490:, its members supported voluntary relocation of free blacks and newly freed slaves to Africa, to solve the "problem" of blacks in American society. In the first two decades after the Revolution, the number of free blacks rose significantly, due both to wholesale abolition of slavery in the North, as well as an increase in manumissions in the South by men moved by revolutionary ideals. In some areas, the new competition for social resources resulted in a rise in racial discrimination against free blacks. Southerners wanted to remove free blacks from their region, as they believed the free people destabilized slavery. Northerners thought a new colony might give the blacks more independence and a chance to create their own society. The proposal was also supported by clergy who expected the black Americans to evangelize Christianity to Africans. News about the organization, especially racist remarks by such leaders as
439:, published anonymously. (See External links below.) (Many people knew he had written it.) He denounced a bill under consideration in the Pennsylvania legislature that required all black emigrants to Pennsylvania to be registered with the state, and protested treating free blacks any differently than whites. Some legislators were worried about the number of free blacks who migrated into the state, competing with white laborers. In addition, they knew fugitive slaves often used Pennsylvania as a destination or byway to other free areas, as it was bordered by slave states to the south.
31:
567:
552:
many complex issues for free Blacks in the United States. Despite his support for the new nation, Forten was among important Black leaders who opposed immigration for
Americans. He firmly believed that Blacks should be allowed to play an equal role in their land of the United States. He consistently said that it was far better for them to fight for an egalitarian US society rather than to flee the country.
532:, a younger white abolitionist from Boston, against the colonization schemes. Following the January meeting, Forten helped draft a Resolution of the sense of the public, which he and other leaders sent to the Pennsylvania congressional delegation. In August they published a longer "Address to the Inhabitants of the City and County of Philadelphia," which attacked colonization.
562:
in 1831, supporting it financially. He frequently published letters in it, as "A Colored Man of
Philadelphia." Garrison also wrote articles against colonization, describing the poor living conditions in Liberia. They wanted others to know that the ACS was not necessarily working in the best interest
551:
under
Haitian control. He also gained official recognition for the nation from France for the first time, but at the cost of a high indemnity that crippled the country financially for generations. He appealed to American free blacks to immigrate there and help its development. Its independence raised
297:
John
Beazley, who had captured the privateer, was impressed with Forten. Forten recalled that Beazley offered Forten the opportunity to be educated in Great Britain with his son, Henry, but Forten replied, "I have been taken prisoner for the liberties of my country, and never will prove a traitor to
340:
At
Bridges' retirement in 1798, Forten bought the sail loft. By developing a tool to help maneuver the large sails, by 1810, Forten had built up one of the most successful sail lofts in Philadelphia. He created the conditions he worked for in society, employing both black and white workers. Because
535:
He absorbed his community's arguments and noted that most
American blacks had been in the United States for many generations and had claim to it as their land. Although the ACS advertised Liberia as a place of opportunity for free blacks, the colony struggled to survive and many colonists died of
527:
By this time, most free blacks and slaves had been born in the United States and claimed it as their own, with their own families. At the meeting, Forten called for a vote, asking who favored colonization. Not one man said yes. When he asked who was against it, the crowd resounded with "No!" that
581:
By the 1830s, his was one of the most powerful
African-American voices, not just for men and women of color in his native city, but for many thousands more throughout the North. He knew how to use the press and the speaker's podium. He knew about building alliances, when to back down and when to
331:
When Forten returned to
Philadelphia in 1790, he became apprenticed to sail-maker Robert Bridges, his father's former employer and a family friend. Forten learned quickly in the sail loft. This was where the large ship sails were cut and sewn. Before long, the young man was promoted to foreman.
327:
Forten was fortunate as he was exchanged after seven months' imprisonment. He was released on parole after giving a promise not to fight in the war. He walked from
Brooklyn to Philadelphia to return to his mother and sister. He signed up on a merchant ship, which sailed to England. He lived and
442:
Forten believed the bill was a step backward for black
Pennsylvanians. In his "Letters," Forten argued that the bill would violate the rights of any free blacks entering the state and set the people apart as somehow not equal to whites. Forten wanted the many respectable citizens of the black
423:
for blacks. They were severely discriminated against in Pennsylvania and the North, and generally could not vote or serve on juries. He felt a sense of obligation to work on these issues of his community. "...in 1801, he was among the signers of a petition to the U.S. Congress calling for the
258:
However, Thomas Forten died young (possibly because of falling from a high place), and his son James started to work at the age of seven to help his mother and sister. At first he was a chimney sweep, later becoming a grocery-store clerk. He also attended the African School, run by
582:
press forwards with his agenda. His rise to prominence, his understanding of the nature of power and authority, his determination to speak out and be heard are object lessons in the realities of community politics. Disfranchised he might have been, but voiceless he never was.
1024:
475:, the Crown had offered freedom to slaves who left Patriot masters. The British evacuated thousands of freed slaves along with their troops, and resettled more than 3,000 Black Loyalists in Nova Scotia, where it granted land. Others went to London or the West Indies.
501:, a Boston shipbuilder, who in 1815 transported 38 free blacks to Sierra Leone, with the idea they could make a better life where not impeded by white racism. He was well aware of continuing problems due to harsh discrimination against blacks in the United States.
267:, who founded it to educate black children free of charge. His mother insisted that he continue in school, but by the age of nine, Forten had left school to work full-time. His early years of work became a measure for progress in his life and career.
201:. Following an apprenticeship, he became the foreman and bought the sail loft when his boss retired. Based on equipment he himself had developed, he established a highly profitable business. It was located on the busy waterfront of the
446:
In the early 19th century, some black and white Americans supported movements to "resettle" free blacks on the African continent, in Canada, or in Haiti, which achieved independence from France in 1804. In the late 18th century, the
528:
made the hall ring. All claimed the US as their own, and wanted to gain their full civil rights there as citizens. After that meeting, Forten and the ministers strongly opposed the ACS, and Forten later converted
212:
James Forten used his wealth and social standing to work for civil rights for African Americans in both the city and nationwide. Beginning in 1817, he opposed the colonization movements, particularly that of the
486:
in West Africa for a similar purpose. It offered to help blacks to go there voluntarily, with provisions of aid for supplies, housing and other materials. Made up of abolitionists, slaveholders, and
1120:
614:
Bolden wrote of him: "When James Forten died, he left behind an exemplary family, a sizable fortune, and a legacy of philanthropy and activism that inspired generations of black Philadelphians."
368:
The children grew up in and committed to the abolition movement. Robert, named for his father's former boss and mentor, was a vigorous anti-slavery activist. William studied at the abolitionist
1135:
1105:
1110:
349:
James Forten married twice: his first wife, Martha Beatte (or Beatty) of Darby Township, Delaware County, died after only a few months of marriage (1804). In 1806, he married
299:
411:. Her diary from teaching men who were free and their children in the South after the Civil War became well known; it was republished in scholarly editions in the 1980s.
1140:
1160:
1125:
1036:
Winch, Julie. "THE LEADERS OF PHILADELPHIA'S BLACK COMMUNITY, 1787-1848" (PhD dissertation, Bryn Mawr College; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  1982. 8303285).
1150:
365:, Charlotta, William Deas, Mary Theresa, Thomas Willing Francis, and James Jr. Robert and James Jr. succeeded their father in the family sail-making business.
1019:
Winch, Julie. "“A Person of Good Character and Considerable Property”: James Forten and the Issue of Race in Philadelphia's Antebellum Business Community."
448:
1130:
599:
571:
443:
community to be recognized and valued. In the end, the bill was not passed, and James Forten became known for his succinct and passionate pamphlet.
389:
1115:
235:, founded in 1833, and worked for national abolition of slavery. His large family was also devoted to these causes, and two daughters married the
652:
543:
became established as an independent black republic in 1804, some Americans were interested in emigrating there. In the early 1820s, President
536:
disease. There were risks of re-enslavement by illegal slave traders and smugglers. Relationships with the native Africans were not desirable.
785:
1145:
657:
419:
Having become well established, in his 40s Forten devoted both time and money to working for the national abolition of slavery and gaining
586:
James Forten managed his sail loft and stayed active in the abolitionist movement until very late in his life, continuing to write for
509:
1061:
Captain Paul Cuffe's Logs and Letters 1808-1817, edited by Rosalind Cobb Wiggins, Howard University Press, Washington, D.C. 1996; at
1010:
907:
631:
182:
524:
drew 3,000 attendees from Philadelphia. Hearing the strong views of this public forced a dramatic turning point for these leaders.
986:
494:
of Kentucky, a national politician, raised fears among many free blacks that the ACS proposed to deport them wholesale to Africa.
590:. He died on March 4, 1842, at the age of 75 in Philadelphia. Thousands of people, both black and white, attended his funeral.
623:
388:. They used their great wealth in lives of public service. Margaretta was a lifelong educator and became an officer of the
479:
232:
222:
214:
961:
McClish, Glen. "A Man of Feeling, A Man of Colour: James Forten and the Rise of African American Deliberative Rhetoric."
920:
954:
Gutgold, Ian. "Black Destiny in the Minds of Philadelphia Sailmaker James Forten and Liberian Governor Jehudi Ashmun."
1049:, 1813, in Web Supplement for Julie Winch, "The Making and Meaning of James Forten's 'Letters from A Man of Colour'",
521:
730:
472:
396:
362:
271:
198:
154:
139:
603:
557:
227:
350:
68:
159:
1155:
529:
505:
504:
To address community concerns and discuss the potential for colonization, James Forten worked with Bishop
218:
647:
358:
341:
of his business acumen, Forten became one of the wealthiest Philadelphians in the city, black or white.
135:
966:
517:
231:(1831–1865), frequently publishing letters on public issues. He became vice-president of the biracial
1100:
1095:
971:
Newman, Richard. "Not the Only Story in 'Amistad': The Fictional Joadson and the Real James Forten,"
385:
294:
782:
282:
43:
634:
in Philadelphia will open the first-ever museum exhibition dedicated to Forten's life and family,
801:
Wright, Robert E. “Bank Ownership and Lending Patterns in New York and Pennsylvania, 1781-1831.”
618:
429:
425:
321:
164:
520:
to organize a meeting on this topic in Philadelphia. Their announced meeting in January 1817 at
217:. He affirmed African Americans' claim to a stake in the United States of America. He persuaded
1006:
903:
873:
544:
354:
310:
206:
169:
131:
381:
369:
1079:
792:, Pennsylvania Center for the Book, Pennsylvania State University, accessed April 18, 2014.
677:
789:
377:
264:
72:
566:
464:
202:
30:
1089:
513:
460:
373:
317:
236:
149:
487:
456:
420:
248:
190:
186:
103:
90:
64:
353:(1785–1884). James and Charlotte Forten had nine children: Robert Bridges Forten,
251:, Pennsylvania, one of two children of Thomas and Margaret Forten; a Philadelphia
1056:
998:
878:
714:
1069:
1057:
Forten letter to Cuffe, re: Resolution of 24 January 1817 regarding Colonization
498:
468:
766:
372:. Sisters Harriet and Sarah Louisa married the prominent abolitionist brothers
548:
491:
290:
275:
252:
194:
1046:
598:
He died on March 4, 1842, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and is interred at
857:
A Mighty Baptism: Race, Gender and the Creation of American Protestantism
452:
408:
942:
102:
Sailor, sailmaker, merchant, investor, businessman, landlord, essayist,
483:
404:
260:
255:, Thomas Forten was the grandson of a slave who had "freed himself."
482:(ACS) was formed in December 1816, organized to found the colony of
298:
her interest." Beazley instead saw to it that he was treated as a
181:(September 2, 1766 – March 4, 1842) was an American
806:
565:
540:
512:, the first independent black denomination in the United States;
400:
937:
Billington, Ray Allen. "James Forten: Forgotten Abolitionist."
682:
Black Founders: The Free Black Community in the Early Republic
555:
Forten helped William Lloyd Garrison start up his newspaper,
978:
Newman, Richard, Patrick Rael, and Philip Lapsanksky, eds.
900:
100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia
239:
brothers, who used their wealth as leaders for abolition.
328:
worked there for more than a year in a London shipyard.
1029:
Winch, Julie. "James Forten, Conservative Radical." in
956:
Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies
949:
Forten the Sailmaker: Pioneer Champion of Negro Rights
1121:
Burials at Eden Cemetery (Collingdale, Pennsylvania)
247:
James Forten was born free on September 2, 1766, in
921:"Black Founders: The Forten Family of Philadelphia"
145:
126:
109:
98:
79:
50:
21:
879:The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Emancipation
859:(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996), 238-239
846:(New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1999), 31.
719:, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 16.
636:Black Founders: The Forten Family of Philadelphia
1053:Volume LXIV, Number 1 (All letters, I through V)
731:"James Forten, Revolutionary: Forgotten No More"
869:
867:
865:
1001:A Gentleman of Color: The Life of James Forten
716:A Gentleman of Color: The Life of James Forten
1136:People of Virginia in the American Revolution
855:Juster, Lisa, and Susan MacFarlane, editors.
753:
751:
376:and Joseph Purvis, respectively. Educated at
8:
1106:African Americans in the American Revolution
1047:James Forten, "Letters from a Man of Colour"
883:2014, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, pp. 171-173
805:, vol. 73, no. 1, 1999, p. 55, footnote 54.
193:. A free-born African American, he became a
1111:Activists for African-American civil rights
29:
18:
822:(New York: Oxford University Press, 1988)
777:
775:
577:According to his biographer Julie Winch:
16:African-American abolitionist (1766–1842)
838:Tonya Bolden, "Strong Men Keep Coming",
834:
832:
830:
828:
390:Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society
902:. Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books.
820:The Journals of Charlotte Forten Grimke
709:
707:
705:
703:
701:
699:
669:
302:along with the rest of the crew of the
225:position and helped fund his newspaper
1141:Temperance activists from Pennsylvania
653:List of African-American abolitionists
309:The prisoners were all transported to
1161:African-American temperance activists
1126:Political activists from Pennsylvania
7:
1151:18th-century American businesspeople
658:Vigilant Association of Philadelphia
729:Zielinski, Adam E. (23 June 2023).
621:listed James Forten on his list of
435:In 1813 he wrote a pamphlet called
991:American National Biography Online
735:Journal of the American Revolution
510:African Methodist Episcopal Church
14:
1131:People from colonial Pennsylvania
684:. Library Company of Philadelphia
632:Museum of the American Revolution
463:from London, together with those
840:The Book of African American Men
1116:African-American abolitionists
951:, Chicago: Rand McNally, 1968.
624:100 Greatest African Americans
1:
480:American Colonization Society
270:At the age of 14, during the
233:American Anti-Slavery Society
215:American Colonization Society
36:
982:, New York: Routledge, 2001.
898:Asante, Molefi Kete (2002).
437:Letters From A Man of Colour
428:and the modification of the
1146:Activists from Philadelphia
1051:William and Mary Quarterly,
1005:. Oxford University Press.
803:The Business History Review
570:James Forten gravestone in
455:as a colony in present-day
395:The Fortens' granddaughter
1177:
818:Brenda Stevenson, editor,
678:"Portrait of James Forten"
473:American Revolutionary War
459:, for the resettlement of
199:American Revolutionary War
35:portrait of James Forten,
1033:( Routledge, 2013). 3-23.
604:Collingdale, Pennsylvania
547:united all the island of
28:
1070:Portrait of James Forten
320:, later the site of the
243:Early life and education
205:, in an area now called
69:Province of Pennsylvania
1021:Business History Review
809:Retrieved 20 Jan. 2023.
397:Charlotte Forten Grimké
281:, commanded by Captain
274:, Forten served on the
160:Charles Burleigh Purvis
155:Charlotte Forten Grimké
1023:75.2 (2001): 261-296.
965:25.3 (2007): 297–328.
939:Negro History Bulletin
630:In February 2023, the
584:
574:
530:William Lloyd Garrison
380:, they were sons of a
219:William Lloyd Garrison
997:Winch, Julie (2002).
958:89.4 (2022): 580–621.
648:List of abolitionists
579:
569:
497:Forten had supported
1074:Africans in America,
980:Pamphlets of Protest
975:(67, 2000): 218–239.
973:Pennsylvania History
941:13.2 (1949): 31–45.
563:of black Americans.
467:who wanted to leave
93:, Pennsylvania, U.S.
1063:Africans in America
783:Bio: "James Forten"
386:free woman of color
345:Marriage and family
283:Stephen Decatur Sr.
185:and businessman in
44:Robert Douglass Jr.
1065:website, 1998, PBS
1031:Black Conservatism
788:2013-05-15 at the
769:, History Channel.
619:Molefi Kete Asante
575:
430:Fugitive Slave Law
322:Brooklyn Navy Yard
289:was captured by a
165:Harriet Purvis Jr.
947:Douty, Esther M.
874:David Brion Davis
617:In 2001, scholar
610:Legacy and honors
545:Jean-Pierre Boyer
522:Bethel AME Church
424:abolition of the
382:British immigrant
351:Charlotte Vandine
316:, then moored in
272:Revolutionary War
221:to adopt an anti-
176:
175:
170:William B. Purvis
119:Charlotte Vandine
61:September 2, 1766
1168:
1016:
993:, February 2000.
925:
924:
917:
911:
896:
890:
884:
871:
860:
853:
847:
842:: 31, quoted in
836:
823:
816:
810:
799:
793:
779:
770:
764:
758:
755:
746:
745:
743:
741:
726:
720:
711:
694:
693:
691:
689:
674:
518:James Gloucester
384:and his wife, a
370:Oneida Institute
86:
60:
58:
41:
38:
33:
19:
1176:
1175:
1171:
1170:
1169:
1167:
1166:
1165:
1086:
1085:
1043:
1013:
996:
987:"Forten, James"
934:
932:Further reading
929:
928:
919:
918:
914:
897:
893:
887:
872:
863:
854:
850:
837:
826:
817:
813:
800:
796:
790:Wayback Machine
780:
773:
765:
761:
756:
749:
739:
737:
728:
727:
723:
713:Winch, Julie,
712:
697:
687:
685:
676:
675:
671:
666:
644:
612:
596:
465:Black Loyalists
417:
415:Public activism
378:Amherst College
347:
338:
300:prisoner of war
265:Anthony Benezet
245:
168:
167:(granddaughter)
163:
158:
157:(granddaughter)
153:
122:
94:
88:
84:
75:
73:British America
62:
56:
54:
46:
39:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1174:
1172:
1164:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1088:
1087:
1084:
1083:
1077:
1067:
1054:
1042:
1041:External links
1039:
1038:
1037:
1034:
1027:
1017:
1011:
994:
985:Winch, Julie.
983:
976:
969:
959:
952:
945:
933:
930:
927:
926:
912:
891:
885:
861:
848:
824:
811:
794:
781:Ruth Gilbert,
771:
759:
747:
721:
695:
668:
667:
665:
662:
661:
660:
655:
650:
643:
640:
611:
608:
595:
592:
416:
413:
346:
343:
337:
334:
244:
241:
207:Penn's Landing
203:Delaware River
174:
173:
147:
143:
142:
128:
124:
123:
121:
120:
117:
113:
111:
107:
106:
100:
96:
95:
89:
87:(aged 75)
81:
77:
76:
63:
52:
48:
47:
42:, probably by
34:
26:
25:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1173:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1156:Forten family
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1093:
1091:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1048:
1045:
1044:
1040:
1035:
1032:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1012:0-19-508691-0
1008:
1004:
1003:
1000:
995:
992:
988:
984:
981:
977:
974:
970:
968:
964:
960:
957:
953:
950:
946:
944:
940:
936:
935:
931:
922:
916:
913:
909:
908:1-57392-963-8
905:
901:
895:
892:
889:
886:
882:
880:
875:
870:
868:
866:
862:
858:
852:
849:
845:
841:
835:
833:
831:
829:
825:
821:
815:
812:
808:
807:JSTOR website
804:
798:
795:
791:
787:
784:
778:
776:
772:
768:
763:
760:
754:
752:
748:
736:
732:
725:
722:
718:
717:
710:
708:
706:
704:
702:
700:
696:
683:
679:
673:
670:
663:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
645:
641:
639:
637:
633:
628:
626:
625:
620:
615:
609:
607:
605:
601:
600:Eden Cemetery
593:
591:
589:
588:The Liberator
583:
578:
573:
572:Eden Cemetery
568:
564:
561:
559:
558:The Liberator
553:
550:
546:
542:
537:
533:
531:
525:
523:
519:
515:
514:Absalom Jones
511:
507:
506:Richard Allen
502:
500:
495:
493:
489:
485:
481:
476:
474:
471:. During the
470:
466:
462:
461:Black Britons
458:
454:
450:
444:
440:
438:
433:
431:
427:
422:
414:
412:
410:
406:
402:
398:
393:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
374:Robert Purvis
371:
366:
364:
360:
356:
352:
344:
342:
335:
333:
329:
325:
323:
319:
318:Wallabout Bay
315:
314:
307:
305:
301:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
277:
273:
268:
266:
263:abolitionist
262:
256:
254:
250:
242:
240:
238:
234:
230:
229:
228:The Liberator
224:
220:
216:
210:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
171:
166:
161:
156:
152:(son-in-law)
151:
150:Robert Purvis
148:
144:
141:
137:
133:
130:9, including
129:
125:
118:
116:Martha Beatty
115:
114:
112:
108:
105:
101:
99:Occupation(s)
97:
92:
83:March 4, 1842
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
53:
49:
45:
32:
27:
20:
1080:James Forten
1073:
1064:
1060:
1050:
1030:
1020:
1002:
999:
990:
979:
972:
962:
955:
948:
938:
915:
899:
894:
888:
877:
856:
851:
844:James Forten
843:
839:
819:
814:
802:
797:
767:"HMS Jersey"
762:
757:Winch, p 16.
738:. Retrieved
734:
724:
715:
686:. Retrieved
681:
672:
635:
629:
622:
616:
613:
597:
587:
585:
580:
576:
556:
554:
538:
534:
526:
503:
496:
488:missionaries
477:
457:Sierra Leone
451:had founded
445:
441:
436:
434:
421:civil rights
418:
394:
367:
363:Sarah Louisa
348:
339:
330:
326:
312:
308:
303:
286:
278:
269:
257:
249:Philadelphia
246:
226:
223:colonization
211:
191:Pennsylvania
187:Philadelphia
183:abolitionist
179:James Forten
178:
177:
104:abolitionist
91:Philadelphia
85:(1842-03-04)
65:Philadelphia
23:James Forten
1101:1842 deaths
1096:1766 births
499:Paul Cuffee
469:Nova Scotia
426:slave trade
304:Royal Louis
287:Royal Louis
279:Royal Louis
40: 1834
1090:Categories
664:References
549:Hispaniola
492:Henry Clay
432:of 1793."
355:Margaretta
291:Royal Navy
197:after the
172:(grandson)
162:(grandson)
132:Margaretta
57:1766-09-02
1076:1998, PBS
963:Rhetorica
399:became a
392:in 1845.
311:HMS
293:warship.
276:privateer
253:sailmaker
195:sailmaker
146:Relatives
1082:memorial
786:Archived
642:See also
453:Freetown
409:educator
127:Children
1059:, from
740:14 June
688:20 July
508:of the
484:Liberia
449:British
405:diarist
359:Harriet
295:Captain
136:Harriet
110:Spouses
1025:online
1009:
967:online
943:online
906:
539:After
516:, and
336:Career
313:Jersey
261:Quaker
237:Purvis
138:, and
594:Death
541:Haiti
140:Sarah
1007:ISBN
904:ISBN
742:2023
690:2017
478:The
407:and
401:poet
285:The
80:Died
51:Born
602:in
1092::
1072:,
989:,
876:,
864:^
827:^
774:^
750:^
733:.
698:^
680:.
638:.
627:.
606:.
403:,
361:,
357:,
324:.
306:.
209:.
189:,
134:,
71:,
67:,
37:c.
1015:.
923:.
910:.
881:,
744:.
692:.
560:,
59:)
55:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
