130283
2357:
2335:10.2307/1956436
2318:
2296:10.2307/1953842
2279:
2257:10.2307/2130815
2240:
2208:10.2307/2129245
2189:
2185:(August 1974).
2180:
2112:
2089:
2072:. 14 Apr. 2012.
2046:10.2307/1957789
2029:
2000:
1969:
1947:New Labor Forum
1944:
1905:
1874:
1853:
1825:Critical Review
1818:
1779:
1757:10.2307/1955648
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1300:
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1287:
1282:
1278:
1274:Converse, 78-91
1273:
1269:
1264:
1260:
1255:
1251:
1247:Borre, 1, 2, 22
1246:
1242:
1237:
1233:
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1224:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1188:
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1179:
1174:
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1166:Enelow, 217-219
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1129:
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1120:
1116:
1111:
1107:
1102:
1098:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1040:
993:
945:Reagan Doctrine
913:
839:
800:political party
786:
778:political party
731:
693:describes when
688:
682:
644:
639:
638:
579:Ballot stuffing
565:
562:Electoral fraud
554:
553:
498:Coattail effect
489:
481:
480:
424:Tactical voting
395:
387:
386:
300:Binomial system
231:
221:
220:
99:Ballot measures
76:Absentee ballot
60:
35:Politics series
28:
17:
16:Voter behaviour
12:
11:
5:
2446:
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2436:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2410:
2409:
2405:
2404:
2394:
2355:
2316:
2290:(2): 426–448.
2277:
2238:
2228:
2202:(3): 540–591.
2178:
2168:
2154:
2110:
2106:10.1086/268443
2100:(2): 199–220.
2087:
2073:
2066:
2040:(2): 459–465.
2027:
2015:(4): 453–471.
1998:
1978:(4): 376–390.
1967:
1942:
1935:
1924:
1903:
1883:(4): 483–501.
1872:
1862:(4): 436–446.
1851:
1816:
1790:(3): 275–293.
1777:
1738:
1728:
1713:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1698:
1689:
1680:
1671:
1662:
1653:
1644:
1635:
1626:
1617:
1615:Rabinowitz, 94
1608:
1599:
1590:
1581:
1572:
1563:
1554:
1545:
1519:
1510:
1501:
1492:
1483:
1474:
1472:Schweizer, 213
1465:
1463:Schweizer, 213
1456:
1447:
1438:
1429:
1420:
1411:
1402:
1393:
1384:
1375:
1366:
1357:
1348:
1339:
1330:
1321:
1312:
1303:
1294:
1285:
1276:
1267:
1258:
1249:
1240:
1231:
1222:
1213:
1204:
1195:
1186:
1177:
1168:
1159:
1150:
1141:
1139:Nicholson, 132
1132:
1123:
1114:
1105:
1096:
1087:
1078:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1062:
1061:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1039:
1036:
1032:
1031:
1027:
1026:
1018:
1010:
992:
989:
912:
909:
838:
835:
785:
782:
730:
727:
684:
683:
681:
680:
673:
666:
658:
655:
654:
641:
640:
635:
634:
633:
632:
627:
622:
617:
609:
608:
604:
603:
602:
601:
596:
591:
586:
581:
576:
566:
564:and prevention
560:
559:
556:
555:
550:
549:
543:
542:
541:
540:
535:
530:
525:
523:Vote splitting
520:
515:
510:
505:
500:
490:
487:
486:
483:
482:
477:
476:
475:
474:
469:
467:Refused ballot
464:
459:
454:
449:
441:
440:
434:
433:
432:
431:
426:
421:
416:
411:
406:
396:
393:
392:
389:
388:
383:
382:
381:
380:
375:
370:
365:
360:
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
327:
326:
320:
319:
318:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
292:
284:
283:
277:
276:
275:
274:
272:Usual judgment
269:
267:General ticket
264:
259:
254:
249:
241:
240:
232:
227:
226:
223:
222:
217:
216:
215:
214:
212:Voting machine
209:
204:
196:
195:
189:
188:
187:
186:
181:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
146:
141:
133:
132:
128:
127:
126:
125:
120:
115:
110:
102:
101:
91:
90:
89:
88:
83:
78:
70:
69:
61:
58:
57:
54:
53:
45:
44:
38:
37:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2445:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2428:Voting theory
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2415:
2413:
2403:
2402:9780871136336
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2362:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2329:(1): 93–121.
2328:
2324:
2323:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2284:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2245:
2239:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2196:
2188:
2184:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2167:
2166:1-56802-207-7
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2126:(21): 26–43.
2125:
2121:
2120:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2094:
2088:
2086:
2085:0-262-13464-0
2082:
2078:
2074:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2034:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1932:9781405131995
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1831:(1–3): 1–74.
1830:
1826:
1822:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1784:
1783:Public Choice
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1745:
1739:
1737:
1736:9780471133353
1733:
1729:
1726:
1725:87-7288-913-6
1722:
1718:
1714:
1711:
1708:
1707:
1702:
1696:Dennison, 441
1693:
1690:
1684:
1681:
1675:
1672:
1666:
1663:
1657:
1654:
1648:
1645:
1639:
1636:
1630:
1627:
1621:
1618:
1612:
1609:
1603:
1600:
1594:
1591:
1585:
1582:
1576:
1573:
1567:
1564:
1558:
1555:
1549:
1546:
1534:
1530:
1523:
1520:
1514:
1511:
1505:
1502:
1496:
1493:
1487:
1484:
1478:
1475:
1469:
1466:
1460:
1457:
1451:
1448:
1442:
1439:
1433:
1430:
1424:
1421:
1415:
1412:
1406:
1403:
1397:
1394:
1388:
1385:
1379:
1376:
1370:
1367:
1361:
1358:
1352:
1349:
1343:
1340:
1334:
1331:
1325:
1322:
1316:
1313:
1307:
1304:
1298:
1295:
1289:
1286:
1283:Nicholson, 11
1280:
1277:
1271:
1268:
1262:
1259:
1253:
1250:
1244:
1241:
1238:Campbell, 104
1235:
1232:
1226:
1223:
1217:
1214:
1208:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1190:
1187:
1181:
1178:
1172:
1169:
1163:
1160:
1154:
1151:
1145:
1142:
1136:
1133:
1127:
1124:
1121:Dennison, 441
1118:
1115:
1109:
1106:
1100:
1097:
1091:
1088:
1085:Nicholson, 11
1082:
1079:
1073:
1070:
1064:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1044:Voting system
1042:
1041:
1037:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1023:
1022:United States
1019:
1015:
1014:Spatial Model
1011:
1007:
1006:
1001:
997:
990:
988:
985:
984:Larry Bartels
980:
978:
974:
970:
964:
962:
958:
954:
953:John Anderson
950:
946:
942:
941:Ronald Reagan
938:
934:
930:
925:
922:
918:
910:
908:
906:
905:green parties
902:
898:
897:radical right
893:
891:
887:
882:
880:
876:
874:
873:death penalty
870:
866:
862:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
836:
834:
831:
826:
825:
818:
815:
814:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
792:
783:
781:
779:
773:
771:
766:
762:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
739:
736:
728:
726:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
707:public policy
704:
700:
696:
692:
679:
674:
672:
667:
665:
660:
659:
657:
656:
653:
648:
643:
642:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
620:Secret ballot
618:
616:
613:
612:
611:
610:
605:
600:
597:
595:
592:
590:
587:
585:
582:
580:
577:
575:
572:
571:
570:
569:
563:
558:
557:
548:
547:Protest votes
544:
539:
538:Voter turnout
536:
534:
533:Voter fatigue
531:
529:
526:
524:
521:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
504:
501:
499:
496:
495:
494:
493:
485:
484:
473:
470:
468:
465:
463:
460:
458:
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
444:
443:
442:
439:
438:Protest votes
435:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
409:Fusion voting
407:
405:
402:
401:
400:
399:
391:
390:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
330:
329:
328:
325:
321:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
287:
286:
285:
282:
278:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
244:
243:
242:
239:
235:
230:
225:
224:
213:
210:
208:
205:
203:
200:
199:
198:
197:
194:
190:
185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
169:Postal voting
167:
165:
164:Polling place
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
140:
137:
136:
135:
134:
129:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
105:
104:
103:
100:
96:
92:
87:
86:Sample ballot
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
73:
72:
71:
68:
64:
56:
55:
51:
47:
46:
43:
39:
36:
32:
31:
26:
22:
21:social choice
2368:(1): 41–63.
2365:
2359:
2326:
2320:
2287:
2281:
2248:
2242:
2199:
2193:
2123:
2117:
2097:
2091:
2037:
2031:
2012:
2006:
1975:
1971:
1950:
1946:
1914:(1): 19–36.
1911:
1907:
1880:
1876:
1859:
1855:
1828:
1824:
1787:
1781:
1751:(1): 78–91.
1748:
1742:
1710:Bisnow, Mark
1692:
1683:
1674:
1665:
1656:
1651:Campbell, 93
1647:
1638:
1629:
1620:
1611:
1602:
1593:
1584:
1575:
1566:
1557:
1548:
1536:. Retrieved
1532:
1522:
1513:
1504:
1495:
1486:
1477:
1468:
1459:
1450:
1441:
1432:
1423:
1414:
1405:
1396:
1387:
1378:
1369:
1360:
1351:
1342:
1333:
1324:
1315:
1306:
1297:
1288:
1279:
1270:
1261:
1252:
1243:
1234:
1225:
1216:
1211:Denver,21-23
1207:
1202:Carmines, 78
1198:
1189:
1180:
1171:
1162:
1153:
1144:
1135:
1126:
1117:
1112:Campbell, 98
1108:
1099:
1090:
1081:
1072:
1033:
994:
981:
965:
949:Jimmy Carter
926:
914:
901:radical left
894:
886:labor unions
883:
877:
863:
843:polarization
840:
829:
822:
819:
811:
790:
787:
774:
767:
763:
755:party voting
740:
732:
691:issue voting
690:
687:
615:Election ink
599:Voter caging
508:Likely voter
429:Vote pairing
404:Issue voting
403:
202:Popular vote
184:Voting booth
149:Early voting
33:Part of the
2141:11244/25408
1427:Kessel, 461
1409:Kessel, 460
973:Afghanistan
957:containment
917:dichotomous
884:Members of
859:Independent
833:had risen.
723:candidates'
717:respective
715:candidates'
589:Vote buying
472:Spoilt vote
452:Donkey vote
179:Vote center
159:Open ballot
2412:Categories
2236:0735101876
1993:1814/45127
1898:1814/75387
1703:References
1669:Niemi,1212
1490:Bisnow, 24
1481:Kirkendall
1229:Moore, 246
1220:Moore, 245
1184:Denver, 21
1175:Denver, 20
1148:Denver, 20
1130:Denver, 21
1103:Denver, 21
1094:Denver, 20
1076:Denver, 19
890:gay rights
757:, whereas
719:principles
607:Prevention
447:Abstention
315:Spare vote
305:Party-list
139:Ballot box
131:Collection
113:Electorate
95:Candidates
2423:Elections
2390:144293995
2351:145664726
2273:143631621
2224:154743674
2150:154949765
2077:MIT Press
2062:147030583
1957:: 25–36.
1847:140857433
1812:152635457
1773:144834312
1588:Borre, 20
1570:Borre, 19
1552:Borre, 19
1382:Frank, 25
1301:Nie 47-73
933:Communism
921:education
865:Catholics
855:moderates
808:candidate
788:Prior to
735:candidate
701:based on
699:elections
689:The term
59:Balloting
1963:40342289
1804:30025956
1727:. (2001)
1678:Borre, 6
1660:Borre, 6
1642:Borre, 6
1606:Cho, 275
1533:LA Times
1508:Nie, 158
1499:Nie, 158
1445:Nie, 158
1418:Nie, 158
1400:Nie, 158
1364:Nie, 172
1319:Nie, 172
1038:See also
869:pro-life
849:and the
193:Counting
174:Precinct
2382:2130283
2343:1956436
2312:1161006
2304:1953842
2265:2130815
2216:2129245
2054:1957789
1941:, 1984.
1934:. 2008.
1765:1955648
1538:26 July
935:in the
67:Ballots
2418:Voting
2400:
2388:
2380:
2349:
2341:
2310:
2302:
2271:
2263:
2234:
2222:
2214:
2174:
2164:
2148:
2083:
2060:
2052:
1961:
1930:
1845:
1810:
1802:
1771:
1763:
1734:
1723:
903:, and
729:Causes
695:voters
123:Ticket
42:Voting
2386:S2CID
2378:JSTOR
2347:S2CID
2339:JSTOR
2308:S2CID
2300:JSTOR
2269:S2CID
2261:JSTOR
2220:S2CID
2212:JSTOR
2190:(PDF)
2146:S2CID
2058:S2CID
2050:JSTOR
1959:JSTOR
1953:(8).
1843:S2CID
1808:S2CID
1800:JSTOR
1769:S2CID
1761:JSTOR
1065:Notes
770:party
207:Tally
118:Slate
2398:ISBN
2232:ISBN
2172:ISBN
2162:ISBN
2081:ISBN
1955:SAGE
1928:ISBN
1732:ISBN
1721:ISBN
1540:2014
1012:The
977:Iraq
975:and
97:and
19:For
2370:doi
2331:doi
2292:doi
2253:doi
2204:doi
2136:hdl
2128:doi
2102:doi
2042:doi
2017:doi
1988:hdl
1980:doi
1916:doi
1893:hdl
1885:doi
1864:doi
1833:doi
1792:doi
1788:114
1753:doi
947:),
2414::
2384:.
2376:.
2366:44
2364:.
2345:.
2337:.
2327:83
2325:.
2306:.
2298:.
2288:64
2286:.
2267:.
2259:.
2249:47
2247:.
2218:.
2210:.
2200:36
2198:.
2192:.
2160:,
2144:.
2134:.
2122:.
2098:42
2096:.
2079:.
2056:.
2048:.
2038:66
2036:.
2013:32
2011:.
2005:.
1986:.
1974:.
1949:.
1910:.
1891:.
1881:15
1879:.
1860:17
1858:.
1841:.
1829:18
1827:.
1823:.
1806:.
1798:.
1786:.
1767:.
1759:.
1749:74
1747:.
1719:.
1531:.
907:.
899:,
806:,
2392:.
2372::
2353:.
2333::
2314:.
2294::
2275:.
2255::
2226:.
2206::
2152:.
2138::
2130::
2124:7
2108:.
2104::
2064:.
2044::
2025:.
2019::
1996:.
1990::
1982::
1976:8
1965:.
1951:8
1922:.
1918::
1912:9
1901:.
1895::
1887::
1870:.
1866::
1849:.
1835::
1814:.
1794::
1775:.
1755::
1542:.
677:e
670:t
663:v
27:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
