1002:
1757:
majority of such persons are speakers of
Jamaican Patois. It was argued that failure to provide services of the state in a language in such general use or discriminatory treatment by officers of the state based on the inability of a citizen to use English violates the rights of citizens. The proposal was made that freedom from discrimination on the ground of language be inserted into the Charter of Rights. They standardized the Jamaican alphabet as follows:
2888:
2874:
2746:. While the Rev. Courtney Stewart, managing the translation as General Secretary of the West Indies Bible Society, believes this will help elevate the status of Jamaican Patois, others think that such a move would undermine efforts at promoting the use of English. The Patois New Testament was launched in Britain (where the Jamaican diaspora is significant) in October 2012 as "
276:
1756:
at Mona to begin standardizing the language, with the aim of supporting non-English-speaking
Jamaicans according to their constitutional guarantees of equal rights, as services of the state are normally provided in English, which a significant portion of the population cannot speak fluently. The vast
2579:
or Miss Lou (1919–2006) is particularly notable for her use of the rich colorful patois, despite being shunned by traditional literary groups. "The
Jamaican Poetry League excluded her from its meetings, and editors failed to include her in anthologies." Nonetheless, she argued forcefully for the
292:
287:
291:
289:
288:
286:
285:
293:
290:
2861:
is the phonetic
Cassidy Writing system adopted by the Jamaica Language Unit of the University of the West Indies, and while most Jamaicans use the informal "Miss Lou" writing system, the Cassidy Writing system is an effort at standardizing Patois in its written form.
1260:
marks the progressive and that the habitual aspect is unmarked but by its accompaniment with words such as "always", "usually", etc. (i.e. is absent as a grammatical category). Mufwene (1984) and Gibson and Levy (1984) propose a past-only habitual category marked by
279:
283:
282:
278:
277:
284:
1512:
system of
Standard English has a four-way distinction of person, number, gender and case. Some varieties of Jamaican Patois do not have the gender or case distinction, but all varieties distinguish between the second person singular and plural (you).
267:
3967:
For patois expert Hubert
Devonish, a linguist who is coordinator of the Jamaican Language Unit at the University of the West Indies, the Bible translation is a big step toward getting the state to eventually embrace the creole language created by
281:
393:. Words or slang from Jamaican Patois can be heard in other Caribbean countries, the United Kingdom, New York City and Miami in the United States, and Toronto, Canada. The majority of non-English words in Patois derive from the West African
1216:
and various dialects of
English, the latter of which were all perceived as prestigious and whose use carried socio-economic benefits. The span of a speaker's command of the continuum generally corresponds to social context.
449:
languages even when spoken as the mother tongue by the majority of the local population. Jamaican pronunciation and vocabulary are significantly different from
English despite heavy use of English words or derivatives.
910:'eat'); in central and eastern varieties, vowel-initial words take an initial after vowel-final words, preventing the two vowels from falling together, so that the words for 'hand' and 'and' (both underlyingly
2319:('cotton tree root'), because of the African belief of malicious spirits originating in the roots of trees (in Jamaica and Ghana, particularly the cotton tree known in both places as "Odom"). The pronoun
510:
4577:
4255:
280:
266:
3525:
2613:(1961, 1967), Bailey (1966) and others. Subsequently, it has gradually become mainstream to codemix or write complete pieces in Jamaican Patois; proponents include
4570:
2676:
4767:
4757:
1741:. Standard English spelling is often used and a nonstandard spelling sometimes becomes widespread even though it is neither phonetic nor standard (e.g.
265:
4563:
2722:) have most of their dialogue in Jamaican Patois; some of these films have even been subtitled in English. It was also used in the second season of
2241:
505:. The Cayman Islands in particular have a very large Jamaican Patois-speaking community, with 16.4% of the population conversing in the language. A
4058:
3946:
4502:
3348:
3123:
4691:
3895:
139:
858:
2742:
873:
3466::126) translates this as "If the cow didn't know that his throat was capable of swallowing a pear seed, he wouldn't have swallowed it."
540:
as well as other genres. Although standard
British English is used for most writing in Jamaica, Jamaican Patois has gained ground as a
264:
3982:
4772:
4483:
4429:
4265:
3657:
3624:
3597:
3570:
2655:
404:
Patois developed in the 17th century when enslaved people from West and
Central Africa were exposed to, learned, and nativized the
1717:
Patois has long been written with various respellings compared to English so that, for example, the word "there" might be written
1401:
796:
715:
3500:
768:
236:
4586:
3878:
2901:
3532:
4762:
3694:
1753:
722:
342:
94:
4606:
4521:
1189:
782:
775:
4752:
4747:
2649:(1978), which draw liberally from Jamaican Patois for dialogue, while presenting narrative prose in Standard English.
990:
consonants has been historically neutralized with alveolar consonants becoming velar so that the word for 'bottle' is
838:
810:
446:
173:
4090:
Comparative Afro-American: An Historical Comparative Study of English-based Afro-American Dialects of the New World
2747:
2609:
After the 1960s, the status of Jamaican Patois rose as a number of respected linguistic studies were published, by
933:
849:
701:
687:
4275:
Irvine, Alison (2004), "A Good Command of the English Language: Phonological Variation in the Jamaican Acrolect",
1213:
789:
729:
4742:
4641:
2810:
2525:– Foolish exhibition, a person who makes a foolish exhibition of him or herself, or an exclamation of surprise.
1226:
246:
220:
3867:"Duppies and other Revenants: with particular reference to the use of the supernatural in Jean D'Costa's work"
3097:
226:
932:
by others. For the latter interpretation, their appearance is included in the larger phenomenon of phonetic
4716:
2650:
2641:
2232:(end) are distinguished in writing for speakers of western Jamaican, but not for those of central Jamaican.
1712:
743:
708:
694:
144:
1669:('If the cow knew that his throat wasn't capable of swallowing a pear seed, he wouldn't have swallowed it')
1272:
For the present tense, an uninflected verb combining with an iterative adverb marks habitual meaning as in
4636:
4590:
4323:
Mufwene, Salikoko S. (1 January 1983). "Observations on Time Reference in Jamaican and Guyanese Creoles".
2916:
2534:
2528:
2522:
2516:
2509:
2502:
2483:
2320:
2297:
2289:
1746:
1697:
1691:
1683:
1674:
1666:
1660:
1622:
1610:
1604:
1589:
1566:
1560:
1554:
1547:
1541:
1530:
1524:
1518:
1494:
1487:
1468:
1449:
1427:
1409:
1384:
1369:
1363:
1348:
1342:
1327:
1321:
1302:
1273:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1172:
1167:
1157:
1152:
1142:
1137:
1127:
1122:
1112:
1107:
1097:
1092:
1082:
1077:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
995:
991:
979:
972:
968:
956:
950:
944:
925:
911:
907:
903:
899:
736:
606:
576:
506:
154:
3954:
4721:
4631:
4106:
Brown-Blake, Celia (2008). "The right to linguistic non-discrimination and Creole language situations".
2724:
822:
649:
640:
518:
462:
129:
4163:
Devonish, H.; Harry, Otelamate G. (2004), "Jamaican phonology", in Kortman, B.; Shneider E. W. (eds.),
2546:
A rich body of literature has developed in Jamaican Patois. Notable among early authors and works are
1204:) cannot be distinguished systematically from intermediate varieties (collectively referred to as the
453:
Significant Jamaican Patois-speaking communities exist among Jamaican expatriates and non Jamaican in
441:, a term also used as a lower-case noun as a catch-all description of pidgins, creoles, dialects, and
428:
forms that are not significantly mutually intelligible with English, and forms virtually identical to
4661:
4145:
DeCamp, David (1961), "Social and geographic factors in Jamaican dialects", in Le Page, R. B. (ed.),
2696:
2568:
2411:
750:
660:
370:
134:
4676:
2702:
2622:
2610:
2266:
964:
902:
as a phoneme is dialectal: in western varieties, it is a full phoneme and there are minimal pairs (
761:
374:
4555:
4711:
4681:
4545:
4455:
4378:
4312:
4217:
4189:
4020:
2664:
2469:
2274:
1225:
The tense/aspect system of Jamaican Patois is fundamentally unlike that of English. There are no
983:
669:
601:
2736:
In December 2011, it was reported that the Bible was being translated into Jamaican Patois. The
1647:
is locative. Other languages, such as Portuguese and Italian, make a similar distinction. (See
4706:
4696:
4686:
4666:
4626:
4601:
4498:
4479:
4425:
4340:
4261:
3874:
3653:
3620:
3614:
3593:
3566:
3344:
2691:
2278:
1001:
827:
623:
613:
541:
390:
350:
149:
3866:
3647:
2580:
recognition of Jamaican as a full language, with the same pedigree as the dialect from which
2335:
describes a fair-skinned black person because of the reported account of fair skin among the
4447:
4370:
4332:
4304:
4284:
4237:
4209:
4181:
4154:
DeCamp, David (1977), "The Development of Pidgin and Creole Studies", in Valdman, A. (ed.),
4115:
3334:
2906:
2893:
2754:
2670:
Jamaican Patois is also presented in some films and other media, for example, the character
2614:
2581:
2560:
2547:
2436:
2301:
2262:
596:
514:
466:
429:
378:
366:
307:
31:
4671:
4656:
4646:
4621:
4611:
4525:
4251:
4032:
3986:
3979:
2911:
2718:
2712:
2473:
2364:
2348:
1397:
631:
618:
529:
522:
425:
417:
413:
382:
362:
124:
86:
2630:
3848:
2879:
2737:
2682:
2635:
2626:
2619:
History of the Voice: The Development of Nation Language in Anglophone Caribbean Poetry
2576:
2479:
2282:
1648:
680:
553:
478:
421:
398:
358:
354:
17:
212:
4736:
2707:
2328:
2255:
1017:
458:
454:
394:
4438:
Winford, Donald (1985), "The Syntax of Fi Complements in Caribbean English Creole",
2667:, Jamaican Patois, and French while employing Standard English for narrative prose.
4701:
4616:
3504:
2555:
1631:
This is akin to Spanish in that both have two distinct forms of the verb "to be" –
1405:
1208:) or even from the most divergent rural varieties (collectively referred to as the
545:
4535:
4059:"Writing Ms. Lou Right: Language, Identity, and the Official Jamaican Orthography"
2621:(1984). However, Standard English remains the more prestigious literary medium in
1020:; peripheral vowel harmony, wherein only sequences of peripheral vowels (that is,
4413:
Dimensions of a Creole Continuum: History, Texts, Linguistic Analysis of Guyanese
3649:
The Missing Spanish Creoles: Recovering the Birth of Plantation Contact Languages
3587:
3560:
967:
whenever in the onset of prominent syllables (especially word-initially) so that
2572:
2336:
568:
Jamaican Patois (that is, its most divergent rural varieties) suggest around 21
346:
4172:
Gibson, Kean (1988), "The Habitual Category in Guyanese and Jamaican Creoles",
3702:
2887:
4361:
Patrick, Peter L. (1995), "Recent Jamaican Words in Sociolinguistic Context",
4242:
3013:
3008:
2869:
2565:
2443:
2378:
1509:
1230:
565:
502:
498:
494:
474:
442:
405:
4518:
4344:
3921:
3137:
Codeswitching on the Web: English and Jamaican Creole in E-Mail Communication
2663:(2015), British-Trinidadian author Wayne Gerard Trotman presents dialogue in
4288:
4119:
4003:
3325:
2687:
2671:
2488:
2247:
1057:
587:
572:
537:
470:
445:
worldwide. Creoles, including Jamaican Patois, are often stigmatized as low-
205:
189:
3751:
3339:
1245:, but rather invariant particles that cannot stand alone (like the English
58:
Jumiekan / Jumiekan Kryuol / Jumieka Taak / Jumieka taak / Jumiekan languij
4336:
1212:). This situation came about with contact between speakers of a number of
196:
3925:
2405:
1579:
1534:
1435:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
929:
569:
254:
242:
2974:
583:. Some vowels are capable of nasalization and others can be lengthened.
552:
in 1912. Patois and English are frequently used for stylistic contrast (
4295:
Lawton, David (1984), "Grammar of the English-Based Jamaican Proverb",
486:
409:
386:
250:
67:
4459:
4382:
4316:
4221:
4193:
1056:
are not). These two phenomena account for three long vowels and four
4167:, phonology, vol. 1, Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter, pp. 441–471
2464:
1491:
533:
490:
482:
437:
159:
35:
4451:
4374:
4308:
4213:
4185:
3980:
Di Jamiekan Nyuu Testiment (Jamaican Diglot New Testament with KJV)
3501:"The Jamaican Language Unit, The University of West Indies at Mona"
3327:
The acrolect in Jamaica: The architecture of phonological variation
2982:
4045:
3619:(2nd ed.). University of the West Indies Press. p. 168.
3333:. Studies in Caribbean Languages. Berlin: Language Science Press.
2750:", and with print and audio versions in Jamaica in December 2012.
2399:
2308:
2270:
2261:
Many loanwords come from English, but some are also borrowed from
1252:
According to Bailey (1966), the progressive category is marked by
1005:
987:
580:
274:
262:
3098:"What does it mean to be Jamaican in Cayman? | Loop Jamaica"
2728:
but the accents were described as "awful" by Jamaican Americans.
2397:
There are many words referring to popular produce and food items—
1482:
Unu haffi kiip sumting far di guinea people-dem fi biit dem muzik
424:. Jamaican Creole exists in gradations between more conservative
4540:
4129:
Jamaica Talk: Three Hundred Years of English Language in Jamaica
2421:
1242:
4559:
4530:
2427:
2304:
2251:
297:
A Jamaican Patois speaker discussing the usage of the language
4398:
Patrick, Peter L. (2007), "Jamaican Patwa (English Creole)",
2975:"Jumieka Languij: Aatagrafi / Jamaican Language: Orthography"
1618:
with true adjectives in Jamaican Patois, no copula is needed
579:) in the Western dialect. There are between nine and sixteen
532:
and is also heavily used for musical purposes, especially in
325:
3162:
3160:
2757:
4260:. Vol. 2: Contemporary Poetry (3rd ed.). Norton.
3032:
Cassidy, F. G. "Multiple etymologies in Jamaican Creole".
2629:
often writes in Trinidadian and sometimes Jamaican Patois.
513:
Islands, Colombia, brought to the island by descendants of
4536:
Jamaican Creole Language Course for Peace Corps Volunteers
3836:
2963:, published by: The Bible Society of the West Indies, 2012
253:
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
4550:
2617:, who also analyses the position of Creole poetry in his
1276:('Tom always knows when Katy tells/has told about him').
1032:) can occur within a syllable; and back harmony, wherein
316:
3554:
3552:
2633:
penned a series of popular children's novels, including
3953:. The Associated Press. 8 December 2012. Archived from
3871:"Return" in Post-colonial Writing: A Cultural Labyrinth
2961:
Di Jamiekan Nyuu Testiment – The Jamaican New Testament
4257:
The Norton Anthology of Modern and Contemporary Poetry
3613:
Cassidy, Frederic Gomes; Robert Brock Le Page (2002).
2250:, most of which are African in origin, primarily from
1752:
In 2002, the Jamaican Language Unit was set up at the
1249:). Their function also differs from those of English.
4325:
English World-Wide. A Journal of Varieties of English
2224:
is written according to local pronunciation, so that
1480:
1461:
1442:
1420:
322:
3562:
Voodoos and Obeahs:Phrases of West Indian Witchcraft
3147:
3145:
2512:) – He can't beat me, he just got lucky that he won.
1488:/unuhafikiipsamtiŋfaɹdeɡinipiipl-demfibiitdemmiuzik/
319:
313:
3922:"Jamaica's patois Bible: The word of God in creole"
310:
219:
203:
187:
182:
172:
167:
118:
83:
73:
63:
43:
4495:Biesik Jumiekan: Introduction to Jamaican Language
3896:"Luke Cage's Portrayal of Jamaicans was Atrocious"
3752:"Fish | Patois Definition on Jamaican Patwah"
2997:Biesik Jumiekan. Introduction to Jamaican Language
2983:"Jumieka Languij: Bout / Jamaican Language: About"
2355:which means witchcraft, from the Ashanti Twi word
1457:Modal auxiliary expressing obligation or futurity
1269:('where we used to live is not as cold as here').
1040:cannot occur within a syllable together (that is,
928:and are considered phonemic by some accounts and
4230:Journal of the International Phonetic Association
4140:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
3947:"Jamaican patois Bible released "Nyuu Testiment""
1667:/ifkaunodidnuaauimtɹuatualtanimudntʃaanspieɹsiid/
1233:; instead, two different participle words exist:
397:. It is spoken by the majority of Jamaicans as a
4391:Urban Jamaican Creole: Variation in the Mesolect
1416:Directional, dative, or benefactive preposition
4228:Harry, Otelemate G. (2006), "Jamaican Creole",
3526:""Handout: Spelling Jamaican the Jamaican way""
2586:
2508:'im kyaant biit mi, 'im jus lucky dat 'im won (
27:English-based creole language spoken in Jamaica
4356:. Dordrecht: Holland Institute of Linguistics.
3812:
3652:. University of California Press. p. 77.
3215:
2690:'s character converses with a Jamaican woman (
2625:. Canadian-Caribbean science-fiction novelist
2382:) was ultimately borrowed from the Portuguese
1196:): the variety of the language closest to the
4571:
3824:
3239:
3151:
2784:jos laik ou a wa yu waahn fi apm iina evn apm
1686:('It is a poor thing that can't mash an ant')
1597:Jamaican Patois has a separate locative verb
1550:(no gender distinction in basilect varieties)
8:
3853:The Routledge Reader in Caribbean Literature
2796:An no mek wi fies notn we wi kaaz wi fi sin,
2482:may be referred to with the pejorative term
2442:Jamaican Patois has its own rich variety of
1490:) ('you have to contribute something to the
1438:preposition (that is, marker of possession)
4200:Hancock, Ian (1985), "More on Poppy Show",
3084:
3045:
2999:, published by: Gnosophia Publishers, 2014.
2376:meaning child, taken from an earlier form (
4578:
4564:
4556:
4415:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
4136:Cassidy, Frederic; Le Page, R. B. (1980).
3166:
3072:
2778:Mek di taim kom wen yu ruul iina evri wie.
2706:(1978), and many of the films produced by
2694:). In addition, early Jamaican films like
2677:Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest
271:Female patois speaker saying two sentences
40:
4241:
3338:
2775:mek piipl av nof rispek fi yu an yu niem.
2661:Kaya Abaniah and the Father of the Forest
2476:, which is also considered a profanity).
4541:Jammin Reggae Archives Patois Dictionary
4008:. Bible Society of the West Indies. 2012
3724:"Definitions of "Bloodclaat" (Vulgar)".
3287:
2793:siem laik ou wi paadn dem we du wi rang.
2351:. From the Ashanti-Akan, comes the term
2296:(in the sense of "he told me that..." =
2288:Examples from African languages include
2242:List of African words in Jamaican Patois
1960:
1883:
1832:
1759:
1396:As in other Caribbean Creoles (that is,
1062:
1000:
585:
4158:, Bloomington: Indiana University Press
3800:
3788:
3776:
3764:
3738:
3451:
3439:
3415:
3399:
3311:
3251:
2953:
2928:
2653:employs Patois in his novels including
247:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
4422:Pidgins, Creoles & Mixed Languages
4400:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages
4277:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages
4108:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages
4028:
4018:
3855:, Routledge, 2003, Introduction, p. 9.
3487:
3475:
3463:
3427:
3403:
3387:
3375:
3363:
3060:
1412:has a number of functions, including:
1016:Jamaican Patois exhibits two types of
517:(escaped slaves) in the 18th century.
4424:, John Benjamins Publishing Company,
3869:. In Vera Mihailovich-Dickman (ed.).
3837:Ramazani, Ellmann & O'Clair (2003
3565:. Library of Alexandria. p. 90.
3299:
3275:
3263:
3228:
3202:
3190:
3178:
2839:as we also have forgiven our debtors.
2659:(2014). In his science fiction novel
1390:I am going to run; I will go on a run
1009:
548:published his book of Jamaican poems
435:Jamaicans refer to their language as
412:language spoken by the slaveholders:
117:
7:
4393:. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins.
3139:. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins.
3056:
3054:
3028:
3026:
1663:is used as a present tense negator:
940:Examples of palatalization include:
556:) in new forms of Internet writing.
4546:Sample Jamaican Patois Translations
4149:, London: Macmillan, pp. 61–84
3991:British & Foreign Bible Society
3920:Pigott, Robert (25 December 2011).
2790:Paadn wi fi aal a di rang we wi du,
2743:Jiizas: di Buk We Luuk Rait bout Im
1677:is used in the same way as English
528:Jamaican Patois exists mainly as a
4165:A Handbook of Varieties of English
4005:Matyu 6 Di Jamiekan Nyuu Testiment
947:→ → ('a quarter quart (of rum)')
25:
4768:Languages of the African diaspora
4758:English-based pidgins and creoles
4354:Acquisition of Jamaican Phonology
4057:Forrester, Clive (Mar 24, 2020).
2833:Give us this day our daily bread,
2656:A Brief History of Seven Killings
2575:. Subsequently, the life-work of
2510:/imcaanbiitmi,imdʒoslokidatimwon/
872:
857:
848:
837:
809:
795:
788:
781:
774:
767:
749:
742:
735:
728:
721:
714:
707:
700:
693:
686:
668:
659:
648:
639:
4254:; O'Clair, Robert, eds. (2003).
3616:A Dictionary of Jamaican English
2886:
2872:
2842:And lead us not into temptation,
2799:bot protek wi fram di wikid wan.
2781:Mek we yu waahn apm pan ort apm,
1700:('John did not steal the money')
1267:/weɹwijuustaliviznotazkualaziiɹ/
385:influences, spoken primarily in
306:
3894:Domise, Andray (27 June 2018).
3592:. The Dial Press. p. 156.
2857:The system of spelling used in
2594:Po Mas Charlie, yuh no know se
2359:which also means "witchcraft".
1694:is a negative past participle.
521:are similar to very basilectal
4587:English-based creole languages
4406:(1), Battlebridge Publications
4138:Dictionary of Jamaican English
4131:. London: MacMillan Caribbean.
3701:. May 14, 2022. Archived from
2902:English-based creole languages
2787:Tide gi wi di fuud we wi niid.
2588:Dah language weh yuh proud a,
2323:, used for the plural form of
2246:Jamaican Patois contains many
1946:Nasal vowels are written with
1476:Pre-infinitive complementizer
1471:) ('he ought to come up here')
1430:) ('They are fighting for us')
1295:is used to indicate the future
1256:. Alleyne (1980) claims that
1:
4476:Understanding Jamaican Patois
4156:Pidgin and Creole Linguistics
4101:. Cambridge University Press.
2830:on earth, as it is in heaven.
1754:University of the West Indies
1402:San Andrés-Providencia Creole
1274:/tamaaweznuawenkietitelpanim/
343:English-based creole language
140:San Andrés–Providencia Creole
4497:. Washington, DC: Chuu Wod.
3851:, Sarah Lawson Welsh (eds),
3589:Psychic Phenomena of Jamaica
3586:Williams, Joseph J. (1934).
3559:Williams, Joseph J. (1932).
2564:(1909), and, more recently,
2347:(at a location) comes from
971:('beat') is pronounced and
575:with an additional phoneme (
544:for almost a hundred years.
79:3.2 million (2000–2001)
4420:Velupillai, Viveka (2015),
4088:Alleyne, Mervyn C. (1980).
3813:Cassidy & Le Page (1980
3646:McWhorter, John H. (2000).
3216:Cassidy & Le Page (1980
2591:Weh yuh honour an respec –
1188:Jamaican Patois features a
994:and the word for 'idle' is
54:Jamiekan / Jamiekan Kriyuol
4789:
4531:Jamaican Patois Dictionary
4519:The Jamaican Language Unit
4411:Rickford, John R. (1987).
4389:Patrick, Peter L. (1999).
4127:Cassidy, Frederic (1971).
3993:. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
3873:. Rodopi. pp. 23–32.
3825:Devonish & Harry (2004
3240:Devonish & Harry (2004
3152:Devonish & Harry (2004
3124:Labor force and employment
2935:Also transcribed as and .
2859:Di Jamiekan Nyuu Testiment
2765:Di Jamiekan Nyuu Testiment
2748:Di Jamiekan Nyuu Testiment
2597:Dat it spring from dialec!
2450:(along with related forms
2446:. One of the strongest is
2315:, taken from the Twi word
2281:, as well as Scottish and
2239:
1729:, and the word "three" as
1710:
1684:/itapuaɹtiŋdatkiaanmaʃant/
919:
893:
816:
807:
773:
766:
720:
713:
667:
665:
658:
656:
647:
645:
638:
636:
29:
4597:
4474:Adams, L. Emilie (1991).
4243:10.1017/S002510030600243X
3324:Irvine-Sobers GA (2018).
2845:but deliver us from evil.
2836:and forgive us our debts,
2362:Words from Hindi include
1497:for playing their music')
1308:I run (habitually); I ran
1184:Sociolinguistic variation
1008:of Jamaican Patois. from
914:) may be pronounced or .
884:
882:
880:
878:
867:
863:
843:
832:
820:
805:
803:
755:
674:
654:
622:
617:
612:
605:
600:
595:
233:
48:
4773:Creoles of the Caribbean
4717:Turks and Caicos Islands
4097:Bailey, Beryl L (1966).
3951:Colorado Springs Gazette
3135:Hinrichs, Lars (2006),
2811:English Standard Version
2740:has already appeared as
2462:and others—compare with
511:San Andrés y Providencia
30:Not to be confused with
4289:10.1075/jpcl.19.1.03irv
4147:Creole Language Studies
4120:10.1075/jpcl.23.1.03bro
3019:(subscription required)
2710:in the mid-1990s (e.g.
2642:Escape to Last Man Peak
1743:⟨pickney⟩
1713:Cassidy/JLU orthography
1481:
1462:
1443:
1421:
982:, the contrast between
145:Turks and Caicos Creole
18:Jamaican English Creole
4099:Jamaican Creole Syntax
4063:www.cliveforrester.com
3865:Bridget Jones (1994).
3340:10.5281/zenodo.1306618
2917:Rastafarian vocabulary
2821:hallowed be Your name.
2680:, and a few scenes in
2607:
2519:– Affirmative particle
1523:you, you (singular) =
1013:
298:
272:
235:This article contains
155:Cayman Islands English
4493:Chang, Larry (2014).
4337:10.1075/eww.4.2.04muf
2818:Our Father in heaven,
2772:Wi Faada we iina evn,
1375:I have run; I had run
1214:Niger–Congo languages
1004:
507:mutually intelligible
296:
270:
130:Bocas del Toro Creole
4763:Languages of Jamaica
4352:Meade, R.R. (2001).
3957:on December 11, 2012
3110:Sebba, Mark (1993),
2753:A comparison of the
2697:The Harder They Come
2569:Linton Kwesi Johnson
2505:) – I almost hit him
2390:, small) or Spanish
2327:, is taken from the
1739:⟨trii⟩
1731:⟨tree⟩
1727:⟨dere⟩
1698:/dʒannevatiifdimoni/
1613:('we are in London')
1592:('I am the teacher')
1578:the Jamaican Patois
1565:they, them, their =
1533:(pronounced in the
1452:) ('that's my book')
1349:/aɹonmiben(w)enaɹon/
1283:is a tense indicator
1194:linguistic continuum
509:variety is found in
341:by linguists) is an
135:Miskito Coast Creole
4607:Antigua and Barbuda
3036:, 1966, 41:211–215.
2809:...as it occurs in
2763:...as it occurs in
2623:Jamaican literature
2552:All Jamaica Library
2542:Literature and film
2386:(the diminutive of
1963:
1886:
1835:
1762:
1735:⟨tri⟩
1723:⟨deh⟩
1289:is an aspect marker
590:
333:; locally rendered
4753:Analytic languages
4748:Culture of Jamaica
4524:2020-02-27 at the
3985:2020-12-11 at the
3114:, London: Longman.
2827:Your will be done,
2824:Your kingdom come,
2725:Marvel's Luke Cage
2665:Trinidadian Creole
2501:Mi almos lik 'im (
2470:Australian English
2339:in the mid-1700s.
1961:
1884:
1833:
1760:
1719:⟨de⟩
1339:A run mi did a run
1014:
978:Before a syllabic
924:The palatal stops
586:
299:
273:
4730:
4729:
4504:978-0-9773391-8-1
4478:. Kingston: LMH.
4250:Ramazani, Jahan;
3350:978-3-96110-114-6
3017:(18th ed., 2015)
2854:
2853:
2692:Lois Kelly Miller
2647:Voice in the Wind
2279:African languages
2219:
2218:
1944:
1943:
1882:
1881:
1831:
1830:
1504:Pronominal system
1422:Dem a fight fi wi
1181:
1180:
963:Voiced stops are
888:
887:
830:
764:
683:
634:
542:literary language
391:Jamaican diaspora
294:
268:
261:
260:
243:rendering support
239:phonetic symbols.
174:Regulated by
150:Bermudian English
16:(Redirected from
4780:
4580:
4573:
4566:
4557:
4508:
4489:
4462:
4434:
4416:
4407:
4394:
4385:
4357:
4348:
4319:
4291:
4271:
4252:Ellmann, Richard
4246:
4245:
4224:
4196:
4168:
4159:
4150:
4141:
4132:
4123:
4102:
4093:
4074:
4073:
4071:
4069:
4054:
4048:
4043:
4037:
4036:
4030:
4026:
4024:
4016:
4014:
4013:
4000:
3994:
3977:
3971:
3970:
3964:
3962:
3943:
3937:
3936:
3934:
3932:
3917:
3911:
3910:
3908:
3906:
3891:
3885:
3884:
3862:
3856:
3846:
3840:
3834:
3828:
3822:
3816:
3810:
3804:
3798:
3792:
3786:
3780:
3774:
3768:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3748:
3742:
3736:
3730:
3729:
3721:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3710:
3691:
3685:
3684:
3679:"Ganja planta".
3676:
3670:
3669:
3667:
3666:
3643:
3637:
3636:
3634:
3633:
3610:
3604:
3603:
3583:
3577:
3576:
3556:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3537:
3531:. Archived from
3530:
3522:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3512:
3503:. Archived from
3497:
3491:
3485:
3479:
3473:
3467:
3461:
3455:
3449:
3443:
3437:
3431:
3425:
3419:
3413:
3407:
3397:
3391:
3385:
3379:
3373:
3367:
3361:
3355:
3354:
3342:
3332:
3321:
3315:
3309:
3303:
3297:
3291:
3285:
3279:
3273:
3267:
3261:
3255:
3249:
3243:
3237:
3231:
3225:
3219:
3212:
3206:
3200:
3194:
3188:
3182:
3176:
3170:
3164:
3155:
3149:
3140:
3133:
3127:
3121:
3115:
3108:
3102:
3101:
3094:
3088:
3085:Brown-Blake 2008
3082:
3076:
3070:
3064:
3058:
3049:
3046:Brown-Blake 2008
3043:
3037:
3030:
3021:
3020:
3006:
3000:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2985:. LanguiJumieka.
2978:
2977:. LanguiJumieka.
2970:
2964:
2958:
2936:
2933:
2907:Jamaican English
2896:
2894:Languages portal
2891:
2890:
2882:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2758:
2615:Kamau Brathwaite
2611:Frederic Cassidy
2605:
2582:Standard English
2561:Songs of Jamaica
2548:Thomas MacDermot
2536:
2530:
2524:
2518:
2511:
2504:
2503:/miaalmuoslikim/
2485:
2437:Jamaican cuisine
2322:
2299:
2291:
1964:
1887:
1836:
1763:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1699:
1693:
1685:
1676:
1668:
1662:
1643:is equative and
1625:('I am old now')
1624:
1612:
1611:/wideinnalondon/
1606:
1591:
1568:
1562:
1556:
1549:
1543:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1489:
1484:
1470:
1465:
1463:Him fi kom up ya
1451:
1446:
1444:Dat a fi mi book
1429:
1424:
1411:
1386:
1371:
1365:
1350:
1344:
1329:
1323:
1304:
1275:
1268:
1264:
1259:
1255:
1241:. These are not
1190:creole continuum
1174:
1169:
1159:
1154:
1144:
1139:
1129:
1124:
1114:
1109:
1099:
1094:
1084:
1079:
1063:
1055:
1051:
1048:are allowed but
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
997:
993:
981:
974:
970:
958:
952:
946:
927:
923:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
876:
861:
852:
841:
821:
813:
799:
792:
785:
778:
771:
760:
753:
746:
739:
732:
725:
718:
711:
704:
697:
690:
679:
672:
663:
652:
643:
630:
591:
578:
550:Songs of Jamaica
519:Mesolectal forms
515:Jamaican Maroons
467:Washington, D.C.
430:Standard English
332:
331:
328:
327:
324:
321:
318:
315:
312:
295:
269:
229:
215:
199:
192:
89:
41:
32:Jamaican English
21:
4788:
4787:
4783:
4782:
4781:
4779:
4778:
4777:
4743:Jamaican Patois
4733:
4732:
4731:
4726:
4593:
4584:
4551:Jumieka Langwij
4526:Wayback Machine
4515:
4505:
4492:
4486:
4473:
4470:
4468:Further reading
4465:
4437:
4432:
4419:
4410:
4397:
4388:
4363:American Speech
4360:
4351:
4322:
4297:American Speech
4294:
4274:
4268:
4249:
4227:
4202:American Speech
4199:
4174:American Speech
4171:
4162:
4153:
4144:
4135:
4126:
4105:
4096:
4087:
4083:
4081:General sources
4078:
4077:
4067:
4065:
4056:
4055:
4051:
4044:
4040:
4027:
4017:
4011:
4009:
4002:
4001:
3997:
3987:Wayback Machine
3978:
3974:
3960:
3958:
3945:
3944:
3940:
3930:
3928:
3919:
3918:
3914:
3904:
3902:
3893:
3892:
3888:
3881:
3864:
3863:
3859:
3847:
3843:
3835:
3831:
3823:
3819:
3811:
3807:
3799:
3795:
3787:
3783:
3775:
3771:
3763:
3759:
3750:
3749:
3745:
3737:
3733:
3726:Jamaican Patwah
3723:
3722:
3718:
3708:
3706:
3705:on May 14, 2022
3693:
3692:
3688:
3681:Jamaican Patwah
3678:
3677:
3673:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3645:
3644:
3640:
3631:
3629:
3627:
3612:
3611:
3607:
3600:
3585:
3584:
3580:
3573:
3558:
3557:
3550:
3541:
3539:
3535:
3528:
3524:
3523:
3519:
3510:
3508:
3499:
3498:
3494:
3486:
3482:
3474:
3470:
3462:
3458:
3450:
3446:
3438:
3434:
3426:
3422:
3414:
3410:
3402::218) cited in
3398:
3394:
3386:
3382:
3374:
3370:
3362:
3358:
3351:
3330:
3323:
3322:
3318:
3310:
3306:
3298:
3294:
3286:
3282:
3274:
3270:
3262:
3258:
3250:
3246:
3238:
3234:
3226:
3222:
3213:
3209:
3201:
3197:
3189:
3185:
3177:
3173:
3167:Velupillai 2015
3165:
3158:
3150:
3143:
3134:
3130:
3122:
3118:
3112:London Jamaican
3109:
3105:
3096:
3095:
3091:
3083:
3079:
3075:, pp. 481.
3073:Velupillai 2015
3071:
3067:
3059:
3052:
3044:
3040:
3031:
3024:
3018:
3009:Jamaican Patois
3007:
3003:
2994:
2990:
2980:
2979:
2972:
2971:
2967:
2959:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2939:
2934:
2930:
2925:
2912:Nation language
2892:
2885:
2878:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2855:
2803:
2734:
2719:Third World Cop
2713:Dancehall Queen
2674:'s speech from
2606:
2601:
2544:
2498:
2496:Example phrases
2474:British English
2244:
2238:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1715:
1709:
1657:
1575:
1559:you (plural) =
1506:
1398:Guyanese Creole
1370:/miben(w)enɹon/
1343:/aɹonmididaɹon/
1227:morphologically
1223:
1186:
953:→ → ('guard')
917:
891:
825:
608:
562:
530:spoken language
418:Hiberno-English
414:British English
399:native language
363:Scottish Gaelic
339:Jamaican Creole
309:
305:
302:Jamaican Patois
275:
263:
241:Without proper
225:
211:
195:
188:
168:Official status
125:Limonese Creole
114:
106:Jamaican Patois
90:
87:Language family
85:
76:
75:Native speakers
44:Jamaican Patois
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4786:
4784:
4776:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4735:
4734:
4728:
4727:
4725:
4724:
4722:Virgin Islands
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4669:
4664:
4662:Mosquito Coast
4659:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4637:Cayman Islands
4634:
4632:Bocas del Toro
4629:
4624:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4598:
4595:
4594:
4585:
4583:
4582:
4575:
4568:
4560:
4554:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4514:
4513:External links
4511:
4510:
4509:
4503:
4490:
4484:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4463:
4452:10.2307/414387
4446:(3): 588–624,
4435:
4430:
4417:
4408:
4395:
4386:
4375:10.2307/455899
4369:(3): 227–264,
4358:
4349:
4331:(2): 199–229.
4320:
4309:10.2307/455246
4303:(2): 123–130,
4292:
4272:
4266:
4247:
4236:(1): 125–131,
4225:
4214:10.2307/455318
4208:(2): 189–192,
4197:
4186:10.2307/454817
4180:(3): 195–202,
4169:
4160:
4151:
4142:
4133:
4124:
4103:
4094:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4076:
4075:
4049:
4046:Matthew 6:9–13
4038:
4029:|website=
3995:
3972:
3938:
3912:
3886:
3879:
3857:
3849:Alison Donnell
3841:
3829:
3817:
3805:
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3444:
3432:
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3408:
3392:
3380:
3368:
3356:
3349:
3316:
3304:
3292:
3288:Rickford (1987
3280:
3268:
3256:
3244:
3232:
3220:
3207:
3195:
3183:
3171:
3169:, p. 483.
3156:
3141:
3128:
3116:
3103:
3089:
3077:
3065:
3050:
3038:
3022:
3001:
2988:
2981:Chang, Larry.
2973:Chang, Larry.
2965:
2952:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2938:
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2927:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2920:
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2914:
2909:
2904:
2898:
2897:
2883:
2880:Jamaica portal
2867:
2864:
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2794:
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2788:
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2782:
2779:
2776:
2773:
2769:
2768:
2752:
2738:Gospel of Luke
2733:
2730:
2683:Meet Joe Black
2639:(1972; 1990),
2636:Sprat Morrison
2627:Nalo Hopkinson
2599:
2577:Louise Bennett
2543:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2532:
2526:
2520:
2513:
2506:
2497:
2494:
2480:Homosexual men
2300:), taken from
2254:(a dialect of
2237:
2234:
2217:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2206:
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2202:
2199:
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2056:
2052:
2051:
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2037:
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2029:
2026:
2023:
2019:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2008:
2007:
2004:
2001:
1997:
1996:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1985:
1982:
1979:
1975:
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1971:
1968:
1942:
1941:
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1930:
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1920:
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1829:
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1825:
1822:
1818:
1817:
1814:
1811:
1807:
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1800:
1796:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1785:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1774:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1711:Main article:
1708:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1702:
1701:
1689:
1688:
1687:
1672:
1671:
1670:
1656:
1653:
1649:Romance Copula
1629:
1628:
1627:
1626:
1623:/mihaadbaknau/
1616:
1615:
1614:
1595:
1594:
1593:
1574:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1563:
1557:
1553:we, us, our =
1551:
1538:
1527:
1521:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1474:
1473:
1472:
1455:
1454:
1453:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1428:/demafaitfiwi/
1394:
1393:
1392:
1391:
1378:
1377:
1376:
1357:
1356:
1355:
1336:
1335:
1334:
1311:
1310:
1309:
1296:
1290:
1284:
1222:
1219:
1200:language (the
1185:
1182:
1179:
1178:
1175:
1170:
1164:
1163:
1160:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1145:
1140:
1134:
1133:
1130:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1115:
1110:
1104:
1103:
1100:
1095:
1089:
1088:
1085:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1070:
1067:
975:('good') as .
961:
960:
959:→ → ('weak')
954:
948:
938:
937:
934:palatalization
915:
898:The status of
886:
885:
883:
881:
879:
877:
870:
868:
865:
864:
862:
855:
853:
846:
844:
842:
835:
833:
831:
818:
817:
815:
806:
804:
802:
800:
793:
786:
779:
772:
765:
757:
756:
754:
747:
740:
733:
726:
719:
712:
705:
698:
691:
684:
676:
675:
673:
666:
664:
657:
655:
653:
646:
644:
637:
635:
627:
626:
621:
616:
611:
604:
599:
594:
561:
558:
523:Belizean Kriol
479:Cayman Islands
389:and among the
259:
258:
245:, you may see
231:
230:
223:
217:
216:
209:
201:
200:
193:
185:
184:
183:Language codes
180:
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157:
152:
147:
142:
137:
132:
127:
120:
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115:
113:
112:
111:
110:
109:
108:
95:English creole
93:
91:
84:
81:
80:
77:
74:
71:
70:
65:
64:Native to
61:
60:
46:
45:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4785:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
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4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
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4740:
4738:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4697:Saint Vincent
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
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4628:
4625:
4623:
4620:
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4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4599:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4581:
4576:
4574:
4569:
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4562:
4561:
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4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
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4539:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4523:
4520:
4517:
4516:
4512:
4506:
4500:
4496:
4491:
4487:
4485:976-610-155-8
4481:
4477:
4472:
4471:
4467:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4436:
4433:
4431:9789027252715
4427:
4423:
4418:
4414:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4396:
4392:
4387:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4359:
4355:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4321:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4298:
4293:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4273:
4269:
4267:0-393-97792-7
4263:
4259:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4244:
4239:
4235:
4231:
4226:
4223:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4207:
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4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4175:
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4166:
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4157:
4152:
4148:
4143:
4139:
4134:
4130:
4125:
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4117:
4113:
4109:
4104:
4100:
4095:
4091:
4086:
4085:
4080:
4064:
4060:
4053:
4050:
4047:
4042:
4039:
4034:
4022:
4007:
4006:
3999:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3981:
3976:
3973:
3969:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3942:
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3897:
3890:
3887:
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3868:
3861:
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3854:
3850:
3845:
3842:
3838:
3833:
3830:
3826:
3821:
3818:
3814:
3809:
3806:
3802:
3801:Hancock (1985
3797:
3794:
3790:
3789:Patrick (1995
3785:
3782:
3778:
3777:Hancock (1985
3773:
3770:
3766:
3765:Patrick (1995
3761:
3758:
3753:
3747:
3744:
3740:
3739:Patrick (1995
3735:
3732:
3727:
3720:
3717:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3690:
3687:
3682:
3675:
3672:
3661:
3659:0-520-21999-6
3655:
3651:
3650:
3642:
3639:
3628:
3626:976-640-127-6
3622:
3618:
3617:
3609:
3606:
3601:
3599:1-4655-1450-3
3595:
3591:
3590:
3582:
3579:
3574:
3572:1-4655-1695-6
3568:
3564:
3563:
3555:
3553:
3549:
3538:on 2020-08-09
3534:
3527:
3521:
3518:
3507:on 2020-11-06
3506:
3502:
3496:
3493:
3489:
3484:
3481:
3477:
3472:
3469:
3465:
3460:
3457:
3453:
3452:Patrick (2007
3448:
3445:
3441:
3440:Patrick (1995
3436:
3433:
3429:
3424:
3421:
3417:
3416:Winford (1985
3412:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3400:Mufwene (1983
3396:
3393:
3389:
3384:
3381:
3377:
3372:
3369:
3365:
3360:
3357:
3352:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3329:
3328:
3320:
3317:
3313:
3312:Patrick (1999
3308:
3305:
3301:
3296:
3293:
3289:
3284:
3281:
3277:
3272:
3269:
3265:
3260:
3257:
3253:
3252:Cassidy (1971
3248:
3245:
3241:
3236:
3233:
3230:
3224:
3221:
3217:
3211:
3208:
3204:
3199:
3196:
3192:
3187:
3184:
3180:
3175:
3172:
3168:
3163:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3148:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3132:
3129:
3125:
3120:
3117:
3113:
3107:
3104:
3099:
3093:
3090:
3086:
3081:
3078:
3074:
3069:
3066:
3062:
3057:
3055:
3051:
3048:, p. 32.
3047:
3042:
3039:
3035:
3029:
3027:
3023:
3016:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3002:
2998:
2995:Larry Chang:
2992:
2989:
2984:
2976:
2969:
2966:
2962:
2957:
2954:
2947:
2942:
2932:
2929:
2922:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2895:
2889:
2884:
2881:
2870:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2850:
2844:
2841:
2838:
2835:
2832:
2829:
2826:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2807:
2806:
2804:
2798:
2795:
2792:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2761:
2760:
2759:
2756:
2755:Lord's Prayer
2751:
2749:
2745:
2744:
2739:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2726:
2721:
2720:
2715:
2714:
2709:
2708:Palm Pictures
2705:
2704:
2699:
2698:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2684:
2679:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2657:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2637:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2604:
2603:Bans a Killin
2598:
2595:
2592:
2589:
2585:
2583:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2567:
2563:
2562:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2541:
2533:
2527:
2521:
2514:
2507:
2500:
2499:
2495:
2493:
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2438:
2434:
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2424:
2423:
2418:
2414:
2413:
2408:
2407:
2402:
2401:
2395:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2380:
2375:
2371:
2368:(marijuana).
2367:
2366:
2360:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2329:Igbo language
2326:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2303:
2295:
2286:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2259:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2243:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2214:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2192:
2189:
2186:
2185:
2181:
2178:
2175:
2174:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2159:
2156:
2153:
2152:
2148:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2137:
2134:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2123:
2120:
2119:
2115:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2104:
2101:
2098:
2097:
2093:
2090:
2087:
2086:
2082:
2079:
2076:
2075:
2071:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2060:
2057:
2054:
2053:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2038:
2035:
2032:
2031:
2027:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2016:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2005:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1994:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1983:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1959:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1932:
1928:
1925:
1922:
1921:
1917:
1914:
1911:
1910:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1899:
1895:
1892:
1889:
1888:
1877:
1874:
1871:
1870:
1866:
1863:
1860:
1859:
1855:
1852:
1849:
1848:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1819:
1815:
1812:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1797:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1768:
1765:
1764:
1761:Short vowels
1758:
1755:
1750:
1714:
1706:
1696:
1695:
1690:
1682:
1681:
1680:
1673:
1665:
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1658:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1620:
1619:
1617:
1609:
1605:/widealondon/
1602:
1601:
1600:
1596:
1590:/miaditiitʃa/
1587:
1586:
1585:
1582:verb is also
1581:
1577:
1576:
1572:
1564:
1558:
1552:
1546:
1539:
1536:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1515:
1514:
1511:
1503:
1496:
1493:
1485:
1483:
1478:
1477:
1475:
1469:/imfikomopja/
1466:
1464:
1459:
1458:
1456:
1450:/datafimibuk/
1447:
1445:
1440:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1425:
1423:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1408:is excluded)
1407:
1403:
1399:
1389:
1388:
1382:
1379:
1374:
1373:
1368:
1361:
1358:
1354:I was running
1353:
1352:
1347:
1340:
1337:
1332:
1331:
1326:
1319:
1315:
1312:
1307:
1306:
1300:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1278:
1277:
1270:
1250:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1183:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1165:
1161:
1156:
1151:
1150:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1135:
1131:
1126:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1111:
1106:
1105:
1101:
1096:
1091:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1019:
1018:vowel harmony
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
989:
985:
976:
966:
955:
949:
943:
942:
941:
935:
931:
922:
921:
916:
896:
895:
890:
889:
875:
871:
869:
866:
860:
856:
854:
851:
847:
845:
840:
836:
834:
829:
824:
819:
812:
801:
798:
794:
791:
787:
784:
780:
777:
770:
763:
759:
758:
752:
748:
745:
741:
738:
734:
731:
727:
724:
717:
710:
706:
703:
699:
696:
692:
689:
685:
682:
678:
677:
671:
662:
651:
642:
633:
629:
628:
625:
620:
615:
610:
603:
598:
593:
592:
589:
584:
582:
574:
571:
567:
559:
557:
555:
554:codeswitching
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
526:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
485:, as well as
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
459:New York City
456:
455:South Florida
451:
448:
444:
440:
439:
433:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
402:
400:
396:
395:Akan language
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
330:
303:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
238:
232:
228:
224:
222:
218:
214:
210:
208:
207:
202:
198:
194:
191:
186:
181:
178:not regulated
177:
175:
171:
166:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
122:
121:
107:
104:
103:
101:
100:
98:
97:
96:
92:
88:
82:
78:
72:
69:
66:
62:
59:
55:
51:
47:
42:
37:
33:
19:
4651:
4494:
4475:
4443:
4439:
4421:
4412:
4403:
4399:
4390:
4366:
4362:
4353:
4328:
4324:
4300:
4296:
4283:(1): 41–76,
4280:
4276:
4256:
4233:
4229:
4205:
4201:
4177:
4173:
4164:
4155:
4146:
4137:
4128:
4111:
4107:
4098:
4089:
4066:. Retrieved
4062:
4052:
4041:
4010:. Retrieved
4004:
3998:
3990:
3975:
3966:
3959:. Retrieved
3955:the original
3950:
3941:
3931:28 September
3929:. Retrieved
3915:
3903:. Retrieved
3899:
3889:
3870:
3860:
3852:
3844:
3832:
3820:
3808:
3796:
3784:
3772:
3760:
3746:
3734:
3725:
3719:
3707:. Retrieved
3703:the original
3698:
3689:
3680:
3674:
3663:. Retrieved
3648:
3641:
3630:. Retrieved
3615:
3608:
3588:
3581:
3561:
3540:. Retrieved
3533:the original
3520:
3509:. Retrieved
3505:the original
3495:
3488:Irvine (2004
3483:
3476:Lawton (1984
3471:
3464:Lawton (1984
3459:
3447:
3435:
3428:Bailey (1966
3423:
3411:
3404:Gibson (1988
3395:
3388:Gibson (1988
3383:
3376:DeCamp (1977
3371:
3364:Irvine (2004
3359:
3326:
3319:
3307:
3295:
3283:
3271:
3259:
3247:
3235:
3229:Harry (2006)
3223:
3210:
3198:
3186:
3174:
3136:
3131:
3119:
3111:
3106:
3092:
3087:, p. ?.
3080:
3068:
3061:DeCamp (1961
3041:
3033:
3012:
3004:
2996:
2991:
2968:
2960:
2956:
2931:
2858:
2856:
2848:
2802:
2764:
2741:
2735:
2723:
2717:
2711:
2701:
2695:
2681:
2675:
2669:
2660:
2654:
2651:Marlon James
2646:
2645:(1976), and
2640:
2634:
2631:Jean D'Costa
2618:
2608:
2602:
2596:
2593:
2590:
2587:
2584:had sprung:
2559:
2556:Claude McKay
2551:
2545:
2487:
2478:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2441:
2432:
2426:
2420:
2416:
2410:
2404:
2398:
2396:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2363:
2361:
2356:
2352:
2344:
2340:
2332:
2324:
2316:
2312:
2293:
2287:
2260:
2245:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2220:
1958:(isn't it?)
1955:
1954:(can't) and
1951:
1947:
1945:
1834:Long vowels
1751:
1749:, 'child').
1716:
1678:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1630:
1607:
1598:
1583:
1544:
1507:
1479:
1460:
1441:
1419:
1406:Sranan Tongo
1395:
1380:
1366:
1359:
1345:
1338:
1333:I am running
1324:
1317:
1313:
1298:
1292:
1286:
1280:
1271:
1251:
1246:
1238:
1234:
1229:marked past
1224:
1193:
1187:
1015:
977:
962:
939:
918:
892:
564:Accounts of
563:
549:
546:Claude McKay
527:
452:
436:
434:
403:
347:West African
338:
334:
301:
300:
234:
221:Linguasphere
204:
105:
57:
53:
49:
4682:Saint Kitts
3300:Meade (2001
3276:Harry (2006
3264:Harry (2006
3203:Harry (2006
3191:Harry (2006
3179:Harry (2006
2573:Mikey Smith
2486:, fish or
2394:('small').
2298:/imtelmise/
1962:Consonants
1885:Diphthongs
1707:Orthography
1639:– in which
1540:she, her =
1381:Mi a go run
1231:participles
1010:Harry (2006
957:/piaa+piaa/
823:Approximant
443:vernaculars
337:and called
249:instead of
4737:Categories
4692:San Andrés
4667:Montserrat
4012:2014-10-22
3961:8 December
3880:9051836481
3665:2008-11-29
3632:2008-11-24
3542:2012-12-26
3511:2015-11-26
3014:Ethnologue
2943:References
2523:/papiˈʃuo/
2460:pussyclaat
2456:bomboclaat
2448:bloodclaat
2444:swearwords
2379:piccaninny
2285:dialects.
2267:Portuguese
2240:See also:
2236:Vocabulary
2228:(hen) and
1537:varieties)
1529:he, him =
1510:pronominal
1385:/miaɡoɹon/
1364:/mididɹon/
1360:Mi did run
1058:diphthongs
906:'hit' and
588:Consonants
573:consonants
566:basilectal
503:Nottingham
499:Manchester
495:Birmingham
475:Costa Rica
406:vernacular
375:Portuguese
371:Hindustani
4591:Caribbean
4345:0172-8865
4114:: 32–74.
4092:. Koroma.
4031:ignored (
4021:cite book
3695:"pickney"
3266::128–129)
3193::126–127)
3034:Am Speech
2948:Citations
2688:Brad Pitt
2686:in which
2672:Tia Dalma
2566:dub poets
2489:battyboys
2452:raasclaat
2384:pequenino
2248:loanwords
1328:/mideɹon/
1318:Mi de run
1254:/a~da~de/
1102:'barber'
965:implosive
762:Fricative
560:Phonology
538:dancehall
471:Nicaragua
410:dialectal
227:52-ABB-am
206:Glottolog
190:ISO 639-3
4712:Trinidad
4702:Suriname
4672:Rama Cay
4617:Barbados
4602:Anguilla
4522:Archived
4440:Language
3983:Archived
3926:BBC News
3227:such as
3214:such as
2866:See also
2700:(1972),
2600:—
2433:kamranga
2406:callaloo
2374:pickiney
2343:meaning
2333:Red eboe
2311:meaning
2292:meaning
2215:version
1973:English
1950:, as in
1896:English
1845:English
1772:English
1655:Negation
1580:equative
1535:basilect
1517:I, me =
1436:Genitive
1322:/miaɹon/
1314:Mi a run
1263:/juusta/
1210:basilect
1206:mesolect
1202:acrolect
1198:lexifier
1117:'booth'
1069:Example
984:alveolar
930:phonetic
609:alveolar
602:Alveolar
570:phonemic
463:Hartford
447:prestige
255:Help:IPA
213:jama1262
119:Dialects
99:Atlantic
4652:Jamaica
4642:Grenada
4627:Bermuda
4612:Bahamas
4589:of the
4068:May 14,
3968:slaves.
3905:May 14,
3709:May 14,
3490::43–44)
3218::xxxix)
2703:Rockers
2531:– Woman
2484:/biips/
2392:pequeño
2388:pequeno
2370:Pickney
2302:Ashanti
2263:Spanish
2212:vorzhan
2006:church
1747:/pikni/
1675:/kiaan/
1492:Guinean
1303:/miɹon/
1221:Grammar
1177:'town'
1162:'boat'
1147:'bike'
1132:'bake'
1098:/baaba/
1087:'tiny'
1083:/biini/
996:/aiɡl̩/
992:/bakl̩/
951:/ɡiaad/
828:Lateral
624:Glottal
614:Palatal
487:Toronto
387:Jamaica
379:Chinese
367:Spanish
251:Unicode
102:Western
68:Jamaica
4707:Tobago
4687:Samaná
4677:Roatán
4647:Guyana
4622:Belize
4501:
4482:
4460:414387
4458:
4428:
4383:455899
4381:
4343:
4317:455246
4315:
4264:
4222:455318
4220:
4194:454817
4192:
3877:
3815::lxii)
3699:Lexico
3656:
3623:
3596:
3569:
3347:
3126:eso.ky
2849:
2535:/bwoi/
2529:/uman/
2517:/siin/
2465:bloody
2435:. See
2412:guinep
2349:Yoruba
2307:, and
2275:Arawak
2193:young
2149:shout
2050:judge
1970:Patois
1967:Letter
1952:kyaahn
1893:Patois
1890:Letter
1878:shoot
1842:Patois
1839:Letter
1769:Patois
1766:Letter
1692:/neva/
1573:Copula
1495:People
1299:Mi run
1293:(a) go
1265:as in
1258:/a~da/
1192:(or a
1173:/taun/
1158:/buat/
1143:/baik/
1128:/biak/
1113:/buut/
1072:Gloss
1066:Vowel
1028:, and
1006:Vowels
973:/ɡuud/
969:/biit/
945:/kiuu/
904:/hiit/
597:Labial
581:vowels
534:reggae
501:, and
491:London
483:Panama
481:, and
477:, the
438:Patois
426:creole
383:German
381:, and
335:Patwah
160:Iyaric
36:Iyaric
4657:Limón
4456:JSTOR
4379:JSTOR
4313:JSTOR
4218:JSTOR
4190:JSTOR
3827::467)
3803::190)
3791::253)
3779::237)
3767::248)
3741::234)
3536:(PDF)
3529:(PDF)
3478::125)
3442::244)
3418::589)
3406::200)
3390::199)
3331:(PDF)
3278::128)
3242::458)
3205::126)
3181::127)
3154::456)
2923:Notes
2732:Bible
2537:– Boy
2515:Seen
2417:bammy
2400:ackee
2365:ganja
2357:Ɔbayi
2353:Obeah
2345:to be
2321:/unu/
2317:dupon
2313:ghost
2309:Duppy
2283:Irish
2271:Hindi
2182:wild
2171:vote
2146:shout
2138:sick
2116:peel
2105:sing
2094:nice
2072:lean
2061:kite
2028:goat
2017:food
2003:choch
1984:bake
1929:bite
1918:grow
1907:cake
1875:shuut
1867:ball
1827:cook
1805:band
1794:bell
1783:sick
1737:, or
1725:, or
1679:can't
1645:estar
1637:estar
1621:e.g.
1603:e.g.
1588:e.g.
1567:/dem/
1561:/unu/
1247:to be
1243:verbs
1054:*/iu/
1050:*/ui/
1012::128)
988:velar
908:/iit/
632:Nasal
619:Velar
607:Post-
422:Scots
359:Scots
355:Irish
351:Taíno
345:with
50:Patwa
4499:ISBN
4480:ISBN
4426:ISBN
4341:ISSN
4262:ISBN
4070:2022
4033:help
3963:2012
3933:2018
3907:2022
3900:Vice
3875:ISBN
3839::15)
3711:2022
3654:ISBN
3621:ISBN
3594:ISBN
3567:ISBN
3430::32)
3378::29)
3366::42)
3345:ISBN
3302::19)
3254::40)
3063::82)
2716:and
2571:and
2554:and
2472:and
2422:roti
2337:Igbo
2294:that
2290:/se/
2277:and
2256:Akan
2204:zoo
2190:yong
2179:wail
2168:vuot
2160:two
2127:run
2113:piil
2102:sing
2091:nais
2083:man
2069:liin
2058:kait
2039:hen
2025:guot
2014:fuud
1995:dog
1992:daag
1981:biek
1956:iihn
1940:cow
1926:bait
1915:gruo
1904:kiek
1864:baal
1856:tea
1816:cut
1745:for
1661:/no/
1635:and
1555:/wi/
1548:/im/
1542:/ʃi/
1531:/im/
1525:/ju/
1519:/mi/
1508:The
1410:/fi/
1400:and
1320:, (
1237:and
1168:/au/
1153:/ua/
1138:/ai/
1123:/ia/
1108:/uu/
1093:/aa/
1078:/ii/
1052:and
1046:/ii/
1044:and
1042:/uu/
1036:and
986:and
912:/an/
681:Stop
536:and
420:and
408:and
4448:doi
4371:doi
4333:doi
4305:doi
4285:doi
4238:doi
4210:doi
4182:doi
4116:doi
3454::?)
3335:doi
3314::6)
3290::?)
3011:at
2558:'s
2550:'s
2468:in
2428:dal
2372:or
2325:you
2305:Twi
2258:).
2252:Twi
2226:hen
2201:zuu
2157:tuu
2135:sik
2124:ron
2080:man
2047:joj
2036:hen
1948:-hn
1937:kou
1853:tii
1824:kuk
1813:kot
1802:ban
1791:bel
1780:sik
1651:.)
1641:ser
1633:ser
1599:deh
1341:, (
1316:or
1038:/u/
1034:/i/
1030:/a/
1026:/u/
1022:/i/
980:/l/
900:/h/
577:/h/
237:IPA
197:jam
34:or
4739::
4454:,
4444:61
4442:,
4404:24
4402:,
4377:,
4367:70
4365:,
4339:.
4327:.
4311:,
4301:59
4299:,
4281:19
4279:,
4234:36
4232:,
4216:,
4206:60
4204:,
4188:,
4178:63
4176:,
4112:23
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4061:.
4025::
4023:}}
4019:{{
3989:,
3965:.
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3551:^
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3159:^
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3053:^
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2439:.
2431:,
2425:,
2419:,
2415:,
2409:,
2403:,
2341:De
2331:.
2273:,
2269:,
2265:,
2230:en
2209:zh
2143:sh
2099:ng
2000:ch
1934:ou
1923:ai
1912:uo
1901:ie
1872:uu
1861:aa
1850:ii
1733:,
1721:,
1608:or
1545:or
1404:;
1387:)
1372:)
1367:or
1351:)
1346:or
1330:)
1325:or
1305:)
1281:en
1235:en
1060::
1024:,
998:.
920:^2
894:^1
723:dʒ
716:tʃ
525:.
497:,
493:,
489:,
473:,
469:,
465:,
461:,
457:,
432:.
416:,
401:.
377:,
373:,
369:,
365:,
361:,
357:,
353:,
349:,
326:ɑː
56:,
52:,
4579:e
4572:t
4565:v
4507:.
4488:.
4450::
4373::
4347:.
4335::
4329:4
4307::
4287::
4270:.
4240::
4212::
4184::
4122:.
4118::
4072:.
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4015:.
3935:.
3909:.
3883:.
3754:.
3728:.
3713:.
3683:.
3668:.
3635:.
3602:.
3575:.
3545:.
3514:.
3353:.
3337::
3100:.
2813::
2767::
2222:h
2198:z
2187:y
2176:w
2165:v
2154:t
2132:s
2121:r
2110:p
2088:n
2077:m
2066:l
2055:k
2044:j
2033:h
2022:g
2011:f
1989:d
1978:b
1821:u
1810:o
1799:a
1788:e
1777:i
1584:a
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1467:(
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1383:(
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1287:a
1239:a
936:.
926:,
874:l
859:w
850:j
839:ɹ
826:/
814:)
811:h
808:(
797:ʃ
790:z
783:s
776:v
769:f
751:ɡ
744:k
737:ɟ
730:c
709:d
702:t
695:b
688:p
670:ŋ
661:ɲ
650:n
641:m
329:/
323:w
320:t
317:æ
314:p
311:ˈ
308:/
304:(
257:.
38:.
20:)
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