292:. Successful implementation of JiTT leads to cognitive gains, ranging from moderate to quite significant. Success depends critically on the teacher and students' total buy-in. If students see the on-line assignments merely as an add-on to the course, to be completed perfunctorily in the shortest time possible and then discussed briefly at the beginning of class, before the "real" lecture, they will resent the extra work and will not get any additional benefit from JiTT. Teachers using JiTT report a spectrum of results, ranging from significant affective and cognitive gains to very negative student reactions, disillusionment, and sometimes a regression in learning gains.
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Gavrin reported that 80% of the students in his JiTT class responded "yes" to "Do the JiTT exercises help you to be well prepared for lecture?" versus 21% affirmative to the same question in "other classes". He found a 58% vs. 18% split on "staying focused", a 59% vs. 18% split on "feeling like an active participant", and a 71% vs. 21% split on "finding classroom time useful". When trying to assess the efficacy of any pedagogical strategy, it is important to appreciate that the choice and implementation of a particular teaching method will affect student and faculty attitudes and motivation as well as learning outcomes. In her use of JiTT at
155:. The pre-class assignments cover the material that will be introduced in the subsequent class, and should be answered based on students' reading or other preparation. As a result, these assignments provide a strong incentive for students to complete the assigned reading or other preparatory work before class. For this reason, JiTT has been compared to the use of "reading quizzes". However, there are important differences.
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the students have mastered a topic, she may reduce or eliminate discussion of that topic during class. Similarly, if the pre-class assignment shows that students have particular difficulties, those difficulties may be addressed more thoroughly in class. These "just-in-time" adjustments lend their name to the technique, just as
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and useful to them are more likely to use deeper processing strategies like elaboration and metacognitive control strategies. "At the classroom and task level, there are a number of features that could increase students' situational interest – such as challenge, choice, novelty, fantasy, and surprise."
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JiTT assignments and classroom activities are designed to motivate the students to examine their present knowledge and get ready to modify such knowledge, add to it and then apply the newly constructed knowledge. These tasks are accomplished as students and instructors work as a team in a debate-like
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JiTT may be described as a method by which some or all of the time students spend in preparation for class is used to leverage the quality of the time spent in class. To accomplish this, JiTT relies on pre-class assignments completed by students 1–24 hours before class meetings. These assignments are
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for tests. She asked her students "Did you put off studying for
Biotech 540 and as a result 'cram' for Biotech 540 tests?" to her graduate students, and 34% answered yes. However, 62% of the class answered in affirmative to the question "Do you 'cram' for other courses that you have this semester?"
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position that "the process of conceptual change is influenced by personal, motivational, social, and historical processes, thereby advocating a hot model of individual conceptual change". Research has shown that college students who report that their course material is more interesting, important,
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education. Sixty-one percent of the students in the JiTT class reached the threshold, compared to only seven percent in the traditionally taught class. Marrs reported similar gains on pre-post assessment in biology, using the Hake metric, defined as (posttest% – pretest%)/(100% – pretest%). With
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Most faculty members make the pre-class assignment due at least 1 hour before class. This allows the faculty member to review the students' answers before class. In most cases, faculty members use this review to make adjustments to the planned classroom activities. If the faculty member feels that
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I see my students working weekly through open-ended questions that require higher-order cognitive skills. I saw students working together in class, gaining additional practice with quantitative, communication, and management skills. I see my students using the vocabulary of the discipline as they
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JiTT learning units start with an examination, by the student, of his/her current knowledge status regarding the topic to be studied, and with an examination of motivational beliefs that determine the student's approach to the topic. This approach is currently favored in any setting, but it is
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literature. Over the years JiTT attention shifted to the broader questions of which aspects of the technique worked well, which not so well, and why. In order to answer those questions it is necessary to examine the knowledge about teaching and learning that has accumulated over the past half
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sequence have shifted significantly towards conceptual probing for deeper understanding. Analyzing carefully kept records from the pre-JiTT early 1990s until the present, one finds that despite the increasingly more challenging questions, the scores have held steady and even improved in some
265:, described in research literature as modification of existing knowledge. In the sciences in particular, learning is seen both as accretion of new knowledge and change of existing knowledge. Preflights have been linked to assessment and feedback, threshold concepts and criterion referencing.
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Reading quizzes are generally given during class time. Since the pre-class JiTT assignment is completed online, no class time is used. Also, because students have more time to answer the pre-class questions than they do a typical reading quiz, the questions may be more open-ended and
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Faculty using just-in-time teaching often use quotes from students' responses to the pre-class assignments as "talking points" during the class period. This emphasis on student work as the starting point or as a touchstone during class helps to make the class more
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Malone, TW and Lepper, MR (1987), Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. In RE Snow and MJ Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, Learning and
Instruction III: Cognitive and Affective Process Analyses. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
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Marrs KA, Blake, R, and Gavrin, A (2003), Use of Warm Up
Exercises in Just in Time Teaching: Determining Students' Prior Knowledge and Misconceptions in Biology, Chemistry, and Physics. Journal of College Science Teaching, September 2003, pp.
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in 1996 course attendance increased from under 50% to over 80%. Instructors in other disciplines have reported similar results. Better attendance inevitably leads to fewer students dropping the class and an overall rise in grades. In JiTT
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Pintrich, PR, Marx, RW, Boyle, RA (1993). Beyond cold conceptual change: The role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change. Review of
Educational Research,
303:(FCI) questions (the distractors as well as the correct answers) for evidence of students reaching the transition threshold from "common sense thinking to Newtonian thinking", a well-defined notion in
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known variously as "Warmup exercises", "Preflight checks", "Checkpoints", and other names, depending on institutional settings. These assignments are usually completed online, either through a course
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have adopted just-in-time teaching. JiTT is used primarily at the college level, although some faculty members have used it at the high school level, and in graduate and professional programs.
288:. They provide students frequent opportunities to consider their understanding of the material, and they provide faculty a regular sightline into their students' progress towards
38:, to encourage students to prepare for class, and to allow the instructor to fine-tune the classroom activities to best meet students' needs. This should not be confused with
66:(USAFA). Subsequently, JiTT was disseminated through a combination of publications, presentations, and workshops. Faculty members teaching in disciplines including
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work through JiTT exercises and discuss JiTT responses in class. I see students connecting ideas across the course and across their lives (Guertin, 2010).
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instructors in the late 1990s, but its use has since spread to many other academic disciplines. Early work was done in the physics department at
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Just-in-time teaching had its origins in the classrooms where faculty were looking for more effective ways to engage a particular audience –
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traditional lecture-based pedagogy the gain was 16.7%; the gain jumped to 52.3% with JiTT and to 63.6% with collaborative learning.
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between classroom activities and work that students do at home, in preparation for the classroom meeting. The goals are to increase
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Faculty member creates or adjusts next pre-class assignment to best meet students' needs in light of progress made during class.
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JiTT activities also take into account motivational factors governing student behavior. Motivational belief theorists take the
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Whalley, WB, (2013) Teaching with assessment, feedback and feedforward: using 'preflights' to assist student achievement, in
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between their other (to them meaningful) activities and going to school (not to learn but to get certified for something.)
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Taking the full set of methods described above into account, the cycle for a single classroom meeting is as follows.
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as contributing to success in college: student-student interaction, student-faculty interaction and time on task.
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evolved mostly by trial and error, although, from the start, many JiTT practitioners were paying attention to the
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Camp, ME., Middendorf, J and
Sullivan, CS (2010), "Using Just-in-Time Teaching to Motivate Student Learning" in
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Research in
Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Studies Proceedings of an International Workshop
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who need to be given some control over what they do to avoid slipping into surface learning which creates a
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During class, students engage in discussion of the material with the faculty member and with one another.
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Scott, PH, Asoko HM, and Driver, RH (1991). Teaching for
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in just-in-time teaching connotes many ideas. JiTT assignments are themselves a type of
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For the love of learning, Innovations from outstanding university teachers
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Guertin, LA (2010), "Using Just-in-Time
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Formica, Sarah P.; Easley, Jessica L.; Spraker, Mark C. (2010-08-18).
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Novak, G and
Patterson, ET (2010), "Getting Started with JiTT" in
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Just-in-Time Teaching: Blending active Learning and Web Technology
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An example of successful JiTT comes from a five-semester study at
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Just-in-Time Teaching: Across the Disciplines, Across the Academy
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Just-in-Time Teaching: Across the Disciplines, Across the Academy
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thought-provoking. This leads to another significant difference.
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Novak, GN, Patterson, ET, Gavrin, A, and Christian, W (1999),
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Physical Review Special Topics - Physics Education Research
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Motivation in education: Theory, research, and Applications
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Just-in-time teaching was developed for university level
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What matters in college? Four critical years revisited
58:(IUPUI) in collaboration with physics instructors at
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Students complete reading or other preparatory work
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Indiana University – Purdue University Indianapolis
501:(2nd Ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill-Prentice Hall.
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