405:, they are still the products of learning and still susceptible to change in response to future experiences. According to SLT, the two key variables affecting the degree to which expectancies change in response to new experience are the extent of prior experience (more experience = more resistance to change) and the degree of contrast between the pre-existing expectancy and the current outcome (greater contrast = greater change). One may perceive Lewin's influence in all of this - and Adler's in the notion of a person discouraged after repeated failure experiences (i.e., having acquired a low expectancy of success). What was remarkable about SLT was the fact that its principles could be represented as equations and used to generate relatively precise point predictions of behavioral choice. This social learning theory suggests that behavior is influenced by social context or environmental factors, and not psychological factors alone. In addition to describing the theory and the results of numerous experiments verifying many of its hypotheses, Rotter's 1954 book contained many suggestions for clinical practice that anticipated
392:. Expectancy refers to the subjective probability (i.e., the probability as estimated by the individual) that a given action will lead to a given (reinforcing or punishing) outcome. In principle, it can be represented by a number between 0.00 (zero probability) and 1.00 (absolute certainty). Reinforcement value refers to the degree to which a person desires to attain (or avoid) a given outcome assuming that all outcomes are equally likely. In other words, reinforcement value is independent of expectancy. A person is likely to choose a particular course of action only if they believe themselves likely to succeed in attaining the goal and desire said goal. The minimal goal level is the threshold value; outcomes more positive than this are reinforcing, while outcomes less positive are punishing. Importantly, both expectancies and values are learned, and as with other forms of learning, they generalize. For example, after acquiring considerable experience in a variety of sporting events, a person develops a generalized expectancy for success in athletic endeavors. (Sometimes this is termed '
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further assessment and/or treatment. After the war he developed a standardized instrument of this type: the Rotter
Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB), first published in 1950. The test blank consists of 40 "stems" that the examinee is instructed to complete "to express your real feelings." A completed test protocol can be interpreted qualitatively by a trained examiner. In addition, Rotter and Rafferty introduced a formal scoring system by means of which the examinee's overall level of adjustment can be rated. This system, which can be used to a high degree of reliability across raters and was validated in a number of studies, was an important exception to the often subjective use of so-called projective personality tests at the time. The RISB was lightly revised and updated in 1992. It is generally found to be the most widely used sentence completion test in clinical settings.
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his colleagues came to realize that people may also generalize on the basis of the problem-solving approach they employed. For example, searching for alternatives is a way of approaching many problems, and people vary in the degree to which they believe this is likely to be effective. This concept added a new class of personality-related variables to the theory. The problem-solving generalized expectancy to which Rotter and his students devoted most attention during the next several years was the extent to which people believe that reinforcing outcomes are primarily dependent on their own efforts (internal) as opposed to being under the control of fate, chance, or powerful others (external). This concept came to be known as
368:, an early form of cognitive science, was essentially the only alternative. Rotter was simultaneously attracted and dissatisfied by both. He liked the methodological and theoretical rigor of behaviorists like Clark Hull, but found their mechanistic learning theories too limited for application to complex human social behavior. He also found the gestalt "field theories" appealing, especially the work of his former professor Kurt Lewin, but was disturbed by their imprecision and failure to generate specific predictions. Like the experimentalist Edward C. Tolman, Rotter aspired to develop a theory that combined the best elements of both; this became the nucleus of what he termed
324:, becoming director of that school's clinical psychology program, where he remained for the rest of his career. The Interpersonal Trust Scale, a research measure of this personality feature, was developed by Rotter during that time. He assumed emeritus status in 1987, but continued to teach graduate classes in personality and test construction for several more years. Rotter also served as president of the
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Rotter has been reported as one of the most eminent psychologists of the 20th century. He was 18th in frequency of citations in journal articles and 64th in overall eminence. His seminal studies of the variable of internal versus external locus of control provided the foundation of prolific research
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An important refinement of Rotter's Social
Learning Theory was the concept of generalized expectancies for problem-solving skills. Originally the generalization of expectancy was thought of as taking place purely along lines of expected reinforcers (e.g., academic or social success). But Rotter and
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During his military service, one of Rotter's tasks was to evaluate sick and injured soldiers for emotional fitness to return to active duty. One of the measures he used was an early sentence completion test, something that could be administered and evaluated quickly to identify those who needed
235:, who was teaching at the Long Island School of Medicine. After Rotter asked a question at a public lecture, Adler invited him to attend his weekly training clinic despite the fact that Rotter was only an undergraduate at the time. Wood inspired him by his lectures on the scientific method.
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428:. In 1966, Rotter published his famous I-E scale in the journal "Psychological Monographs", to assess internal and external locus of control. This paper became the single most widely cited source in the social science literature, and the scale has been widely used in the
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has made it subject to criticism. Rotter himself was astounded by how much attention this scale generated, claiming that it was like lighting a cigarette and seeing a forest fire. He himself believed that the scale was an adequate measure of just two concepts,
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where he continued to study the effects of success and failure on subsequent performance using the level of aspiration paradigm, completing his doctorate there (under the direction of C. M. Louttit) in 1941. Throughout his education, Rotter was influenced by
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for a class of reinforcers. Generalized expectancies and need values, being based on multiple learning experiences, become increasingly stable over time and develop a trait-like consistency - but unlike the personality traits described by researchers like
197:
survey, published in 2002, ranked Rotter as the 64th most eminent and 18th most widely cited psychologist of the 20th century. A 2014 study published in 2014 placed him at #54 among psychologists whose careers spanned the post-World War II era.
445:(which he took to be linked with internal locus of control) and outer-directedeness, or tendency to conform to others (which he took to be associated with external locus of control). Critics of the scale have frequently voiced concern that
261:, he became interested in level of aspiration, then a popular research topic, and designed and built the Level of Aspiration Board as a way of studying individual differences in this personality feature. At Iowa, he was also influenced by
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Haggbloom, Steven J.; Warnick, Renee; Warnick, Jason E.; Jones, Vinessa K.; Yarbrough, Gary L.; Russell, Tenea M.; Borecky, Chris M.; McGahhey, Reagan; Powell, John L. III; Beavers, Jamie; Monte, Emmanuelle (2002).
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in 1933, where he earned his undergraduate degree. He majored in chemistry even though he found psychology to be more fascinating because chemistry seemed more remunerative. While studying in
Brooklyn College,
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After earning his doctorate he was unable to obtain a faculty position owing to the anti-Semitism then prevalent in academia, but accepted a position at
Norwich Hospital; soon after, Rotter was drafted into the
301:. In the Army, Rotter worked as a psychologist, except for 17 weeks in officer candidate training as a tank officer. After the war he returned, again briefly, to Norwich Hospital before being recruited by
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Holaday, M., Smith, D.A., & Sherry, A. (2000). "Sentence completion tests: A review of the literature and results of a survey of the members of the
Society for Personality Assessment".
257:, and Elliot Rodnick provided stimulation and training in research and practice. Worcester was also where he met Clara Barnes, another intern, whom he later married. Through his work with
305:, where he taught and served as director of the psychological services clinic (a key component of clinical training there) formerly headed by Louttit. At Ohio State, Rotter worked with
265:, a general semanticist, who impressed on him the need for careful definitions in psychology and the myriad of pitfalls involved in poorly defined and poorly operationalized constructs
253:, he obtained an internship at the Worcester State Hospital, possibly the only formal internship in clinical psychology at the time. While at Worcester State Hospital, David Shakow,
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246:, the renowned gestalt psychologist whose field theory of personality, with its emphasis on goals, valence, and barriers, clearly influenced Rotter's later theory-building.
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into choice and perceived control in several disciplines. His pioneer social learning framework transformed behavioral approaches to personality and clinical psychology.
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When Rotter was a graduate student and early professional, American academic psychology was dominated by the approach known as behaviorism. The German school of
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He had two children after marrying Clara Barnes, whom he had met at
Worcester State. Rotter was married from 1941 until his wife died in 1985.
797:
Haggbloom, S. J. et al. (2002). The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century. Review of
General Psychology, 6,139-152. cited at
227:(best known for his later studies of conformity) influenced his development. Asch was then intensely involved in the controversy between
317:(1954) were published during his tenure there; most of the crucial "locus of control" studies were also conducted while at Ohio State.
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Lowery, B. J. (1981). Misconceptions and limitations of locus of control and the IāE scale. Nursing
Research, 30(5), 294ā298.
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that would be useful to clinicians and researchers alike. His theoretical model was more or less fully articulated in
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396:.') Likewise, a person may generalize across reinforcers that gratify related needs, developing a greater or lesser
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Rotter, J.B. (1966). "Generalized expectancies of internal versus external control of reinforcements".
384:(1954). Here, Rotter proposed that human behavior is the interactive result of two underlying forces:
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APA Distinguished
Scientific Award for an Early Career Contribution to Psychology recipients
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McGuire, W.J.; Padawer-Singer, A. (1976). "Trait salience in the spontaneous self-concept".
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Diener, Ed \title=An incomplete list of eminent psychologists of the modern era (2014).
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He died at the age of 97 on
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and Thorndikian views of learning. Another important influence in these years was
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The history of clinical psychology in autobiography (vol. II)
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Rotter, J. B. (1993). "Expectancies". In C. E. Walker (ed.).
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Manual: The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank: College Form
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is not as homogenous a concept as Rotter's paper implied.
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Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank Manual, Second Edition
480:"The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century"
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725:"Professor Emeritus of Psychology Julian Rotter dies"
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171:(October 22, 1916 ā January 6, 2014) was an American
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Human Motivation: Metaphors, Theories, and Research
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309:, founder of personal constructs theory. Both the
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972:Rotter, J.B.; Lah, M.I.; Rafferty, J.E. (1992).
862:"The Social Learning Theory of Julian B. Rotter"
787:https://doi.org/10.1097/00006199-198109000-00011
1009:The Social Learning Theory of Julian B. Rotter
1003:Center for Oral History Interviews Collection
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1084:United States Army personnel of World War II
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623:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
249:After completing his master's degree at the
372:(SLT). Rotter saw SLT as an alternative to
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813:"American Psychologist Julian B. Rotter".
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864:. California State University, Fullerton
238:He then earned a master's degree at the
938:Social Learning and Clinical Psychology
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382:Social Learning and Clinical Psychology
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963:Rotter, J.B; Rafferty, J.E. (1950).
696:George Sperling "Julian B. Rotter",
1049:20th-century American psychologists
326:American Psychological Association
313:(1950) and Rotter's seminal work,
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1079:University of Connecticut faculty
1023:Recent (8/7/12) profile of Rotter
878:Journal of Personality Assessment
847:: 625ā626 (whole no. 609). 1989.
675:(April 1989), 44 (4), pg. 625-626
533:Archives of Scientific Psychology
345:Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank
330:Eastern Psychological Association
976:. The Psychological Corporation.
967:. The Psychological Corporation.
958:. Brooks/Cole. pp. 273ā284.
100:Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank
985:. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
758:Rotter Lah and Rafferty (1992)
563:Julian Rotter at Fullerton.edu
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1074:Ohio State University faculty
183:. He was a faculty member at
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407:cognitive-behavioral therapy
320:In 1963, Rotter went to the
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1005:- University of Connecticut
999:- University of Connecticut
206:Rotter was born in 1916 in
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1018:Biography of Julian Rotter
890:10.1207/S15327752JPA7403_3
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635:10.1037/0022-3514.33.6.743
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114:William James Fellow Award
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927:Millon, Theodore (2004).
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981:Weiner, Bernard (1980).
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936:Rotter, J. B. (1954).
931:. John Wiley and Sons.
443:achievement motivation
370:Social Learning Theory
360:Social Learning Theory
354:Social Learning Theory
177:social learning theory
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66:Mansfield, Connecticut
1011:- psych.fullerton.edu
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685:AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST
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660:Weiner (1980), p. 237
596:American Psychologist
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303:Ohio State University
185:Ohio State University
175:known for developing
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16:American psychologist
1054:People from Brooklyn
839:"Julian B. Rotter".
594:"Julian B. Rotter".
929:Masters of the Mind
394:freedom of movement
390:reinforcement value
546:10.1037/arc0000006
366:gestalt psychology
295:United States Army
270:Indiana University
251:University of Iowa
240:University of Iowa
179:and research into
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386:expectancy
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259:Kurt Lewin
244:Kurt Lewin
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229:Gestalt
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110:Awards
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