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how a bacterial cell can "choose" whether or not to carry out the reaction catalyzed by the enzyme. As Monod explains, one way the cell can make such a choice is by either synthesizing the enzyme or not, in response to its chemical environment. However, the synthesis/no synthesis choice is in turn governed by necessary biochemical interactions between a repressor protein, the gene for the enzyme, and the substrate of the enzyme, which interact so that the outcome (enzyme synthesis or not) differs according to the variable composition of the cell's chemical environment. The hierarchical, modular organization of this system clearly implies that additional regulatory elements can exist that govern, are governed by, or otherwise interact with any given set of regulatory components. Because, in general, the bacterial activity that results from these regulatory circuits is in accord with what is beneficial for the bacterial cell's survival at that time, the bacterium as a whole can be described as making rational choices, even though the bacterial components involved in deciding whether to make an enzyme (repressor, gene, and substrate) have no more choice about their activities than does the enzyme itself.
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to explain how the capacity of biological systems to retain information, combined with chance variations during the replication of information (i.e. genetic mutations) that are individually rare but commonplace in aggregate, leads to the differential preservation of that information which is most successful at maintaining and replicating itself. Monod writes that this process, acting over long periods of time, is a sufficient explanation (indeed the only plausible explanation) for the complexity and teleonomic activity of the biosphere. Hence, the combined effects of chance and necessity, which are amenable to scientific investigation, account for our existence and the universe we inhabit, without the need to invoke mystical, supernatural, or religious explanations.
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attributing them to supernatural or divine causes. While Monod does not explicitly address mind or consciousness, his scientific research demonstrated that biology includes feedback loops that govern interacting systems of biochemical reactions, so that the system as a whole can be described as having a purpose and making choices. Monod's philosophical writing indicates that he recognized the implication that such systems could arise and be elaborated upon by evolution through natural selection. The importance of Monod's work as a bridge between the chance and necessity of evolution and biochemistry on the one hand, and the human realm of choice and ethics on the other, can be judged by his influence on philosophers, biologists and computer scientists such as
514:. In summarizing recent progress in several areas of biology, including his own research, Monod highlights the ways in which information is found to take physical form and hence become capable of influencing events in the world. For example, the information allowing a protein enzyme to "select" only one of several similar compounds as the substrate of a chemical reaction is encoded in the precise three-dimensional shape of the enzyme; that precise shape is itself encoded by the linear sequence of amino acids constituting the protein; and that particular sequence of amino acids is encoded by the sequence of nucleotides in the gene for that enzyme.
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choose". While apparently bleak, in comparison to the concepts that humanity belongs to some inevitable, universal process, or that a benevolent God created and protects us, an acceptance of the scientific assessment described in the first part of the quotation is, for Monod, the only possible basis of an authentic, ethical human life. It is reasonable to conclude that Monod himself did not find this position bleak; the quotation he chose from Camus to introduce
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Monod advocates an objective (hence value-free) scientific worldview as a guide to assessing truth. He describes this as an "ethics of knowledge" that disrupts the older philosophical, mythological and religious ontologies, which claim to provide both ethical values and a standard for judging truth.
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Monod shows a paradigm of how choice at one level of biological organization (metabolic activity) is generated by necessary (choiceless) interactions at another level (gene regulation); the ability to choose arises from a complex system of feedback loops that connect these interactions. He goes on
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act as it does, catalyzing a reaction with one substrate but not another, according to the constraints imposed by its structure. While the enzyme itself cannot be said in any meaningful way to have a choice about its activity, the thrust of Jacob and Monod's Nobel prize-winning research was to show
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Sociologist Howard L. Kaye has suggested that Monod failed in his attempt to banish "mind and purpose from the phenomenon of life" in the name of science. It may be more accurate to suggest that Monod sought to include mind and purpose within the purview of scientific investigation, rather than
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the ethical values that motivate their actions. He concludes that "man at last knows he is alone in the unfeeling immensity of the universe, out of which he has emerged only by chance. His destiny is nowhere spelled out, nor is his duty. The kingdom above or the darkness below: it is for him to
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261:(lac). From their own work and the work of others, they came up with a model for how the levels of some proteins in a cell are controlled. In their model, the manufacture of a set of related proteins, such as the ones encoded within the
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operon originated from his doctoral dissertation, which explored the growth of bacteria on mixtures of sugars and documented the sequential utilization of two or more sugars. The work was conducted at the
University of Paris, with
598:. The Institut Jacques Monod, funded jointly by the CNRS and the University of Paris, is one of the main centers for basic research in biology in the Paris area. It is headed by Michel Werner, Research Director.
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to explain how conformational effects could allow enzyme effectors that are structurally quite different from the enzyme's substrates and products to activate or inhibit the reaction: binding at an
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to denote the frequent observations of two distinct growth phases of bacteria grown on two sugars. He theorized on the growth of bacterial cultures and promoted the
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Monod joined the
Pasteur Institute in 1943 and Jacob in 1949. The experimental system ultimately used by Jacob and Monod was a common bacterium,
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genetics. This was a true revelation for him and probably influenced him on developing a genetic conception of biochemistry and metabolism.
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the concept that only chemical and molecular descriptions could provide a complete interpretation of the function of living organisms."
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For Monod, assessing truth separate from any value judgement is what frees human beings to act authentically, by requiring that they
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668:, Nobel laureate in literature who had also been active in the French Resistance and shared Monod's criticism of the Soviet system.
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of the enzyme remote from the active site could bring about a change at the active site. He made an important contribution to
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479:. In preparation for the Allied landings, he arranged parachute drops of weapons, railroad bombings, and mail interceptions.
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Brave Genius: A Scientist, a
Philosopher, and Their Daring Adventures from the French Resistance to the Nobel Prize
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Brave Genius: A Scientist, a
Philosopher, and Their Daring Adventures from the French Resistance to the Nobel Prize
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While acknowledging the likely evolutionary origin of a human need for explanatory myths, in the final chapter of
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Monod, J.; Wyman, J.; Changeux, J.-P. (1965). "On the Nature of
Allosteric Transitions: A Plausible Model".
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880:. History of molecular biology recounted through the lives and work of the major figures, including Monod.
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of some multi-subunit proteins. This has become the most widely accepted explanation of cooperativity.
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Cornish-Bowden, Athel (2014). "Understanding allosteric and cooperative interactions in enzymes".
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Monod, J.; Changeux, J.-P.; Jacob, F. (1963). "Allosteric proteins and cellular control systems".
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until he was 18. In
October 1928 he started his studies in biology at the University of Paris.
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770:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1965 François Jacob, André Lwoff, Jacques Monod"
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after the end of the Second World War, but distanced himself from the party after the
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Monod, then a professor at the
University of Paris, supported the student protests of
618:, who was a painter and inspired him artistically and intellectually. He attended the
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500:, written for a general readership. Monod acknowledges his connection to the French
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theory as a powerful continuous culture system to investigate bacterial physiology.
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Monod was not only a biologist but also a fine musician and esteemed writer on the
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242:"for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis".
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1451:
Biographical Index of Former
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002
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257:, which encodes proteins necessary for the transport and breakdown of the sugar
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1495:"Jacques Monod, Nobel Biologist, Dies; Thought Existence Is Based on Chance"
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does not waste energy making such enzymes if there is no need to metabolize
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Chance and
Necessity: An Essay on the Natural Philosophy of Modern Biology
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Chance and
Necessity: An Essay on the Natural Philosophy of Modern Biology
320:. For these contributions he is widely regarded as one of the founders of
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In the title of the book, "necessity" refers to the fact that the enzyme
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In addition to sharing a Nobel Prize, Monod was also a recipient of the
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993:, accessed 11 October 2020 with the Nobel Lecture on December 11, 1965
900:. Jacques Monod seen by persons who interacted with him as a scientist.
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258:
1521:"Jacques Monod, François Jacob, and the Lysenko Affair: Boundary Work"
1008:"The "Genetic Program": Behind the Genesis of an Influential Metaphor"
845:, Jacques Monod, Ernest Bornek, June 1971, Columbia University Press,
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and, along with several fellow Nobel laureates, appealed to president
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492:(1971) –, a book based on a series of lectures that he had given at
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in the epigraph of the book, which quotes the final paragraphs of
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article) that was discovered by Jacob and Monod is fundamental to
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Before his doctoral work, Monod spent a year in the laboratory of
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in 1969. The book is a short but influential examination of the
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1613:
872:. Expanded Edition Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press, 1996.
862:
The Eighth Day of Creation: makers of the revolution in biology
313:
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ends with the sentence: "One must imagine Sisyphus happy."
546:
In 1973, Jacques Monod was one of the signatories of the
420:
are available. The type of regulation is called negative
913:
Origins of molecular biology: a tribute to Jacques Monod
890:
Origins of Molecular Biology: a Tribute to Jacques Monod
383:
having provided important advice. Monod coined the term
348:
he owes the discovery of physiological genetics, and to
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Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
1122:
Monod, J. (1949). "The growth of bacterial cultures".
892:
edited by Agnes Ullmann, Washington, ASM Press, 2003,
864:
by Horace Freeland Judson, Simon and Schuster, 1979.
728:"Jacques Lucien Monod. 9 February 1910 -- 31 May 1976"
344:
initiated him into the potentials of microbiology; to
300:
operon provided the first example of a system for the
400:, but the basic regulatory concept (described in the
733:
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society
340:
he owes a preference for quantitative descriptions;
245:
Monod and Jacob became famous for their work on the
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826:by Jacques Monod, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1971,
610:, Charlotte (Sharlie) MacGregor Todd, and a French
606:Monod was born in Paris to an American mother from
408:regulation for all organisms. The key idea is that
296:Study of the control of expression of genes in the
198:
172:
137:
116:
106:
87:
64:
41:
1263:
995:From Enzymatic Adaption to Allosteric Transitions
4015:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
640:, eventually becoming the chief of staff of the
1338:. American Humanist Association. Archived from
451:and Changeux to extend this concept to explain
312:molecules that link the information encoded in
1088:
1086:
1084:
1082:
226:; 9 February 1910 – 31 May 1976) was a French
4020:Members of the American Philosophical Society
3409:
3168:
1625:
1457:. The Royal Society of Edinburgh. July 2006.
980:
978:
976:
974:
8:
1063:Biography of Jacques Monod at Nobel e-Museum
805:Translated from the French. 1995 paperback:
498:philosophical implications of modern biology
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596:Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1968
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3161:
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1610:
1593:
988:
629:In 1938 he married Odette Bruhl (d.1972).
56:
38:
30:For other people named Jacques Monod, see
3955:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1274:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf – via
1039:
954:
745:
586:in 1960. He was elected a member of the
308:. Monod also suggested the existence of
3935:Academic staff of the Collège de France
1379:American Academy of Arts & Sciences
706:
3906:Index of evolutionary biology articles
4000:Burials at the Cimetière du Grand Jas
1645:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1310:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p.
1006:Peluffo, Alexandre E. (1 July 2015).
584:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
232:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
221:
145:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
7:
3980:Foreign members of the Royal Society
1364:(Transaction Publishers 1997), p. 75
1362:The Social Meaning of Modern Biology
1136:10.1146/annurev.mi.03.100149.002103
791:The Statue Within: an autobiography
4010:Recipients of the Legion of Honour
3716:Evolutionary developmental biology
1074:Video interview with Jacques Monod
467:. He was a political activist and
361:California Institute of Technology
25:
4025:French people of American descent
416:, such as when other sugars like
273:protein, encoded by a regulatory
3673:Evolution of sexual reproduction
473:Forces Françaises de l'Interieur
1601:Works by or about Jacques Monod
943:Journal of General Microbiology
656:. Monod became a member of the
293:of the adjacent genes begins.)
3444:Genotype–phenotype distinction
686:in 1976 and was buried in the
664:. He became a close friend of
592:American Philosophical Society
32:Jacques Monod (disambiguation)
1:
3701:Regulation of gene expression
1227:(2, Special Issue): 621–632.
1198:10.1016/S0022-2836(65)80285-6
1163:10.1016/S0022-2836(63)80091-1
642:French Forces of the Interior
435:, Monod proposed a theory of
3871:Endless Forms Most Beautiful
3651:Evolution of genetic systems
3459:Gene–environment correlation
3454:Gene–environment interaction
1493:Prial, Frank (1 June 1976).
644:. He was a Chevalier in the
588:National Academy of Sciences
3850:Christiane NĂĽsslein-Volhard
2737:Christiane NĂĽsslein-Volhard
1024:10.1534/genetics.115.178418
648:(1945) and was awarded the
459:Philosophical contributions
4041:
3726:Hedgehog signaling pathway
3603:Developmental architecture
939:"Jacques Monod, 1910–1976"
916:. ASM Press. p. xiv.
636:, Monod was active in the
582:and elected member of the
447:when he collaborated with
29:
3975:French Resistance members
3903:
3553:Transgressive segregation
3321:
1934:Charles Scott Sherrington
1910:Frederick Gowland Hopkins
679:on the students' behalf.
484:Le hasard et la nécessité
482:In 1970, Monod published
234:in 1965, sharing it with
208:
165:
55:
2924:Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
956:10.1099/00221287-101-1-1
652:(1945) and the American
370:Monod's interest in the
3731:Notch signaling pathway
3706:Gene regulatory network
3589:Dual inheritance theory
1336:"Humanist Manifesto II"
1304:Monod, Jacques (1971).
1289:Monod, Jacques (1971).
1262:Monod, Jacques (1971).
910:Ullmann, Agnès (2003).
3960:French Nobel laureates
3940:French microbiologists
3779:cis-regulatory element
3687:Control of development
3567:Non-genetic influences
3533:evolutionary landscape
3327:Nobel Prize recipients
3292:Physiology or Medicine
1705:Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal
1375:"Jacques Lucien Monod"
1099:Crown Publishing Group
747:10.1098/rsbm.1977.0015
688:Cimetière du Grand Jas
682:Jacques Monod died of
658:French Communist Party
486:– English translation
471:of operations for the
437:allosteric transitions
269:, is prevented when a
3995:Scientists from Paris
3890:Nature versus nurture
3794:Cell surface receptor
3711:Evo-devo gene toolkit
3610:Developmental biology
3548:Polygenic inheritance
3474:Quantitative genetics
3202:Robert Burns Woodward
2206:Dickinson W. Richards
1890:Julius Wagner-Jauregg
1093:Caroll, Sean (2013).
797:, Basic Books, 1988.
548:Humanist Manifesto II
465:philosophy of science
453:cooperative behaviour
129:Allosteric regulation
3799:Transcription factor
3514:Genetic assimilation
3501:Genetic architecture
2629:Rita Levi-Montalcini
1990:Albert Szent-Györgyi
1519:Marks, John (2012).
1429:search.amphilsoc.org
1425:"APS Member History"
1307:Chance and Necessity
1291:Chance and Necessity
1124:Annu. Rev. Microbiol
937:Stanier, R. (1977).
843:Of Microbes and Life
541:Chance and Necessity
531:Chance and Necessity
511:The Myth of Sisyphus
489:Chance and Necessity
429:Jean-Pierre Changeux
332:As a student at the
285:from binding to the
215:Jacques Lucien Monod
69:Jacques Lucien Monod
18:Jacques Lucien Monod
3990:History of genetics
3895:Morphogenetic field
3812:Influential figures
3021:William C. Campbell
2932:Elizabeth Blackburn
2769:Robert F. Furchgott
2761:Stanley B. Prusiner
2753:Rolf M. Zinkernagel
2653:George H. Hitchings
2617:Joseph L. Goldstein
2577:Bengt I. Samuelsson
2406:Earl Sutherland Jr.
334:University of Paris
328:Career and research
111:University of Paris
3950:French biochemists
3945:French geneticists
3584:Genomic imprinting
3306:André Michel Lwoff
3269:Sin-Itiro Tomonaga
3081:William Kaelin Jr.
3077:Peter J. Ratcliffe
2820:Leland H. Hartwell
2709:Richard J. Roberts
2589:Barbara McClintock
2533:Godfrey Hounsfield
2434:Nikolaas Tinbergen
2366:Marshall Nirenberg
2334:Charles B. Huggins
2123:Tadeusz Reichstein
2111:AntĂłnio Egas Moniz
1906:Christiaan Eijkman
1592:on Nobelprize.org
1568:. Broadway Books.
1499:The New York Times
1342:on 20 October 2012
1233:10.1111/febs.12469
1076:Vega Science Trust
987:on Nobelprize.org
574:Awards and honours
560:Douglas Hofstadter
357:Thomas Hunt Morgan
4005:Pasteur Institute
3912:
3911:
3845:Eric F. Wieschaus
3807:
3806:
3625:Pattern formation
3529:Fitness landscape
3391:
3390:
3226:Mikhail Sholokhov
3150:
3149:
3115:Ardem Patapoutian
2964:Ralph M. Steinman
2960:Jules A. Hoffmann
2948:Robert G. Edwards
2916:Harald zur Hausen
2840:H. Robert Horvitz
2741:Eric F. Wieschaus
2677:E. Donnall Thomas
2661:J. Michael Bishop
2649:Gertrude B. Elion
2521:Hamilton O. Smith
2446:Christian de Duve
2182:Frederick Robbins
2059:Alexander Fleming
1998:Corneille Heymans
1844:Frederick Banting
1749:Allvar Gullstrand
1525:L'Esprit Créateur
1404:www.nasonline.org
1272:Austryn Wainhouse
677:Charles de Gaulle
654:Bronze Star Medal
638:French Resistance
381:Pasteur Institute
322:molecular biology
289:, the site where
212:
211:
203:Pasteur Institute
190:Molecular biology
167:Scientific career
16:(Redirected from
4032:
3970:French humanists
3855:William McGinnis
3824:Richard Lewontin
3819:C. H. Waddington
3691:
3668:Neutral networks
3418:
3411:
3404:
3395:
3329:
3275:Julian Schwinger
3177:
3170:
3163:
3154:
3143:
3128:
3117:
3102:
3096:Michael Houghton
3083:
3073:Gregg L. Semenza
3067:
3061:James P. Allison
3055:
3053:Michael W. Young
3039:
3037:Yoshinori Ohsumi
3031:
3015:
2999:
2997:Thomas C. SĂĽdhof
2983:
2971:
2950:
2942:
2936:Carol W. Greider
2926:
2910:
2894:
2882:
2870:
2858:
2846:
2830:
2803:
2787:
2779:
2763:
2755:
2749:Peter C. Doherty
2743:
2727:
2721:Alfred G. Gilman
2715:
2703:
2691:
2679:
2667:
2665:Harold E. Varmus
2655:
2639:
2631:
2619:
2607:
2591:
2583:
2567:
2551:
2541:Baruj Benacerraf
2535:
2523:
2507:
2491:
2468:
2452:
2436:
2420:
2408:
2400:
2384:
2368:
2358:Robert W. Holley
2352:
2336:
2324:
2308:
2296:
2280:
2264:
2262:Georg von Békésy
2256:
2244:
2232:
2230:Joshua Lederberg
2216:
2208:
2202:Werner Forssmann
2192:
2184:
2168:
2156:
2148:
2129:
2113:
2101:
2093:
2091:Bernardo Houssay
2077:
2069:
2053:
2041:
2029:
2028:
2022:
2021:
2015:
2014:
2008:
2000:
1992:
1984:
1972:
1964:
1948:
1940:
1928:
1920:
1918:Karl Landsteiner
1912:
1900:
1892:
1884:
1882:Johannes Fibiger
1865:
1864:
1858:
1856:Willem Einthoven
1850:
1838:
1826:
1825:
1819:
1811:
1803:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1775:
1767:
1759:
1751:
1743:
1735:
1727:
1721:Élie Metchnikoff
1715:
1713:Alphonse Laveran
1707:
1695:
1687:
1679:
1671:
1663:
1634:
1627:
1620:
1611:
1605:Internet Archive
1597:
1579:
1549:
1548:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1490:
1484:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1473:
1467:. Archived from
1456:
1446:
1440:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1421:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1396:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1371:
1365:
1360:Kaye, Howard L.
1358:
1352:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1332:
1326:
1325:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1286:
1280:
1279:
1276:Internet Archive
1270:. Translated by
1269:
1259:
1253:
1252:
1216:
1210:
1209:
1181:
1175:
1174:
1146:
1140:
1139:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1090:
1077:
1071:
1065:
1060:
1054:
1053:
1043:
1003:
997:
992:
982:
969:
968:
958:
934:
928:
927:
907:
901:
887:
881:
859:
853:
840:
834:
819:
813:
788:
782:
781:
779:
777:
772:. Nobelprize.org
766:
760:
759:
749:
720:
646:LĂ©gion d'Honneur
580:LĂ©gion d'honneur
225:
220:
151:Legion of Honour
94:
78:
76:
60:
50:
39:
27:French biologist
21:
4040:
4039:
4035:
4034:
4033:
4031:
4030:
4029:
3965:French atheists
3915:
3914:
3913:
3908:
3899:
3878:
3865:Sean B. Carroll
3803:
3735:
3682:
3646:
3598:
3579:Maternal effect
3562:
3495:
3432:
3422:
3392:
3387:
3325:
3317:
3302:(Great Britain)
3286:
3283:(United States)
3281:Richard Feynman
3277:(United States)
3255:
3252:(United States)
3231:
3207:
3204:(United States)
3188:
3181:
3151:
3146:
3131:
3120:
3105:
3100:Charles M. Rice
3092:Harvey J. Alter
3086:
3070:
3058:
3049:Michael Rosbash
3045:Jeffrey C. Hall
3042:
3034:
3018:
3009:May-Britt Moser
3002:
2986:
2981:Shinya Yamanaka
2974:
2953:
2945:
2940:Jack W. Szostak
2929:
2913:
2908:Oliver Smithies
2897:
2885:
2873:
2861:
2856:Peter Mansfield
2849:
2844:John E. Sulston
2833:
2817:
2806:
2790:
2782:
2766:
2758:
2746:
2733:Edward B. Lewis
2730:
2718:
2706:
2694:
2682:
2670:
2658:
2642:
2637:Susumu Tonegawa
2634:
2622:
2610:
2594:
2586:
2570:
2554:
2538:
2526:
2510:
2497:Roger Guillemin
2494:
2489:Daniel Gajdusek
2485:Baruch Blumberg
2482:
2471:
2462:Renato Dulbecco
2458:David Baltimore
2455:
2439:
2426:Karl von Frisch
2423:
2411:
2403:
2387:
2371:
2355:
2346:Haldan Hartline
2339:
2327:
2311:
2299:
2283:
2278:Maurice Wilkins
2267:
2259:
2247:
2242:Arthur Kornberg
2235:
2219:
2211:
2195:
2187:
2171:
2159:
2151:
2143:
2132:
2116:
2104:
2096:
2080:
2072:
2056:
2047:Joseph Erlanger
2044:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2012:
2011:
2003:
1995:
1987:
1975:
1967:
1951:
1943:
1931:
1923:
1915:
1903:
1898:Charles Nicolle
1895:
1887:
1879:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1853:
1841:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1814:
1806:
1800:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1786:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1770:
1762:
1754:
1746:
1741:Albrecht Kossel
1738:
1730:
1718:
1710:
1698:
1690:
1682:
1674:
1666:
1658:
1647:
1638:
1586:
1576:
1562:Sean B. Carroll
1560:
1557:
1555:Further reading
1552:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1503:
1501:
1492:
1491:
1487:
1477:
1475:
1474:on 4 March 2016
1471:
1465:
1454:
1448:
1447:
1443:
1433:
1431:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1408:
1406:
1400:"Jacques Monod"
1398:
1397:
1393:
1383:
1381:
1373:
1372:
1368:
1359:
1355:
1345:
1343:
1334:
1333:
1329:
1322:
1303:
1302:
1298:
1288:
1287:
1283:
1261:
1260:
1256:
1218:
1217:
1213:
1183:
1182:
1178:
1148:
1147:
1143:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1109:
1092:
1091:
1080:
1072:
1068:
1061:
1057:
1005:
1004:
1000:
983:
972:
936:
935:
931:
924:
909:
908:
904:
888:
884:
860:
856:
841:
837:
820:
816:
789:
785:
775:
773:
768:
767:
763:
722:
721:
708:
704:
650:Croix de Guerre
604:
576:
568:Richard Dawkins
502:existentialists
461:
441:allosteric site
422:gene regulation
338:George Teissier
330:
277:, binds to its
218:
194:
161:
133:
102:
96:
92:
83:
80:
79:9 February 1910
74:
72:
71:
70:
51:
46:
44:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4038:
4036:
4028:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3917:
3916:
3910:
3909:
3904:
3901:
3900:
3898:
3897:
3892:
3886:
3884:
3880:
3879:
3877:
3876:
3875:
3874:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3841:
3840:
3829:François Jacob
3826:
3821:
3815:
3813:
3809:
3808:
3805:
3804:
3802:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3765:
3764:
3754:
3749:
3743:
3741:
3737:
3736:
3734:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3697:
3695:
3688:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3654:
3652:
3648:
3647:
3645:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3628:
3627:
3622:
3612:
3606:
3604:
3600:
3599:
3597:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3570:
3568:
3564:
3563:
3561:
3560:
3558:Sequence space
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3505:
3503:
3497:
3496:
3494:
3493:
3488:
3487:
3486:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3440:
3438:
3434:
3433:
3423:
3421:
3420:
3413:
3406:
3398:
3389:
3388:
3386:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3322:
3319:
3318:
3316:
3315:
3309:
3303:
3300:François Jacob
3296:
3294:
3288:
3287:
3285:
3284:
3278:
3272:
3265:
3263:
3257:
3256:
3254:
3253:
3246:
3244:
3233:
3232:
3230:
3229:
3228:(Soviet Union)
3222:
3220:
3209:
3208:
3206:
3205:
3198:
3196:
3190:
3189:
3182:
3180:
3179:
3172:
3165:
3157:
3148:
3147:
3145:
3144:
3137:Katalin KarikĂł
3129:
3118:
3103:
3084:
3068:
3056:
3040:
3032:
3016:
3000:
2993:Randy Schekman
2984:
2972:
2951:
2943:
2927:
2920:Luc Montagnier
2911:
2900:Mario Capecchi
2895:
2883:
2876:Barry Marshall
2871:
2859:
2852:Paul Lauterbur
2847:
2836:Sydney Brenner
2831:
2814:
2812:
2808:
2807:
2805:
2804:
2797:Paul Greengard
2793:Arvid Carlsson
2788:
2780:
2764:
2756:
2744:
2728:
2725:Martin Rodbell
2716:
2704:
2701:Edwin G. Krebs
2697:Edmond Fischer
2692:
2680:
2668:
2656:
2645:James W. Black
2640:
2632:
2620:
2608:
2605:CĂ©sar Milstein
2601:Georges Köhler
2592:
2584:
2573:Sune Bergström
2568:
2565:Torsten Wiesel
2561:David H. Hubel
2552:
2536:
2524:
2517:Daniel Nathans
2508:
2501:Andrew Schally
2492:
2479:
2477:
2473:
2472:
2470:
2469:
2453:
2437:
2421:
2414:Gerald Edelman
2409:
2401:
2398:Julius Axelrod
2385:
2382:Salvador Luria
2378:Alfred Hershey
2369:
2353:
2337:
2325:
2314:François Jacob
2309:
2297:
2281:
2265:
2257:
2245:
2233:
2217:
2209:
2198:André Cournand
2193:
2185:
2169:
2157:
2154:Selman Waksman
2149:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2130:
2119:Edward Kendall
2114:
2102:
2094:
2078:
2075:Hermann Muller
2070:
2054:
2051:Herbert Gasser
2042:
2030:
2023:
2016:
2009:
2006:Gerhard Domagk
2001:
1993:
1985:
1973:
1965:
1962:William Murphy
1954:George Whipple
1949:
1941:
1929:
1921:
1913:
1901:
1893:
1885:
1876:
1874:
1870:
1869:
1867:
1866:
1859:
1851:
1839:
1832:Archibald Hill
1827:
1820:
1812:
1804:
1797:
1790:
1783:
1776:
1768:
1765:Charles Richet
1760:
1752:
1744:
1736:
1728:
1716:
1708:
1696:
1688:
1680:
1672:
1664:
1655:
1653:
1649:
1648:
1639:
1637:
1636:
1629:
1622:
1614:
1608:
1607:
1598:
1585:
1584:External links
1582:
1581:
1580:
1575:978-0307952349
1574:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1550:
1511:
1485:
1464:0-902-198-84-X
1463:
1441:
1416:
1391:
1366:
1353:
1327:
1320:
1296:
1293:. p. xii.
1281:
1254:
1211:
1176:
1157:(4): 306–329.
1141:
1114:
1108:978-0307952332
1107:
1078:
1066:
1055:
1018:(3): 685–696.
998:
970:
929:
922:
902:
882:
854:
835:
814:
795:François Jacob
783:
761:
705:
703:
700:
696:French Riviera
662:Lysenko Affair
603:
600:
575:
572:
556:Daniel Dennett
494:Pomona College
469:chief of staff
460:
457:
449:Jeffries Wyman
433:François Jacob
346:Boris Ephrussi
329:
326:
283:RNA polymerase
236:François Jacob
223:[mɔno]
210:
209:
206:
205:
200:
196:
195:
193:
192:
187:
182:
176:
174:
170:
169:
163:
162:
160:
159:
153:
148:
141:
139:
135:
134:
132:
131:
126:
120:
118:
117:Known for
114:
113:
108:
104:
103:
97:
95:(aged 66)
89:
85:
84:
81:
68:
66:
62:
61:
53:
52:
45:
42:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4037:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3922:
3920:
3907:
3902:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3887:
3885:
3881:
3873:
3872:
3868:
3867:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3839:
3836:
3835:
3834:
3833:Jacques Monod
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3810:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3763:
3760:
3759:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3747:Homeotic gene
3745:
3744:
3742:
3738:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3698:
3696:
3692:
3689:
3685:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3655:
3653:
3649:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3616:
3615:Morphogenesis
3613:
3611:
3608:
3607:
3605:
3601:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3571:
3569:
3565:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3504:
3502:
3498:
3492:
3489:
3485:
3482:
3481:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3449:Reaction norm
3447:
3445:
3442:
3441:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3419:
3414:
3412:
3407:
3405:
3400:
3399:
3396:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3328:
3324:
3323:
3320:
3313:
3312:Jacques Monod
3310:
3307:
3304:
3301:
3298:
3297:
3295:
3293:
3289:
3282:
3279:
3276:
3273:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3264:
3262:
3258:
3251:
3248:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3227:
3224:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3203:
3200:
3199:
3197:
3195:
3191:
3186:
3178:
3173:
3171:
3166:
3164:
3159:
3158:
3155:
3142:
3141:Drew Weissman
3138:
3134:
3130:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3069:
3066:
3062:
3057:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3041:
3038:
3033:
3030:
3026:
3025:Satoshi ĹŚmura
3022:
3017:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3001:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2989:James Rothman
2985:
2982:
2978:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2956:Bruce Beutler
2952:
2949:
2944:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2928:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2912:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2896:
2893:
2889:
2884:
2881:
2877:
2872:
2869:
2868:Linda B. Buck
2865:
2860:
2857:
2853:
2848:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2832:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2789:
2786:
2785:GĂĽnter Blobel
2781:
2778:
2774:
2773:Louis Ignarro
2770:
2765:
2762:
2757:
2754:
2750:
2745:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2729:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2714:
2713:Phillip Sharp
2710:
2705:
2702:
2698:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2681:
2678:
2674:
2673:Joseph Murray
2669:
2666:
2662:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2638:
2633:
2630:
2626:
2625:Stanley Cohen
2621:
2618:
2614:
2613:Michael Brown
2609:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2593:
2590:
2585:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2553:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2537:
2534:
2530:
2529:Allan Cormack
2525:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2509:
2506:
2505:Rosalyn Yalow
2502:
2498:
2493:
2490:
2486:
2481:
2480:
2478:
2474:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2454:
2451:
2450:George Palade
2447:
2443:
2442:Albert Claude
2438:
2435:
2431:
2430:Konrad Lorenz
2427:
2422:
2419:
2418:Rodney Porter
2415:
2410:
2407:
2402:
2399:
2395:
2394:Ulf von Euler
2391:
2386:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2370:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2354:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2342:Ragnar Granit
2338:
2335:
2331:
2326:
2323:
2322:Jacques Monod
2319:
2315:
2310:
2307:
2303:
2298:
2295:
2294:Andrew Huxley
2291:
2287:
2282:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2270:Francis Crick
2266:
2263:
2258:
2255:
2254:Peter Medawar
2251:
2246:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2222:George Beadle
2218:
2215:
2210:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2194:
2191:
2190:Hugo Theorell
2186:
2183:
2179:
2178:Thomas Weller
2175:
2170:
2167:
2166:Fritz Lipmann
2163:
2158:
2155:
2150:
2147:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2135:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2115:
2112:
2108:
2103:
2100:
2095:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2079:
2076:
2071:
2068:
2067:Howard Florey
2064:
2060:
2055:
2052:
2048:
2043:
2040:
2036:
2031:
2024:
2017:
2010:
2007:
2002:
1999:
1994:
1991:
1986:
1983:
1979:
1974:
1971:
1966:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1947:
1946:Thomas Morgan
1942:
1939:
1935:
1930:
1927:
1922:
1919:
1914:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1899:
1894:
1891:
1886:
1883:
1878:
1877:
1875:
1871:
1860:
1857:
1852:
1849:
1845:
1840:
1837:
1836:Otto Meyerhof
1833:
1828:
1821:
1818:
1813:
1810:
1805:
1798:
1791:
1784:
1777:
1774:
1773:Róbert Bárány
1769:
1766:
1761:
1758:
1757:Alexis Carrel
1753:
1750:
1745:
1742:
1737:
1734:
1729:
1726:
1722:
1717:
1714:
1709:
1706:
1702:
1701:Camillo Golgi
1697:
1694:
1689:
1686:
1681:
1678:
1673:
1670:
1665:
1662:
1657:
1656:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1635:
1630:
1628:
1623:
1621:
1616:
1615:
1612:
1606:
1602:
1599:
1596:
1591:
1590:Jacques Monod
1588:
1587:
1583:
1577:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1515:
1512:
1500:
1496:
1489:
1486:
1470:
1466:
1460:
1453:
1452:
1445:
1442:
1430:
1426:
1420:
1417:
1405:
1401:
1395:
1392:
1380:
1376:
1370:
1367:
1363:
1357:
1354:
1341:
1337:
1331:
1328:
1323:
1321:0-394-46615-2
1317:
1313:
1309:
1308:
1300:
1297:
1292:
1285:
1282:
1277:
1273:
1268:
1267:
1258:
1255:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1215:
1212:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1192:(1): 88–118.
1191:
1187:
1180:
1177:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1145:
1142:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1118:
1115:
1110:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1089:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1059:
1056:
1051:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1002:
999:
996:
991:
986:
985:Jacques Monod
981:
979:
977:
975:
971:
966:
962:
957:
952:
948:
944:
940:
933:
930:
925:
923:1-55581-281-3
919:
915:
914:
906:
903:
899:
898:1-55581-281-3
895:
891:
886:
883:
879:
878:0-87969-478-5
875:
871:
870:0-671-22540-5
867:
863:
858:
855:
852:
851:0-231-03431-8
848:
844:
839:
836:
833:
832:0-394-46615-2
829:
825:
824:
818:
815:
812:
811:0-87969-476-9
808:
804:
803:0-465-08223-8
800:
796:
792:
787:
784:
771:
765:
762:
757:
753:
748:
743:
739:
735:
734:
729:
725:
719:
717:
715:
713:
711:
707:
701:
699:
697:
693:
689:
685:
680:
678:
674:
669:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
630:
627:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
602:Personal life
601:
599:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
573:
571:
569:
565:
564:Marvin Minsky
561:
557:
551:
549:
544:
542:
537:
532:
527:
523:
520:
515:
513:
512:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
490:
485:
480:
478:
474:
470:
466:
458:
456:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
425:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
398:
392:
390:
386:
382:
378:
373:
368:
366:
362:
358:
353:
351:
350:Louis Rapkine
347:
343:
339:
335:
327:
325:
323:
319:
315:
311:
310:messenger RNA
307:
306:transcription
303:
299:
294:
292:
291:transcription
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
254:
250:
249:
243:
241:
237:
233:
229:
224:
216:
207:
204:
201:
197:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
177:
175:
171:
168:
164:
157:
154:
152:
149:
146:
143:
142:
140:
136:
130:
127:
125:
122:
121:
119:
115:
112:
109:
105:
100:
90:
86:
82:Paris, France
67:
63:
59:
54:
49:
43:Jacques Monod
40:
37:
33:
19:
3869:
3832:
3762:eyeless gene
3658:Evolvability
3632:Segmentation
3509:Canalisation
3479:Heterochrony
3469:Heritability
3437:Key concepts
3357:
3311:
3126:Svante Pääbo
3111:David Julius
3065:Tasuku Honjo
3013:Edvard Moser
3005:John O'Keefe
2968:posthumously
2967:
2904:Martin Evans
2880:Robin Warren
2864:Richard Axel
2811:2001–present
2689:Bert Sakmann
2557:Roger Sperry
2549:George Snell
2545:Jean Dausset
2513:Werner Arber
2466:Howard Temin
2390:Bernard Katz
2374:Max DelbrĂĽck
2330:Francis Rous
2321:
2306:Feodor Lynen
2302:Konrad Bloch
2290:Alan Hodgkin
2274:James Watson
2250:Frank Burnet
2238:Severo Ochoa
2226:Edward Tatum
2214:Daniel Bovet
2127:Philip Hench
2039:Edward Doisy
1970:Hans Spemann
1958:George Minot
1938:Edgar Adrian
1926:Otto Warburg
1848:John Macleod
1817:August Krogh
1809:Jules Bordet
1725:Paul Ehrlich
1677:Niels Finsen
1661:Emil Behring
1565:
1531:(2): 75–88.
1528:
1524:
1514:
1502:. Retrieved
1498:
1488:
1476:. Retrieved
1469:the original
1450:
1444:
1434:14 September
1432:. Retrieved
1428:
1419:
1409:14 September
1407:. Retrieved
1403:
1394:
1384:14 September
1382:. Retrieved
1378:
1369:
1361:
1356:
1344:. Retrieved
1340:the original
1330:
1306:
1299:
1290:
1284:
1265:
1257:
1224:
1220:
1214:
1189:
1186:J. Mol. Biol
1185:
1179:
1154:
1151:J. Mol. Biol
1150:
1144:
1127:
1123:
1117:
1094:
1069:
1058:
1015:
1011:
1001:
994:
946:
942:
932:
912:
905:
889:
885:
861:
857:
842:
838:
821:
817:
790:
786:
774:. Retrieved
764:
737:
731:
724:Lwoff, A. M.
681:
670:
666:Albert Camus
634:World War II
631:
628:
619:
616:Lucien Monod
605:
577:
552:
545:
540:
535:
530:
528:
524:
518:
516:
509:
487:
483:
481:
477:World War II
462:
440:
426:
409:
395:
393:
371:
369:
354:
331:
297:
295:
262:
252:
246:
244:
230:who won the
214:
213:
199:Institutions
180:Biochemistry
166:
93:(1976-05-31)
36:
3930:1976 deaths
3925:1910 births
3860:Mike Levine
3769:Distal-less
3594:Polyphenism
3574:Epigenetics
3426:development
3185:Nobel Prize
2977:John Gurdon
2892:Craig Mello
2888:Andrew Fire
2801:Eric Kandel
2777:Ferid Murad
2685:Erwin Neher
2597:Niels Jerne
2362:Har Khorana
2350:George Wald
2318:André Lwoff
2286:John Eccles
2174:John Enders
2146:Max Theiler
2107:Walter Hess
2099:Paul MĂĽller
2063:Ernst Chain
1733:Emil Kocher
1693:Robert Koch
1685:Ivan Pavlov
1669:Ronald Ross
1130:: 371–394.
949:(1): 1–12.
740:: 384–412.
377:André Lwoff
363:working on
342:André Lwoff
240:André Lwoff
91:31 May 1976
3919:Categories
3838:Lac operon
3663:Robustness
3642:Modularity
3637:Metamerism
3543:Plasticity
3538:Pleiotropy
3491:Heterotopy
3213:Literature
2828:Paul Nurse
2162:Hans Krebs
2087:Gerty Cori
2035:Henrik Dam
1982:Otto Loewi
1978:Henry Dale
1504:30 October
1346:10 October
702:References
445:enzymology
402:Lac operon
365:Drosophila
302:regulation
265:(lactose)
228:biochemist
124:Lac operon
75:1910-02-09
3789:Morphogen
3774:Engrailed
3757:Pax genes
3678:Tinkering
3524:Epistasis
3519:Dominance
3430:phenotype
3194:Chemistry
3187:laureates
3029:Tu Youyou
2581:John Vane
2476:1976–2000
2137:1951–1975
2083:Carl Cori
1873:1926–1950
1652:1901–1925
1641:Laureates
1537:0014-0767
1478:7 October
1032:0016-6731
608:Milwaukee
389:chemostat
271:repressor
107:Education
3752:Hox gene
3740:Elements
3721:Homeobox
3314:(France)
3308:(France)
2824:Tim Hunt
1564:(2014).
1545:26378785
1249:15031017
1241:23910900
1206:14343300
1171:13936070
1050:26170444
1012:Genetics
756:11615735
726:(1977).
684:leukemia
614:father,
612:Huguenot
594:, and a
406:cellular
318:proteins
287:promoter
279:operator
185:Genetics
156:ForMemRS
101:, France
48:ForMemRS
3883:Debates
3694:Systems
3620:Eyespot
3484:Neoteny
3271:(Japan)
3261:Physics
1643:of the
1603:at the
1041:4512536
776:30 June
694:on the
632:During
475:during
418:glucose
414:lactose
410:E. coli
397:E. coli
385:diauxie
379:of the
359:at the
259:lactose
248:E. coli
219:French:
3784:Ligand
3464:Operon
3250:UNICEF
3071:2019:
3059:2018:
3043:2017:
3035:2016:
3019:2015:
3003:2014:
2987:2013:
2975:2012:
2954:2011:
2946:2010:
2930:2009:
2914:2008:
2898:2007:
2886:2006:
2874:2005:
2862:2004:
2850:2003:
2834:2002:
2818:2001:
2791:2000:
2783:1999:
2767:1998:
2759:1997:
2747:1996:
2731:1995:
2719:1994:
2707:1993:
2695:1992:
2683:1991:
2671:1990:
2659:1989:
2643:1988:
2635:1987:
2623:1986:
2611:1985:
2595:1984:
2587:1983:
2571:1982:
2555:1981:
2539:1980:
2527:1979:
2511:1978:
2495:1977:
2483:1976:
2456:1975:
2440:1974:
2424:1973:
2412:1972:
2404:1971:
2388:1970:
2372:1969:
2356:1968:
2340:1967:
2328:1966:
2312:1965:
2300:1964:
2284:1963:
2268:1962:
2260:1961:
2248:1960:
2236:1959:
2220:1958:
2212:1957:
2196:1956:
2188:1955:
2172:1954:
2160:1953:
2152:1952:
2144:1951:
2117:1950:
2105:1949:
2097:1948:
2081:1947:
2073:1946:
2057:1945:
2045:1944:
2033:1943:
2004:1939:
1996:1938:
1988:1937:
1976:1936:
1968:1935:
1952:1934:
1944:1933:
1932:1932:
1924:1931:
1916:1930:
1904:1929:
1896:1928:
1888:1927:
1880:1926:
1854:1924:
1842:1923:
1830:1922:
1815:1920:
1807:1919:
1771:1914:
1763:1913:
1755:1912:
1747:1911:
1739:1910:
1731:1909:
1719:1908:
1711:1907:
1699:1906:
1691:1905:
1683:1904:
1675:1903:
1667:1902:
1659:1901:
1572:
1543:
1535:
1461:
1318:
1247:
1239:
1221:FEBS J
1204:
1169:
1105:
1048:
1038:
1030:
965:330816
963:
920:
896:
876:
868:
849:
830:
809:
801:
754:
692:Cannes
673:May 68
624:Cannes
590:, the
536:choose
267:operon
255:operon
173:Fields
158:(1968)
147:(1965)
138:Awards
99:Cannes
3358:1965
3237:Peace
3183:1965
1541:JSTOR
1472:(PDF)
1455:(PDF)
1245:S2CID
620:lycée
506:Camus
427:With
3424:The
3383:1970
3378:1969
3373:1968
3368:1967
3363:1966
3353:1964
3348:1963
3343:1962
3338:1961
3333:1960
3241:1965
3217:1965
3133:2023
3122:2022
3107:2021
3088:2020
2027:1942
2020:1941
2013:1940
1863:1925
1824:1921
1801:1918
1794:1917
1787:1916
1780:1915
1570:ISBN
1533:ISSN
1506:2020
1480:2017
1459:ISBN
1436:2022
1411:2022
1386:2022
1348:2012
1316:ISBN
1237:PMID
1202:PMID
1167:PMID
1103:ISBN
1046:PMID
1028:ISSN
961:PMID
918:ISBN
894:ISBN
874:ISBN
866:ISBN
847:ISBN
828:ISBN
807:ISBN
799:ISBN
778:2010
752:PMID
566:and
519:must
431:and
316:and
275:gene
238:and
88:Died
65:Born
3428:of
1312:180
1229:doi
1225:281
1194:doi
1159:doi
1132:doi
1036:PMC
1020:doi
1016:200
951:doi
947:101
793:by
742:doi
690:in
622:at
508:'s
372:lac
314:DNA
304:of
298:lac
263:lac
253:lac
3921::
3831:+
3139:/
3135::
3124::
3113:/
3109::
3098:/
3094:/
3090::
3079:/
3075:/
3063:/
3051:/
3047:/
3027:/
3023:/
3011:/
3007:/
2995:/
2991:/
2979:/
2962:/
2958:/
2938:/
2934:/
2922:/
2918:/
2906:/
2902:/
2890:/
2878:/
2866:/
2854:/
2842:/
2838:/
2826:/
2822:/
2799:/
2795:/
2775:/
2771:/
2751:/
2739:/
2735:/
2723:/
2711:/
2699:/
2687:/
2675:/
2663:/
2651:/
2647:/
2627:/
2615:/
2603:/
2599:/
2579:/
2575:/
2563:/
2559:/
2547:/
2543:/
2531:/
2519:/
2515:/
2503:/
2499:/
2487:/
2464:/
2460:/
2448:/
2444:/
2432:/
2428:/
2416:/
2396:/
2392:/
2380:/
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