3979:
3470:
3460:
3450:
3440:
3430:
1603:
exclusively, but manages memory in chunks of 64 kilobytes called superblocks. Hoard's heap is logically divided into a single global heap and a number of per-processor heaps. In addition, there is a thread-local cache that can hold a limited number of superblocks. By allocating only from superblocks
1700:
and its relatives can have a strong impact on the performance of a program, it is not uncommon to override the functions for a specific application by custom implementations that are optimized for application's allocation patterns. The C standard provides no way of doing this, but operating systems
1361:
A linear allocator can only shrink if the last allocation is released. Even if largely unused, the heap can get "stuck" at a very large size because of a small but long-lived allocation at its tip which could waste any amount of address space, although some allocators on some systems may be able to
308:
The lifetime of allocated memory can also cause concern. Neither static- nor automatic-duration memory is adequate for all situations. Automatic-allocated data cannot persist across multiple function calls, while static data persists for the life of the program whether it is needed or not. In many
976:
Note that realloc must be assumed to have changed the base address of the block (i.e. if it has failed to extend the size of the original block, and has therefore allocated a new larger block elsewhere and copied the old contents into it). Therefore, any pointers to addresses within the original
1278:
twice ("double free"), etc., usually causes a segmentation fault and results in a crash of the program. These errors can be transient and hard to debug – for example, freed memory is usually not immediately reclaimed by the OS, and thus dangling pointers may persist for a while and appear to
1323:
The implementation of memory management depends greatly upon operating system and architecture. Some operating systems supply an allocator for malloc, while others supply functions to control certain regions of data. The same dynamic memory allocator is often used to implement both
2615:
1520:. Experiments measuring number of allocations per second in multithreading application have shown that this makes it scale linearly with the number of threads, while for both phkmalloc and dlmalloc performance was inversely proportional to the number of threads.
2861:
1372:
A linear allocator has extremely poor concurrency characteristics, as the heap segment is per-process every thread has to synchronise on allocation, and concurrent allocations from threads which may have very different work loads amplifies the previous two
1180:. If there is no cast, C90 requires a diagnostic when this integer is assigned to the pointer; however, with the cast, this diagnostic would not be produced, hiding a bug. On certain architectures and data models (such as LP64 on 64-bit systems, where
1369:, while a good allocator will attempt to track and reuse free slots through the entire heap, as allocation sizes and lifetimes get mixed it can be difficult and expensive to find or coalesce free segments large enough to hold new allocation requests.
1604:
on the local per-thread or per-processor heap, and moving mostly-empty superblocks to the global heap so they can be reused by other processors, Hoard keeps fragmentation low while achieving near linear scalability with the number of threads.
1716:
The most common form on POSIX-like systems is to set the environment variable LD_PRELOAD with the path of the allocator, so that the dynamic linker uses that version of malloc/calloc/free instead of the libc implementation.
2869:
1395:(glibc) is derived from Wolfram Gloger's ptmalloc ("pthreads malloc"), a fork of dlmalloc with threading-related improvements. As of November 2023, the latest version of dlmalloc is version 2.8.6 from August 2012.
293:. Static-duration variables are allocated in main memory, usually along with the executable code of the program, and persist for the lifetime of the program; automatic-duration variables are allocated on the
1413:). Unallocated chunks also store pointers to other free chunks in the usable space area, making the minimum chunk size 16 bytes on 32-bit systems and 24/32 (depends on alignment) bytes on 64-bit systems.
1234:. This usually leads to crash (due to the resulting segmentation fault on the null pointer dereference), but there is no guarantee that a crash will happen so relying on that can also lead to problems.
996:), which indicates that it is a pointer to a region of unknown data type. The use of casting is required in C++ due to the strong type system, whereas this is not the case in C. One may "cast" (see
1287:
and its associated functions have behaviors that were intentionally left to the implementation to define for themselves. One of them is the zero-length allocation, which is more of a problem with
1450:
system call. The threshold is usually 128 KB. The mmap method averts problems with huge buffers trapping a small allocation at the end after their expiration, but always allocates an entire
1424:
For requests below 256 bytes (a "smallbin" request), a simple two power best fit allocator is used. If there are no free blocks in that bin, a block from the next highest bin is split in two.
1676:
within a kernel often differs significantly from the implementations used by C libraries, however. For example, memory buffers might need to conform to special restrictions imposed by
1660:
developed by Google, has garbage-collection for local storage of dead threads. The TCMalloc is considered to be more than twice as fast as glibc's ptmalloc for multithreaded programs.
1420:" of similar sizes, implemented by using a double-linked list of chunks (with pointers stored in the unallocated space inside the chunk). Bins are sorted by size into three classes:
1244:
leads to buildup of non-reusable memory, which is no longer used by the program. This wastes memory resources and can lead to allocation failures when these resources are exhausted.
1196:. This issue is less likely to go unnoticed in modern compilers, as C99 does not permit implicit declarations, so the compiler must produce a diagnostic even if it does assume
1307:
RCE was especially prominent. A way to wrap these functions to make them safer is by simply checking for 0-size allocations and turning them into those of size 1. (Returning
1230:
Memory allocation is not guaranteed to succeed, and may instead return a null pointer. Using the returned value, without checking if the allocation is successful, invokes
1443:
system call. This feature was introduced way after ptmalloc was created (from v2.7.x), and as a result is not a part of glibc, which inherits the old best-fit allocator.
1139:
Casting can help the developer identify inconsistencies in type sizing should the destination pointer type change, particularly if the pointer is declared far from the
3506:
1303:
or something else that can be safely freed, not all platforms are required to abide by these rules. Among the many double-free errors that it has led to, the 2019
1701:
have found various ways to do this by exploiting dynamic linking. One way is to simply link in a different library to override the symbols. Another, employed by
859:
839:
3410:
173:
1192:
returns a 32-bit value whereas the actually defined function returns a 64-bit value. Depending on calling conventions and memory layout, this may result in
3071:
1822:
need to be managed (with fixed-size stack frames, one of these is redundant). Larger allocations may also increase the risk of undefined behavior due to a
1409:
which contains a header, and usable memory. Allocated memory contains an 8- or 16-byte overhead for the size of the chunk and usage flags (similar to a
1216:
The improper use of dynamic memory allocation can frequently be a source of bugs. These can include security bugs or program crashes, most often due to
1818:
standard and therefore may not always be portable. It may also cause minor performance problems: it leads to variable-size stack frames, so that both
1474:) cannot be used to allocate and commit individual pages of virtual memory. In the absence of demand paging, fragmentation becomes a greater concern.
3119:
2397:
1789:
The C library implementations shipping with various operating systems and compilers may come with alternatives and extensions to the standard
1315:
it would have signaled that the original memory was not moved and freed, which again is not the case for size 0, leading to the double-free.)
3463:
3267:
3091:
1975:
297:
and come and go as functions are called and return. For static-duration and automatic-duration variables, the size of the allocation must be
305:(for example, if data of arbitrary size is being read from the user or from a disk file), then using fixed-size data objects is inadequate.
3499:
3453:
4010:
3473:
3819:
1566:
302:
1439:("treebin"). If there is no free space left to satisfy the request, dlmalloc tries to increase the size of the heap, usually via the
3983:
2836:
2768:
2645:
2233:
1814:(1978), but its use can be problematic in some (e.g., embedded) contexts. While supported by many compilers, it is not part of the
821:
With realloc we can resize the amount of memory a pointer points to. For example, if we have a pointer acting as an array of size
1806:. No corresponding deallocation function exists, as typically the memory is deallocated as soon as the calling function returns.
242:
provide similar functionality and are recommended by that language's authors. Still, there are several situations in which using
166:
1576:, and to detect use-after-free bugs—as a large memory allocation is completely unmapped after it is freed, further use causes a
3800:
3709:
3492:
3290:
3064:
549:
However, the size of the array is fixed at compile time. If one wishes to allocate a similar array dynamically without using a
3918:
3415:
605:
328:
1830:
as an alternative stack allocation mechanism – however, this feature was relegated to optional in the later
2722:
2249:
1729:
can allocate depends on the host system, particularly the size of physical memory and the operating system implementation.
2620:
Proceedings of the ninth international conference on
Architectural support for programming languages and operating systems
3890:
3938:
3275:
3113:
2996:
1417:
759:
2158:
4015:
3948:
3933:
286:
159:
3310:
2471:
4005:
3895:
3624:
3433:
3320:
3300:
3153:
3057:
3021:
55:
1583:
The
GrapheneOS project initially started out by porting OpenBSD's memory allocator to Android's Bionic C Library.
3943:
3649:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3379:
2921:
1831:
1669:
1599:
Hoard is an allocator whose goal is scalable memory allocation performance. Like OpenBSD's allocator, Hoard uses
1296:
554:
313:
290:
194:
75:
2915:
2750:
3923:
3634:
3582:
3515:
3239:
1738:
type, which is an implementation-dependent unsigned integer representing the size of an area of memory. In the
1403:
1366:
282:
278:
198:
190:
80:
65:
2698:
3786:
3761:
3443:
3305:
3280:
3186:
1517:
1143:
call (although modern compilers and static analysers can warn on such behaviour without requiring the cast).
301:
constant (except for the case of variable-length automatic arrays). If the required size is not known until
3804:
3257:
233:
3746:
3209:
3107:
2623:
1873:
1827:
1594:
1462:, as a boundary-tag allocator, is unfriendly for console systems that have virtual memory but do not have
1451:
771:
3042:
2795:
600:
This computes the number of bytes that ten integers occupy in memory, then requests that many bytes from
1878:
624:
550:
3285:
2940:
2759:. The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Software Engineering and Programming (1 ed.). San Francisco, USA:
1446:
For requests above the mmap threshold (a "largebin" request), the memory is always allocated using the
250:
is not applicable, such as garbage collection code or performance-sensitive code, and a combination of
3766:
1203:
If the type of the pointer is changed at its declaration, one may also need to change all lines where
316:, in which memory is more explicitly (but more flexibly) managed, typically by allocating it from the
2536:
2317:
2179:
1677:
1645:
530:
309:
situations the programmer requires greater flexibility in managing the lifetime of allocated memory.
100:
3781:
3776:
3738:
3629:
3163:
2797:
2782:
2602:
2292:
2090:, Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1983 (copyright held by Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1983, 1979); The
327:
is used to allocate a block of memory on the heap. The program accesses this block of memory via a
70:
2628:
372:
system call to request memory from the operating system. The 6th
Edition Unix documentation gives
3847:
3612:
3405:
3389:
3315:
2314:"Wow. The WhatsApp RCE was the wrong behavior for realloc(p,0) so many implementations insist on"
2109:
1627:
1577:
1231:
1217:
1161:
392:
202:
35:
1680:, or the memory allocation function might be called from interrupt context. This necessitates a
3680:
3675:
3644:
3587:
3577:
3181:
3080:
2774:
2764:
2641:
2229:
1971:
1963:
1868:
1501:
1188:
is 32-bit), this error can actually result in undefined behaviour, as the implicitly declared
95:
90:
60:
3005:
3358:
3353:
3196:
3027:
2660:
2633:
2606:
1901:
1844:
that allocates memory with caller-specified alignment. Its allocations are deallocated with
1623:
1354:. The allocator would usually expand and contract the heap to fulfill allocation requests.
1263:
2811:
3791:
3751:
3659:
3348:
3247:
2760:
2683:
1991:
1863:
1858:
997:
395:
calls which allow run-time dynamic allocation from the C stack rather than the heap (e.g.
460:
increases or decreases the size of the specified block of memory, moving it if necessary
4020:
3809:
3964:
3771:
3697:
3597:
3363:
3330:
3325:
3171:
3130:
3037:
2925:
2746:
2071:
2048:
1823:
1685:
1541:. For requests greater in size than one page, the entire allocation is retrieved using
1406:
1193:
844:
824:
612:(due to C syntax, pointers and arrays can be used interchangeably in some situations).
388:
routines in their modern form are completely described in the 7th
Edition Unix manual.
3013:
2973:
2313:
2250:"MEM04-C. Beware of zero-length allocations - SEI CERT C Coding Standard - Confluence"
1311:
has its own problems: it otherwise indicates an out-of-memory failure. In the case of
269:, are available. Their performance varies in both execution time and required memory.
3999:
3867:
3857:
3796:
3340:
3143:
3138:
2890:
1702:
1631:
1558:
1463:
1392:
1391:
dlmalloc ("Doug Lea's Malloc") as a general-purpose allocator, starting in 1987. The
1388:
728:
2267:
1925:
1732:
Theoretically, the largest number should be the maximum value that can be held in a
3837:
3602:
1351:
1271:
989:
620:
298:
50:
265:
Many different implementations of the actual memory allocation mechanism, used by
2559:
1508:, written by Jason Evans. The main reason for this was a lack of scalability of
3928:
3384:
2989:
2203:
1619:
1573:
1410:
1399:
510:
takes two arguments — the number of elements and the size of each element.
2949:
2448:
2418:
1672:
need to allocate memory just as application programs do. The implementation of
3572:
3551:
3148:
1819:
1803:
294:
2459:
766:: the remnants of previously used and discarded data. After allocation with
3295:
3176:
2778:
1949:
1258:. Failures to adhere to this pattern, such as memory usage after a call to
506:
takes a single argument (the amount of memory to allocate in bytes), while
2637:
323:
an area of memory structured for this purpose. In C, the library function
3872:
3862:
3842:
3687:
3654:
3592:
3484:
3229:
3224:
3214:
3204:
2945:
2496:
2142:
2119:
2075:
2065:
2052:
1848:, so the implementation usually needs to be a part of the malloc library.
1811:
1749:
1613:
1565:. This system is designed to improve security by taking advantage of the
1384:
1304:
145:
136:
118:
2671:
2180:"clang: lib/StaticAnalyzer/Checkers/MallocSizeofChecker.cpp Source File"
2042:
1653:
339:
which deallocates the memory so that it can be used for other purposes.
335:
returns. When the memory is no longer needed, the pointer is passed to
17:
3556:
3219:
2328:
2115:
1530:
1485:
1121:
Including the cast may allow a C program or function to compile as C++.
127:
399:). This memory is automatically freed when the calling function ends.
232:
programming language includes these functions; however, the operators
3827:
3724:
3719:
3526:
2392:
2387:
1815:
1798:
1776:
1761:
1734:
1713:
function pointers that an application can reset to custom functions.
1489:
1125:
472:
allocates the specified number of bytes and initializes them to zero
3049:
3913:
3017:– The choices, tradeoffs, and implementations of dynamic allocation
2699:"High Availability MySQL: Double sysbench throughput with TCMalloc"
1333:
1283:
In addition, as an interface that precedes ANSI C standardization,
448:
allocates the specified number of bytes at the specified alignment
354:. Code for a simple model implementation of a storage manager for
229:
3852:
3832:
3756:
3704:
3692:
2577:
2344:
Modern C++ Design: Generic
Programming and Design Patterns Applied
2138:
1837:
1299:
require proper handling of 0-size allocations by either returning
1292:
1112:
There are advantages and disadvantages to performing such a cast.
763:
2608:
Hoard: A Scalable Memory
Allocator for Multithreaded Applications
3714:
2812:"malloc: make malloc fail with requests larger than PTRDIFF_MAX"
1649:
1538:
1512:
in terms of multithreading. In order to avoid lock contention,
1447:
1440:
1432:
1428:
1350:
Implementation of legacy allocators was commonly done using the
1345:
368:
355:
3488:
3053:
2862:"6.172 Performance Engineering of Software Systems, Lecture 10"
2754:
2661:
Microsoft releases optimized malloc() as open source - Slashdot
1250:
All allocations must follow the same pattern: allocation using
3531:
3032:
2511:
2475:
2132:
1739:
533:
of ten integers with automatic scope is straightforward in C:
2023:, and Section 8.7 (page 173) describes an implementation for
1545:; smaller sizes are assigned from memory pools maintained by
1454:
of memory, which on many architectures is 4096 bytes in size.
520:
allocates and sets the bytes in the allocated region to zero.
2537:"A Scalable Concurrent malloc(3) Implementation for FreeBSD"
1466:. This is because its pool-shrinking and growing callbacks (
619:
might not be able to service the request, it might return a
2957:
2800:
2837:"Why is the use of alloca() not considered good practice?"
484:
releases the specified block of memory back to the system
1291:
since it is more common to resize to zero. Although both
778:
will return an allocation that has already been cleared:
407:
The C dynamic memory allocation functions are defined in
2965:
2015:, Prentice-Hall, 1978; Section 7.9 (page 156) describes
2981:
2868:. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from
2357:
1630:
with focus on performance. The library is about 11,000
1569:
and gap page features implemented as part of OpenBSD's
1549:
within a number of "bucket pages", also allocated with
1505:
1172:, the C90 standard requires that the C compiler assume
1156:
Adding the cast may mask failure to include the header
27:
Dynamic memory management in the C programming language
3092:
Memory management as a function of an operating system
1802:, which allocates a requested number of bytes on the
1648:
for small allocations. For large allocations mmap or
847:
827:
1769:
On glibc systems, the largest possible memory block
1398:
dlmalloc is a boundary tag allocator. Memory on the
1362:
release entirely empty intermediate pages to the OS.
735:
to return the memory it occupies to the free store:
3957:
3904:
3881:
3818:
3737:
3668:
3611:
3565:
3398:
3372:
3339:
3266:
3238:
3195:
3162:
3129:
3100:
3024:
wiki page with much information about fixing malloc
1557:, memory is released and unmapped from the process
1513:
1509:
1497:
1471:
1467:
1459:
1357:The heap method suffers from a few inherent flaws:
1312:
1308:
1300:
1288:
1284:
477:
465:
453:
441:
429:
2497:"RAM, Virtual Memory, Pagefile and all that stuff"
853:
833:
380:as the low-level memory allocation functions. The
2605:; Blumofe, R. D.; Wilson, P. R. (November 2000).
1427:For requests of 256 bytes or above but below the
557:implementations, the following code can be used:
553:, which is not guaranteed to be supported in all
2941:Definition of malloc in IEEE Std 1003.1 standard
2293:"How a double-free bug in WhatsApp turns to RCE"
2860:Amarasinghe, Saman; Leiserson, Charles (2010).
2153:
2151:
366:as the user interface functions, and using the
2951:The design of the basis of the glibc allocator
2381:
2379:
2377:
1968:Programming: Principles and Practice Using C++
3500:
3065:
841:and we want to change it to an array of size
342:The original description of C indicated that
167:
8:
3411:International Symposium on Memory Management
3007:Scalable Lock-Free Dynamic Memory Allocation
1773:can allocate is only half this size, namely
1168:is found. In the absence of a prototype for
1153:Under the C standard, the cast is redundant.
258:may be required instead of the higher-level
2442:
2440:
2438:
1742:standard and later, it is available as the
1684:implementation tightly integrated with the
3617:
3507:
3493:
3485:
3072:
3058:
3050:
2920: – System Interfaces Reference,
1688:subsystem of the operating system kernel.
1254:, usage to store data, deallocation using
174:
160:
31:
3028:C99 standard draft, including TC1/TC2/TC3
2627:
846:
826:
3038:ISO/IEC 9899 – Programming languages – C
2723:"kmalloc()/kfree() include/linux/slab.h"
1810:was present on Unix systems as early as
1458:Game developer Adrian Stone argues that
436:allocates the specified number of bytes
417:
2011:Brian W. Kernighan, Dennis M. Ritchie,
1890:
312:These limitations are avoided by using
108:
42:
34:
2204:"comp.lang.c FAQ list · Question 7.7b"
350:were in the standard library, but not
2685:TCMalloc : Thread-Caching Malloc
2564:BSD Cross Reference, OpenBSD src/lib/
1896:
1894:
1479:
1431:threshold, dlmalloc since v2.8.0 use
727:When the program no longer needs the
7:
1416:Unallocated memory is grouped into "
1402:is allocated as "chunks", an 8-byte
1227:Not checking for allocation failures
3120:Input–output memory management unit
2998:Simple Memory Allocation Algorithms
2512:"The Hole That dlmalloc Can't Fill"
1950:"aligned_alloc(3) - Linux man page"
1793:interface. Notable among these is:
1365:A linear allocator is sensitive to
1240:Failure to deallocate memory using
1223:Most common errors are as follows:
1000:) this pointer to a specific type:
2358:"Wolfram Gloger's malloc homepage"
1903:7.20.3 Memory management functions
1725:The largest possible memory block
1567:address space layout randomization
391:Some platforms provide library or
25:
3978:
3977:
3469:
3468:
3459:
3458:
3449:
3448:
3439:
3438:
3429:
3428:
2682:Ghemawat, Sanjay; Menage, Paul;
2088:Unix Programmer's Manual, Vol. 1
1970:. Addison Wesley. p. 1009.
1913:(Technical report). p. 313.
1640:Thread-caching malloc (tcmalloc)
1580:and termination of the program.
1516:uses separate "arenas" for each
977:block are also no longer valid.
201:via a group of functions in the
3291:Concurrent mark sweep collector
2891:"alloca(3) - Linux manual page"
2785:from the original on 2012-12-05
2495:Sanderson, Bruce (2004-12-12).
2400:from the original on 2009-01-22
1926:"Chapter 11: Memory Allocation"
1911:ISO/IEC 9899:1999 specification
1480:FreeBSD's and NetBSD's jemalloc
321:(informally called the "heap"),
3416:Region-based memory management
3033:Some useful references about C
2697:Callaghan, Mark (2009-01-18).
1:
2922:The Single UNIX Specification
2751:"Chapter 9: Shared libraries"
2499:. Microsoft Help and Support.
2346:. Addison-Wesley. p. 78.
2342:Alexandrescu, Andrei (2001).
1754:. Although not guaranteed by
516:only allocates memory, while
3464:Memory management algorithms
3276:Automatic Reference Counting
3114:Translation lookaside buffer
2312:Felker, Rich (2019-10-03).
2224:Reek, Kenneth (1997-08-04).
1184:and pointers are 64-bit and
770:, elements of the array are
604:and assigns the result to a
3454:Automatic memory management
3253:C dynamic memory allocation
2535:Evans, Jason (2006-04-16).
2472:"Malloc Tunable Parameters"
1785:Extensions and alternatives
1132:that originally returned a
187:C dynamic memory allocation
4037:
4011:Memory management software
3891:Compatibility of C and C++
3474:Memory management software
3321:Tracing garbage collection
3154:Virtual memory compression
3044:Understanding glibc malloc
2098:etc. is given on page 275.
2013:The C Programming Language
1611:
1592:
1343:
731:, it must eventually call
3973:
3620:
3522:
3424:
3087:
2419:"Glibc: Malloc Internals"
1533:'s implementation of the
1297:Single Unix Specification
625:good programming practice
314:dynamic memory allocation
195:dynamic memory allocation
3248:Static memory allocation
3240:Manual memory management
3022:Memory Reduction (GNOME)
3015:Inside memory management
1820:stack and frame pointers
1622:compact general-purpose
1148:Disadvantages to casting
1002:
863:
780:
754:The memory set aside by
737:
629:
559:
535:
191:manual memory management
56:Character classification
3306:Garbage-first collector
3281:Boehm garbage collector
3187:x86 memory segmentation
2386:Kaempf, Michel (2001).
2291:Awakened (2019-10-02).
2228:(1 ed.). Pearson.
772:uninitialized variables
3896:Comparison with Pascal
3516:C programming language
3311:Mark–compact algorithm
3108:Memory management unit
2975:The nedmalloc homepage
2578:"History | GrapheneOS"
2560:"libc/stdlib/malloc.c"
2268:"POSIX.1-2017: malloc"
1828:variable-length arrays
1721:Allocation size limits
1595:Hoard memory allocator
1537:function makes use of
1525:
1266:) or before a call to
861:, we can use realloc.
855:
835:
279:C programming language
199:C programming language
2991:The tcmalloc homepage
2983:The jemalloc homepage
2959:The ptmalloc homepage
2638:10.1145/378993.379232
1879:Variable-length array
1380:dlmalloc and ptmalloc
1116:Advantages to casting
856:
836:
551:variable-length array
403:Overview of functions
189:refers to performing
109:Miscellaneous headers
3258:new and delete (C++)
3012:Bartlett, Jonathan;
2727:People.netfilter.org
2703:Mysqlha.blogspot.com
2622:. pp. 117–128.
2460:HTTP for Source Code
2449:"A Memory Allocator"
2388:"Vudo malloc tricks"
1779:(ptrdiff_t) - 1) - 1
1646:thread-local storage
1124:The cast allows for
1059:/* without a cast */
845:
825:
491:Differences between
3164:Memory segmentation
3004:Michael, Maged M.;
2816:Sourceware Bugzilla
2756:Linkers and Loaders
2423:sourceware.org Trac
2145:– Library Functions
1930:C Programming Notes
1840:defines a function
1644:Every thread has a
1218:segmentation faults
1207:is called and cast.
701:"malloc failed
627:to check for this:
254:and placement
4016:C standard library
3406:Automatic variable
3390:Unreachable memory
3316:Reference counting
3286:Cheney's algorithm
3268:Garbage collection
3001:on OSDEV Community
2967:The Hoard homepage
2866:MIT OpenCourseWare
2272:pubs.opengroup.org
2161:. Cprogramming.com
2118:Library Functions
1964:Stroustrup, Bjarne
1628:Microsoft Research
1578:segmentation fault
1504:) was replaced by
1387:has developed the
1232:undefined behavior
1162:function prototype
851:
831:
393:intrinsic function
203:C standard library
101:Alternative tokens
36:C standard library
4006:Memory management
3993:
3992:
3733:
3732:
3482:
3481:
3434:Memory management
3182:Virtual 8086 mode
3081:Memory management
2956:Gloger, Wolfram;
2924:, Version 4 from
2841:stackoverflow.com
2672:TCMalloc homepage
1977:978-0-321-54372-1
1869:Memory protection
1692:Overriding malloc
1668:Operating system
1502:Poul-Henning Kamp
1328:and the operator
1126:pre-1989 versions
1107:/* with a cast */
854:{\displaystyle m}
834:{\displaystyle n}
488:
487:
184:
183:
86:Memory allocation
71:File input/output
16:(Redirected from
4028:
3981:
3980:
3618:
3613:Standard library
3509:
3502:
3495:
3486:
3472:
3471:
3462:
3461:
3452:
3451:
3442:
3441:
3432:
3431:
3359:Dangling pointer
3354:Buffer over-read
3326:Strong reference
3197:Memory allocator
3074:
3067:
3060:
3051:
2972:Douglas, Niall;
2928:
2919:
2918:
2911:
2905:
2904:
2902:
2901:
2887:
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2880:
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2279:
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2264:
2258:
2257:
2254:wiki.sei.cmu.edu
2246:
2240:
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2221:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2211:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2190:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2167:
2166:
2159:"Casting malloc"
2155:
2146:
2136:
2135:
2128:
2122:
2113:
2112:
2105:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2084:
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2055:
2046:
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2038:
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2018:
2009:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1999:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1960:
1954:
1953:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1937:
1936:
1921:
1915:
1914:
1908:
1898:
1847:
1843:
1809:
1801:
1792:
1780:
1772:
1765:
1758:, it is usually
1757:
1753:
1745:
1737:
1728:
1712:
1708:
1699:
1683:
1675:
1624:memory allocator
1602:
1572:
1564:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1536:
1526:OpenBSD's malloc
1515:
1511:
1499:
1496:implementation (
1495:
1473:
1469:
1461:
1331:
1327:
1314:
1310:
1302:
1290:
1286:
1277:
1269:
1264:dangling pointer
1261:
1257:
1253:
1243:
1206:
1199:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1159:
1142:
1135:
1131:
1108:
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1099:
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1093:
1090:
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1060:
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1054:
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1045:
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1036:
1033:
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1027:
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1021:
1018:
1015:
1012:
1009:
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995:
987:
972:
969:
966:
963:
960:
957:
954:
951:
948:
945:
942:
939:
936:
933:
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918:
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909:
906:
903:
900:
897:
894:
891:
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885:
882:
879:
876:
873:
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867:
860:
858:
857:
852:
840:
838:
837:
832:
817:
814:
811:
808:
805:
802:
799:
796:
793:
790:
787:
784:
777:
769:
762:and may contain
757:
750:
747:
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741:
734:
723:
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714:
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618:
611:
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584:
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569:
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563:
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519:
515:
509:
505:
498:
494:
481:
480:
469:
468:
457:
456:
445:
444:
433:
432:
418:
415:header in C++).
414:
410:
398:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
365:
361:
353:
349:
345:
338:
334:
326:
322:
268:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
240:
236:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
176:
169:
162:
149:
140:
131:
122:
32:
21:
4036:
4035:
4031:
4030:
4029:
4027:
4026:
4025:
3996:
3995:
3994:
3989:
3969:
3953:
3906:
3900:
3884:other languages
3883:
3882:Comparison with
3877:
3814:
3752:Borland Turbo C
3729:
3669:Implementations
3664:
3607:
3561:
3518:
3513:
3483:
3478:
3420:
3394:
3368:
3349:Buffer overflow
3335:
3262:
3234:
3191:
3158:
3125:
3096:
3083:
3078:
2964:Berger, Emery;
2937:
2932:
2931:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2908:
2899:
2897:
2889:
2888:
2884:
2875:
2873:
2859:
2858:
2854:
2845:
2843:
2835:
2834:
2830:
2821:
2819:
2810:
2809:
2805:
2788:
2786:
2771:
2761:Morgan Kaufmann
2747:Levine, John R.
2745:
2744:
2740:
2731:
2729:
2721:
2720:
2716:
2707:
2705:
2696:
2695:
2691:
2681:
2677:
2670:
2666:
2659:
2655:
2648:
2611:
2603:McKinley, K. S.
2601:Berger, E. D.;
2600:
2599:
2595:
2586:
2584:
2576:
2575:
2571:
2558:
2557:
2553:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2534:
2533:
2529:
2520:
2518:
2510:Stone, Adrian.
2509:
2508:
2504:
2494:
2493:
2489:
2480:
2478:
2470:
2469:
2465:
2453:
2451:
2446:
2445:
2436:
2427:
2425:
2417:
2416:
2412:
2403:
2401:
2385:
2384:
2375:
2366:
2364:
2356:
2355:
2351:
2341:
2340:
2336:
2323:
2321:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2297:
2295:
2290:
2289:
2285:
2276:
2274:
2266:
2265:
2261:
2248:
2247:
2243:
2236:
2223:
2222:
2218:
2209:
2207:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2188:
2186:
2178:
2177:
2173:
2164:
2162:
2157:
2156:
2149:
2131:
2130:
2129:
2125:
2108:
2107:
2106:
2102:
2095:
2091:
2085:
2081:
2064:
2063:
2062:
2058:
2041:
2040:
2039:
2035:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2010:
2006:
1997:
1995:
1990:
1989:
1985:
1978:
1962:
1961:
1957:
1948:
1947:
1943:
1934:
1932:
1924:Summit, Steve.
1923:
1922:
1918:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1892:
1887:
1864:Memory debugger
1859:Buffer overflow
1855:
1845:
1841:
1807:
1797:
1790:
1787:
1774:
1770:
1759:
1755:
1747:
1743:
1733:
1726:
1723:
1710:
1706:
1703:Unix System V.3
1697:
1694:
1681:
1673:
1666:
1642:
1616:
1610:
1600:
1597:
1591:
1570:
1562:
1554:
1553:. On a call to
1550:
1546:
1542:
1534:
1528:
1493:
1482:
1382:
1348:
1342:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1319:Implementations
1275:
1267:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1241:
1214:
1204:
1197:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1160:, in which the
1157:
1150:
1140:
1133:
1129:
1118:
1110:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
998:type conversion
993:
985:
983:
974:
973:
970:
967:
964:
961:
958:
955:
952:
949:
946:
943:
940:
937:
934:
931:
928:
925:
922:
919:
916:
913:
910:
907:
904:
901:
898:
895:
892:
889:
886:
883:
880:
877:
874:
871:
868:
865:
843:
842:
823:
822:
819:
818:
815:
812:
809:
806:
803:
800:
797:
794:
791:
788:
785:
782:
775:
774:. The command
767:
755:
752:
751:
748:
745:
742:
739:
732:
725:
724:
721:
718:
715:
712:
709:
706:
703:
700:
697:
694:
691:
688:
685:
682:
679:
676:
673:
670:
667:
664:
661:
658:
655:
652:
649:
646:
643:
640:
637:
634:
631:
616:
609:
601:
598:
597:
594:
591:
588:
585:
582:
579:
576:
573:
570:
567:
564:
561:
547:
546:
543:
540:
537:
527:
517:
513:
507:
503:
500:
496:
492:
478:
466:
454:
442:
430:
412:
408:
405:
396:
385:
381:
377:
373:
367:
363:
359:
358:was given with
351:
347:
343:
336:
332:
324:
317:
281:manages memory
275:
266:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
238:
234:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
180:
143:
134:
125:
116:
91:Process control
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4034:
4032:
4024:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
3998:
3997:
3991:
3990:
3988:
3987:
3974:
3971:
3970:
3968:
3967:
3965:Dennis Ritchie
3961:
3959:
3955:
3954:
3952:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3910:
3908:
3902:
3901:
3899:
3898:
3893:
3887:
3885:
3879:
3878:
3876:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3824:
3822:
3816:
3815:
3813:
3812:
3807:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3743:
3741:
3735:
3734:
3731:
3730:
3728:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3701:
3700:
3690:
3685:
3684:
3683:
3672:
3670:
3666:
3665:
3663:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3640:Dynamic memory
3637:
3632:
3627:
3621:
3615:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3569:
3567:
3563:
3562:
3560:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3523:
3520:
3519:
3514:
3512:
3511:
3504:
3497:
3489:
3480:
3479:
3477:
3476:
3466:
3456:
3446:
3444:Virtual memory
3436:
3425:
3422:
3421:
3419:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3402:
3400:
3396:
3395:
3393:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3376:
3374:
3370:
3369:
3367:
3366:
3364:Stack overflow
3361:
3356:
3351:
3345:
3343:
3337:
3336:
3334:
3333:
3331:Weak reference
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3272:
3270:
3264:
3263:
3261:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3244:
3242:
3236:
3235:
3233:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3201:
3199:
3193:
3192:
3190:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3172:Protected mode
3168:
3166:
3160:
3159:
3157:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3135:
3133:
3131:Virtual memory
3127:
3126:
3124:
3123:
3117:
3111:
3104:
3102:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3094:
3088:
3085:
3084:
3079:
3077:
3076:
3069:
3062:
3054:
3048:
3047:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3019:
3010:
3002:
2994:
2986:
2980:Evans, Jason;
2978:
2970:
2962:
2954:
2943:
2936:
2935:External links
2933:
2930:
2929:
2926:The Open Group
2916:posix_memalign
2906:
2882:
2852:
2828:
2803:
2769:
2738:
2714:
2689:
2675:
2664:
2653:
2646:
2593:
2582:grapheneos.org
2569:
2551:
2527:
2502:
2487:
2463:
2434:
2410:
2373:
2349:
2334:
2304:
2283:
2259:
2241:
2234:
2216:
2195:
2184:clang.llvm.org
2171:
2147:
2123:
2100:
2079:
2072:Version 7 Unix
2056:
2049:Version 6 Unix
2033:
2004:
1983:
1976:
1955:
1941:
1916:
1889:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1882:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1849:
1842:posix_memalign
1835:
1826:. C99 offered
1824:stack overflow
1786:
1783:
1775:2^(CHAR_BIT *
1760:2^(CHAR_BIT *
1746:constant from
1722:
1719:
1693:
1690:
1686:virtual memory
1665:
1662:
1641:
1638:
1612:Main article:
1609:
1606:
1593:Main article:
1590:
1587:
1527:
1524:
1481:
1478:
1456:
1455:
1444:
1425:
1407:data structure
1381:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1363:
1341:
1338:
1320:
1317:
1281:
1280:
1248:
1247:Logical errors
1245:
1238:
1235:
1228:
1213:
1210:
1209:
1208:
1201:
1194:stack smashing
1154:
1149:
1146:
1145:
1144:
1137:
1122:
1117:
1114:
1003:
982:
979:
864:
850:
830:
781:
738:
630:
560:
536:
526:
523:
522:
521:
511:
499:
489:
486:
485:
482:
474:
473:
470:
462:
461:
458:
450:
449:
446:
438:
437:
434:
426:
425:
422:
404:
401:
274:
271:
182:
181:
179:
178:
171:
164:
156:
153:
152:
151:
150:
141:
132:
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43:General topics
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3380:Fragmentation
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3341:Memory safety
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3144:Memory paging
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3139:Demand paging
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2883:
2872:on 2015-06-22
2871:
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2226:Pointers on C
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2199:
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2185:
2181:
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2154:
2152:
2148:
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2141:Programmer's
2140:
2137: –
2134:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2117:
2114: –
2111:
2104:
2101:
2089:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2074:Programmer's
2073:
2070: –
2067:
2060:
2057:
2054:
2051:Programmer's
2050:
2047: –
2044:
2037:
2034:
2014:
2008:
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1764:(size_t)) - 1
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1705:, is to make
1704:
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1652:can be used.
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1632:lines of code
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1559:address space
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1503:
1492:5.0, the old
1491:
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1464:demand paging
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1401:
1396:
1394:
1393:GNU C library
1390:
1389:public domain
1386:
1379:
1377:
1371:
1368:
1367:fragmentation
1364:
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1212:Common errors
1211:
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1123:
1120:
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736:
730:
729:dynamic array
628:
626:
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525:Usage example
524:
512:
502:
501:
490:
483:
476:
475:
471:
464:
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452:
451:
447:
443:aligned_alloc
440:
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394:
389:
370:
357:
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287:automatically
284:
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241:
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219:aligned_alloc
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37:
33:
30:
19:
3982:
3838:Code::Blocks
3810:Watcom C/C++
3639:
3598:Preprocessor
3578:Header files
3252:
3043:
3014:
3006:
2997:
2990:
2982:
2974:
2966:
2958:
2950:
2909:
2898:. Retrieved
2894:
2885:
2874:. Retrieved
2870:the original
2865:
2855:
2844:. Retrieved
2840:
2831:
2820:. Retrieved
2818:. 2019-04-18
2815:
2806:
2787:. Retrieved
2755:
2741:
2730:. Retrieved
2726:
2717:
2706:. Retrieved
2702:
2692:
2684:
2678:
2667:
2656:
2619:
2607:
2596:
2585:. Retrieved
2581:
2572:
2563:
2554:
2543:. Retrieved
2530:
2519:. Retrieved
2515:
2505:
2490:
2479:. Retrieved
2466:
2452:. Retrieved
2426:. Retrieved
2422:
2413:
2402:. Retrieved
2391:
2365:. Retrieved
2361:
2352:
2343:
2337:
2327:– via
2322:. Retrieved
2307:
2296:. Retrieved
2286:
2275:. Retrieved
2271:
2262:
2253:
2244:
2225:
2219:
2208:. Retrieved
2198:
2187:. Retrieved
2183:
2174:
2163:. Retrieved
2126:
2103:
2087:
2082:
2059:
2036:
2012:
2007:
1996:. Retrieved
1992:"gcc manual"
1986:
1967:
1958:
1944:
1933:. Retrieved
1929:
1919:
1910:
1902:
1788:
1768:
1731:
1724:
1715:
1695:
1667:
1657:
1643:
1636:
1617:
1598:
1589:Hoard malloc
1585:
1582:
1529:
1522:
1483:
1476:
1457:
1435:bitwise trie
1434:
1433:an in-place
1415:
1397:
1383:
1376:
1356:
1352:heap segment
1349:
1322:
1282:
1272:wild pointer
1237:Memory leaks
1222:
1215:
1111:
990:void pointer
984:
975:
820:
753:
726:
621:null pointer
614:
599:
548:
529:Creating an
528:
424:Description
406:
390:
341:
318:
311:
307:
299:compile-time
276:
264:
227:
186:
185:
85:
81:Localization
29:
3929:Objective-C
3710:Windows CRT
3385:Memory leak
2447:Lee, Doug.
2086:Anonymous,
1620:open-source
1574:system call
1411:dope vector
1274:), calling
1176:returns an
981:Type safety
760:initialized
291:dynamically
66:Mathematics
4000:Categories
3905:Descendant
3777:Norcroft C
3603:Data types
3552:Embedded C
3149:Page table
2900:2016-01-05
2876:2015-01-27
2846:2016-01-05
2822:2020-07-30
2789:2020-01-12
2732:2011-09-18
2708:2011-09-18
2587:2023-03-02
2545:2012-03-18
2521:2019-12-01
2516:Game Angst
2481:2009-05-02
2454:2019-12-01
2428:2019-12-01
2404:2009-04-29
2367:2018-04-01
2324:2022-08-06
2298:2019-11-29
2277:2019-11-29
2210:2007-03-09
2189:2018-04-01
2165:2007-03-09
1998:2008-12-14
1935:2020-07-11
1885:References
1804:call stack
1344:See also:
1340:Heap-based
988:returns a
623:and it is
319:free store
283:statically
262:operator.
51:Data types
3907:languages
3739:Compilers
3681:libhybris
3583:Operators
3573:Functions
3296:Finalizer
3177:Real mode
2946:Lea, Doug
2749:(2000) .
2624:CiteSeerX
2396:(57): 8.
2362:malloc.de
2133:calloc(3)
2110:alloca(3)
2094:page for
2066:malloc(3)
1994:. gnu.org
1874:Page size
1834:standard.
1696:Because
1664:In-kernel
1510:phkmalloc
1498:phkmalloc
1468:sysmalloc
1437:algorithm
421:Function
273:Rationale
205:, namely
76:Date/time
3984:Category
3958:Designer
3873:NetBeans
3863:KDevelop
3843:CodeLite
3688:dietlibc
3655:Variadic
3630:File I/O
3566:Features
3230:ptmalloc
3225:mimalloc
3215:jemalloc
3205:dlmalloc
3101:Hardware
2988:Google;
2895:man7.org
2799:Errata:
2783:Archived
2779:42413382
2398:Archived
2043:alloc(3)
1966:(2008).
1853:See also
1750:stdint.h
1744:SIZE_MAX
1654:TCMalloc
1614:mimalloc
1608:mimalloc
1514:jemalloc
1506:jemalloc
1488:7.0 and
1460:dlmalloc
1385:Doug Lea
1305:WhatsApp
1295:and the
1158:stdlib.h
1141:malloc()
615:Because
518:calloc()
514:malloc()
508:calloc()
504:malloc()
497:calloc()
493:malloc()
411:header (
409:stdlib.h
397:alloca()
303:run-time
146:stdarg.h
137:setjmp.h
119:assert.h
18:Jemalloc
3848:Eclipse
3801:Express
3557:MISRA C
3301:Garbage
3220:libumem
3122:(IOMMU)
2329:Twitter
2206:. C-FAQ
2116:FreeBSD
1670:kernels
1531:OpenBSD
1486:FreeBSD
1472:systrim
1404:aligned
1373:issues.
1313:realloc
1289:realloc
1200:return.
932:realloc
758:is not
689:fprintf
606:pointer
455:realloc
413:cstdlib
329:pointer
211:realloc
197:in the
128:errno.h
96:Signals
61:Strings
3828:Anjuta
3725:uClibc
3720:Newlib
3698:EGLIBC
3676:Bionic
3645:String
3593:Syntax
3588:String
3527:ANSI C
3373:Issues
2794:Code:
2777:
2767:
2644:
2626:
2616:ASPLOS
2393:Phrack
2232:
2143:Manual
2120:Manual
2096:malloc
2076:Manual
2053:Manual
2017:calloc
1974:
1816:ANSI-C
1808:alloca
1799:alloca
1791:malloc
1777:sizeof
1771:malloc
1762:sizeof
1735:size_t
1727:malloc
1707:malloc
1698:malloc
1682:malloc
1674:malloc
1658:malloc
1563:munmap
1561:using
1547:malloc
1535:malloc
1494:malloc
1490:NetBSD
1484:Since
1326:malloc
1285:malloc
1268:malloc
1252:malloc
1205:malloc
1190:malloc
1174:malloc
1170:malloc
1166:malloc
1134:char *
1130:malloc
1092:sizeof
1080:malloc
1044:sizeof
1032:malloc
994:void *
986:malloc
950:sizeof
890:sizeof
878:malloc
807:sizeof
795:calloc
776:calloc
768:malloc
756:malloc
713:return
707:"
695:stderr
656:sizeof
644:malloc
617:malloc
608:named
602:malloc
586:sizeof
574:malloc
467:calloc
431:malloc
382:malloc
352:malloc
344:calloc
333:malloc
325:malloc
267:malloc
252:malloc
248:delete
239:delete
215:calloc
207:malloc
38:(libc)
3939:Limbo
3853:Geany
3833:CLion
3757:Clang
3705:klibc
3693:glibc
3660:POSIX
3399:Other
3210:Hoard
3116:(TLB)
3110:(MMU)
2618:-IX.
2612:(PDF)
2540:(PDF)
2318:Tweet
2139:Linux
2025:alloc
2021:cfree
1907:(PDF)
1838:POSIX
1756:ISO C
1626:from
1293:POSIX
1279:work.
789:array
764:cruft
746:array
674:array
638:array
610:array
568:array
541:array
531:array
374:alloc
360:alloc
348:cfree
331:that
295:stack
289:, or
3949:Vala
3934:Alef
3820:IDEs
3787:SDCC
3715:musl
3650:Time
3635:Math
3625:Char
2775:OCLC
2765:ISBN
2642:ISBN
2230:ISBN
2029:free
2027:and
2019:and
1972:ISBN
1846:free
1812:32/V
1752:>
1748:<
1711:free
1709:and
1656:, a
1650:sbrk
1601:mmap
1571:mmap
1555:free
1551:mmap
1543:mmap
1539:mmap
1452:page
1448:mmap
1429:mmap
1418:bins
1400:heap
1346:sbrk
1309:NULL
1301:NULL
1276:free
1260:free
1256:free
1242:free
1182:long
1164:for
1062:ptr2
1020:ptr2
740:free
733:free
680:NULL
495:and
479:free
386:free
384:and
378:free
376:and
369:sbrk
364:free
362:and
356:Unix
346:and
337:free
277:The
237:and
228:The
223:free
221:and
193:for
148:>
144:<
139:>
135:<
130:>
126:<
121:>
117:<
4021:C++
3914:C++
3805:C++
3792:TCC
3782:PCC
3772:LCC
3767:ICC
3762:GCC
3747:ACK
3547:C23
3542:C17
3537:C11
3532:C99
2634:doi
2476:GNU
2092:man
1832:C11
1740:C99
1678:DMA
1618:An
1518:CPU
1500:by
1441:brk
1334:C++
1332:in
1330:new
1198:int
1186:int
1178:int
1128:of
1104:));
1101:ptr
1071:int
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