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662:, Lederberg sided with Soviets that the anthrax outbreak was from animal to human transmission stating, “Wild rumors do spread around every epidemic." “The current Soviet account is very likely to be true." After the fall of the Soviet Union and subsequent US investigations in the early 1990s, a team of scientists confirmed the outbreak was caused by a release of an aerosol of anthrax pathogen from a nearby military facility, the lab leak is one of the deadliest ever documented.
554:
582:, he outlined his concerns that extraterrestrial microbes might gain entry to Earth onboard spacecraft, causing catastrophic diseases. He also argued that, conversely, microbial contamination of manmade satellites and probes may obscure the search for extraterrestrial life. He advised quarantine for returning astronauts and equipment and sterilization of equipment prior to launch. Teaming up with
34:
889:, February 5, 2008. Accessed October 29, 2018. "Dr. Lederberg was born May 23, 1925, in Montclair, N.J., to Zvi Hirsch Lederberg, a rabbi, and the former Esther Goldenbaum, who had emigrated from what is now Israel two years earlier. His family moved to the Washington Heights section of Manhattan when he was 6 months old."
691:, which was widely unpopular at the time. He emphasized that the genetic manipulation he described was intended to work on phenotype rather than genotype; he felt it was more feasible to positively change an individual's genetics rather than attempt to change the course of evolution as eugenics proposed.
707:
in the 1970s. However, medical science had been using euphenic strategies years before the term itself was coined. Euphenics is used today in the medical community to more generally refer to methods of affecting a genetic condition in a positive manner through diet, lifestyle or environment, such as
695:, an outspoken proponent of euphenics, argued that by improving genetic conditions so that people could live normal, healthy lives, people could lessen the impact of genetic conditions, thus lowering future interest in eugenics or other kinds of genetic manipulation.
403:. Intending to receive his MD and fulfill his military service obligations, Lederberg worked as a hospital corpsman during 1943 in the clinical pathology laboratory at St. Albans Naval Hospital, where he examined sailors' blood and stool samples for
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In the 1970s, considerable effort was put towards the developing field of euphenics since it was seen as a positive form of genetic engineering. One of the first publicized applications of euphenics was the use of vitamins containing
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Throughout his career, Lederberg was active as a scientific advisor to the U.S. government. Starting in 1950, he was a member of various panels of the
Presidential Science Advisory Committee. In 1979, he became a member of the U.S.
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520:. In 1956, the Society of Illinois Bacteriologists simultaneously awarded Joshua Lederberg and Esther Lederberg the Pasteur Medal, for "their outstanding contributions to the fields of microbiology and genetics".
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431:, Lederberg began to investigate his hypothesis that, contrary to prevailing opinion, bacteria did not simply pass down exact copies of genetic information, making all cells in a lineage essentially
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in 1946; they divorced in 1966. He married psychiatrist
Marguerite Stein Kirsch in 1968. He was survived by Marguerite, their daughter, Anne Lederberg, and his stepson, David Kirsch.
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for his contributions to the scientific world. In 1994, he headed the
Department of Defense's Task Force on Persian Gulf War Health Effects, which investigated
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Instead of returning to
Columbia to finish his medical degree, Lederberg chose to accept an offer of an assistant professorship in genetics at the
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at the age of 15 in 1941. After graduation, he was allowed lab space as part of the
American Institute Science Laboratory, a forerunner of the
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Joshua
Lederberg, Transcript of an Interview Conducted by James J. Bohning at Rockefeller University on 25 June, 7 July, and 9 December 1992
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870:. "The Joshua Lederberg Papers: Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine", Biography, Volume 24, Number 4, Fall 2001, pp. 978-982
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Joshua
Lederberg, Transcript of an Interview Conducted by Audra J. Wolfe at Rockefeller University New York City on 18 August 2000
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Griffiths, Anthony JF; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin, Richard C.; Gelbart, William M. (28 September 2018).
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505:. Transduction and specialized transduction explained how bacteria of different species could gain resistance to the same
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Burdyuzha, Vladimir. The Future of the
Universe and the Future of our Civilization, World Scientific, 2000, pp. 261−263
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in 1957, Lederberg became concerned about the biological impact of space exploration. In a letter to the
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in 1947. Joshua married Esther Miriam Zimmer (herself a student of Edward Tatum) on
December 13, 1946.
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at
Rockefeller University, reflecting his extensive research and publications in these disciplines.
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Bud, Robert. The Uses of Life: A History of Biotechnology, Cambridge University Press, 1993, p. 167
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the use of insulin to control diabetes or installation of a pacemaker to offset a heart defect.
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views Lederberg as his mentor, describing him as "lightning fast" and "loving a robust debate."
1434:"Readonly NLM-id ssim: 101584906X18717 - Joshua Lederberg - Profiles in Science Search Results"
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Maxson, Linda and Daugherty, Charles. Genetics: A Human Perspective, W.C.Brown, 1992, p. 391
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showed in 1951 that genetic material could be transferred from one strain of the bacterium
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Lederberg, Joshua. "Molecular Biology, Eugenics and Euphenics", Nature 63(198), p. 428
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Pai, Anna. Foundations of Genetics: A Science for Society, McGraw-Hill, 1974, p. 408
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1570:"Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences Recipients"
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1200:"University of Wisconsin-Madison Archives Oral History Project (Joshua Lederberg)"
501:. The research in specialized transduction focused upon lambda phage infection of
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Khanna, Pragya. Essentials of Genetics, I. K. International Pvt Ltd, 2010, p. 367
1453:"Soviets Once Denied a Deadly Anthrax Lab Leak. U.S. Scientists Backed the Story"
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Herzenberg, Leonore; Rindfleisch, Thomas; Herzenberg, Leonard (1 December 2008).
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Lederberg (right) receiving The National Medal of Science from George H. W. Bush.
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to another using viral material as an intermediary step. This process is called
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304:, and the United States space program. He was 33 years old when he won the 1958
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903:"Joshua Lederberg - The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1958 - Biography"
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also discovered fertility factor F, later publishing with Joshua Lederberg and
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entered a sexual phase during which it could share genetic information through
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687:. Lederberg coined the term in the 1960s to differentiate this practice from
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In 1957, Joshua Lederberg founded the Department of Medical Genetics at the
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813:; Ganesan, A. (2011). "Joshua Lederberg. 23 May 1925 – 2 February 2008".
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improvements to humans after birth, generally to affect a problematic
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went with him to Wisconsin. She received her doctorate there in 1950.
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Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons alumni
1474:"The 1979 Anthrax Leak | Plague War | FRONTLINE | PBS"
1225:"Sir Gustav Nossal in Forging the Path - A Find My Pathway Interview"
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Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences
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497:, Esther Lederberg and Joshua Lederberg also discovered specialized
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as an infant. He had two younger brothers. Lederberg graduated from
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that killed 66 people in the city of Sverdlovsk, Russia now named
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397:, he conducted biochemical and genetic studies on the bread mold
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In 1958, Joshua Lederberg received the Nobel Prize and moved to
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435:. After making little progress at Columbia, Lederberg wrote to
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during pregnancy to combat neural-tube deficiencies such as
527:. He has held visiting professorship in Bacteriology at the
407:. He went on to receive his undergraduate degree in 1944.
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Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
143:
Marguerite Stein Kirsch (1968–2008; 1 child, 1 stepchild)
369:
family, son of Esther Goldenbaum Schulman Lederberg and
8385:
1994 fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
393:
in 1941, majoring in zoology. Under the mentorship of
1595:"Planetary Names: Crater, craters: Lederberg on Mars"
619:, until he stepped down in 1990 and became professor-
608:
in Stanford's computer science department to develop
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while continuing to perform experiments. Inspired by
415:
Joshua Lederberg began medical studies at Columbia's
816:
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society
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7589:
7437:
7356:
7258:
7147:
7058:
6979:
6907:
6849:
6758:
6650:
6541:
6422:
6317:
6228:
6120:
5974:
5850:
5831:
5727:
5536:
5350:
5168:
5024:
4887:
4829:
4770:
4682:
4642:
4623:
4309:
4075:
3740:
3533:
3389:
3358:
3339:
3315:
3296:
2914:
2579:
2240:
1976:
1755:
1623:- Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine
265:
253:
235:
225:
197:
171:
147:
134:
118:
99:
94:
78:
66:
47:
21:
1247:"Joshua Lederberg: The Stanford Years (1958–1978)"
1152:"Transductional Heterogenotes in Escherichia Coli"
1040:
639:'s President's Cancer Panel. In 1989, he received
512:During her time in Joshua Lederberg's laboratory,
296:(May 23, 1925 – February 2, 2008) was an American
6898:Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences
1643:National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
1080:An Introduction to Genetic Analysis. 7th Edition
650:During a 1986 fact finding mission of the 1979
463:, Lederberg was able to receive his Ph.D. from
456:. With this discovery and some mapping of the
8440:Stanford University School of Medicine faculty
747:In Lederberg's honor, the 87 km diameter
8510:Members of the American Philosophical Society
8415:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences
4583:
3508:
3272:
1729:
1240:
1238:
8:
8490:United States Navy personnel of World War II
8370:American artificial intelligence researchers
881:"Joshua Lederberg, 82, a Nobel Winner, Dies"
535:(1957). Also in 1957, he was elected to the
373:Zvi Hirsch Lederberg, in 1925, and moved to
8500:Members of the National Academy of Medicine
590:helped expand the role of biology in NASA.
7434:
7423:
6904:
6893:
6314:
6303:
5828:
5817:
4884:
4873:
4620:
4609:
4590:
4576:
4568:
3515:
3501:
3493:
3279:
3265:
3257:
1736:
1722:
1714:
1630:
1617:- National Library of Medicine finding aid
300:known for his work in microbial genetics,
32:
18:
8460:People from Washington Heights, Manhattan
8350:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1638:In Memoriam: Joshua Lederberg (1925–2008)
1175:
1122:
1043:Genetic recombination in Escherichia coli
1015:
951:
586:, his public advocacy for what he termed
243:Genetic recombination in Escherichia coli
8435:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
4451:/ Ella Watson-Stryker / Foday Gollah /
928:"Gene Recombination in Escherichia Coli"
324:, who won for their work with genetics.
16:American molecular biologist (1925–2008)
8450:University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty
4599:United States National Medal of Science
1334:American Academy of Arts & Sciences
1301:"How the Cold War Created Astrobiology"
1099:"Transduction in Escherichia Coli K-12"
897:
895:
802:
8465:Deaths from pneumonia in New York City
443:. Lederberg and Tatum showed that the
331:, Lederberg did extensive research in
1749:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1663:Bohning, James J. (9 December 1992).
595:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
306:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
202:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
7:
8470:Presidents of Rockefeller University
8390:Foreign members of the Royal Society
3928:The Generation Twenty-Five and Under
1523:, Taylor & Francis, 2000, p. 115
615:In 1978, he became the president of
327:In addition to his contributions to
8420:National Medal of Science laureates
1615:Joshua Lederberg Papers (1904–2008)
1263:10.1146/annurev.genet.072408.095841
1205:. U.S. National Library of Medicine
768:Lederberg married fellow scientist
672:Eugenics § Common distinctions
604:In the 1960s, he collaborated with
8380:Columbia College (New York) alumni
1696:Wolfe, Audra J. (18 August 2000).
1299:Scharf, Caleb (January 21, 2016).
625:molecular genetics and informatics
529:University of California, Berkeley
417:College of Physicians and Surgeons
387:Westinghouse Science Talent Search
14:
8425:People from Montclair, New Jersey
1521:Biology Today: An Issues Approach
1082:– via www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.
8480:Scientists from New York (state)
1519:Minkoff, Eli and Baker, Pamela.
1450:; Matsnev, Oleg (20 June 2021).
1146:Morse, M. L.; Lederberg, E. M.;
1093:Morse, M. L.; Lederberg, E. M.;
992:"Genetic Exchange in Salmonella"
525:University of Wisconsin–Madison
472:University of Wisconsin–Madison
1574:American Philosophical Society
787:List of Jewish Nobel laureates
735:American Philosophical Society
635:and the chairman of President
599:American Philosophical Society
580:National Academies of Sciences
339:experimental programs seeking
1:
8445:Stuyvesant High School alumni
4614:Behavioral and social science
742:Presidential Medal of Freedom
593:Lederberg was elected to the
375:Washington Heights, Manhattan
312:can mate and exchange genes (
212:Presidential Medal of Freedom
38:Lederberg in New Delhi, India
8485:Charles H. Revson Foundation
1707:Chemical Heritage Foundation
1674:Chemical Heritage Foundation
1008:10.1128/JB.64.5.679-699.1952
537:National Academy of Sciences
335:. This included work in the
316:). He shared the prize with
8495:United States Navy corpsmen
2841:Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
1621:The Joshua Lederberg Papers
759:was named in the year 2012.
569:to study viral antibodies.
8526:
8395:Jewish American scientists
7502:Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
3789:Hungarian Freedom Fighters
1599:planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov
1039:Lederberg, Joshua (1948).
669:
7433:
7422:
6903:
6892:
6477:William Hayward Pickering
6313:
6302:
5827:
5816:
4883:
4872:
4619:
4608:
3730:The American Fighting-Man
3420:
2038:Charles Scott Sherrington
2014:Frederick Gowland Hopkins
1688:Science History Institute
1681:Center for Oral History.
1655:Science History Institute
1648:Center for Oral History.
1405:Science History Institute
1398:Center for Oral History.
1384:Science History Institute
1377:Center for Oral History.
1251:Annual Review of Genetics
1168:10.1093/genetics/41.5.758
1115:10.1093/genetics/41.1.142
641:National Medal of Science
549:Post Nobel Prize research
518:Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza
283:
279:
275:
218:
207:National Medal of Science
167:
90:
55:
43:
31:
8355:American Nobel laureates
7926:Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.
7372:S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan
5003:Burrhus Frederic Skinner
4447:: Dr. Jerry Brown / Dr.
3028:Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
357:Early life and education
8505:Time Person of the Year
7237:Cathleen Synge Morawetz
5155:George Ledyard Stebbins
5076:James Augustine Shannon
3945:The Apollo 8 Astronauts
996:Journal of Bacteriology
926:; Tatum, E. L. (1946).
724:in Xanthe Terra on Mars
567:Frank Macfarlane Burnet
533:University of Melbourne
333:artificial intelligence
302:artificial intelligence
8455:Yale University alumni
7694:Joseph O. Hirschfelder
7681:Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer
6637:Harry George Drickamer
6583:Hans Wolfgang Liepmann
6257:M. Frederick Hawthorne
6131:John D. Baldeschwieler
5371:Daniel E. Koshland Jr.
5053:Earl W. Sutherland Jr.
3904:Martin Luther King Jr.
3426:Nobel Prize recipients
3391:Physiology or Medicine
1809:Santiago Ramón y Cajal
829:10.1098/rsbm.2010.0024
725:
617:Rockefeller University
572:With the launching of
558:
487:Salmonella typhimurium
379:Stuyvesant High School
361:Lederberg was born in
154:Stuyvesant High School
50:Rockefeller University
8285:Sylvester James Gates
7671:William Alfred Fowler
7653:Robert Rathbun Wilson
7466:Robert Burns Woodward
6278:Geraldine L. Richmond
6026:Howard E. Simmons Jr.
5309:Rosalyn Sussman Yalow
5238:Vernon B. Mountcastle
5094:Sterling B. Hendricks
4911:Marshall W. Nirenberg
4906:Theodosius Dobzhansky
4754:William Julius Wilson
4361:The Good Samaritans:
3658:Franklin D. Roosevelt
3598:Franklin D. Roosevelt
3582:Franklin D. Roosevelt
2310:Dickinson W. Richards
1994:Julius Wagner-Jauregg
719:
693:Theodosius Dobzhansky
670:Further information:
633:Defense Science Board
556:
481:Joshua Lederberg and
454:bacterial conjugation
427:of the importance of
363:Montclair, New Jersey
314:bacterial conjugation
308:for discovering that
180:Bacterial conjugation
141:(1946–1966; divorced)
113:Montclair, New Jersey
48:5th President of
8405:American eugenicists
8360:American geneticists
8256:Warren M. Washington
8220:Fay Ajzenberg-Selove
8129:Jeremiah P. Ostriker
8074:Martin Schwarzschild
7855:Solomon J. Buchsbaum
7847:J. Robert Schrieffer
7817:E. Margaret Burbidge
7661:Nicolaas Bloembergen
7638:Arie Jan Haagen-Smit
7517:Vladimir K. Zworykin
7269:John Griggs Thompson
7192:Martin David Kruskal
7032:Kurt Otto Friedrichs
6505:Erwin Wilhelm Müller
6459:Ralph Brazelton Peck
6414:Jack St. Clair Kilby
6341:John Robinson Pierce
6308:Engineering sciences
6239:Jacqueline K. Barton
6094:George M. Whitesides
6013:Dudley R. Herschbach
5951:Richard B. Bernstein
5920:Walter H. Stockmayer
5468:Elizabeth F. Neufeld
5399:G. Evelyn Hutchinson
5289:Stanley Norman Cohen
5276:Rita Levi-Montalcini
5112:Keith Roberts Porter
4975:Alfred H. Sturtevant
4970:Michael Heidelberger
4942:Fritz Albert Lipmann
4478:The Silence Breakers
4345:The American Soldier
4326:The Whistleblowers:
4184:The Endangered Earth
3966:The Middle Americans
3920:William Westmoreland
3813:Dwight D. Eisenhower
3682:Dwight D. Eisenhower
2733:Rita Levi-Montalcini
2094:Albert Szent-Györgyi
1705:. Philadelphia, PA:
1672:. Philadelphia, PA:
1358:search.amphilsoc.org
1354:"APS Member History"
770:Esther Miriam Zimmer
712:Awards and accolades
139:Esther Miriam Zimmer
8410:History of genetics
8306:Shirley Ann Jackson
8225:Charles P. Slichter
8069:Marshall Rosenbluth
8061:Wallace S. Broecker
8014:Eugene M. Shoemaker
7775:Victor F. Weisskopf
7722:Herbert S. Gutowsky
7704:Edgar Bright Wilson
7545:George Kistiakowsky
7163:Stephen Cole Kleene
6674:George H. Heilmeier
6661:Mildred Dresselhaus
6552:Edward H. Heinemann
6482:Frederick E. Terman
6446:Richard T. Whitcomb
6367:Clarence L. Johnson
6328:Theodore von Kármán
6215:Stephen J. Benkovic
6194:Mostafa A. El-Sayed
6181:Marvin H. Caruthers
6136:Ralph F. Hirschmann
6076:Darleane C. Hoffman
5966:Harden M. McConnell
5907:Frank H. Westheimer
5719:Stanley B. Prusiner
5683:Robert J. Lefkowitz
5442:Howard Martin Temin
5299:Maurice R. Hilleman
5294:Joseph L. Goldstein
5233:Donald A. Henderson
5150:Earl Reece Stadtman
5135:Elizabeth C. Crosby
5099:Orville Alvin Vogel
4929:Donald D. Van Slyke
4878:Biological sciences
4543:Volodymyr Zelenskyy
3527:Persons of the Year
3405:Edward Lawrie Tatum
3399:George Wells Beadle
3125:William C. Campbell
3036:Elizabeth Blackburn
2873:Robert F. Furchgott
2865:Stanley B. Prusiner
2857:Rolf M. Zinkernagel
2757:George H. Hitchings
2721:Joseph L. Goldstein
2681:Bengt I. Samuelsson
2510:Earl Sutherland Jr.
944:1946Natur.158..558L
749:large impact crater
563:Stanford University
531:in summer 1950 and
391:Columbia University
298:molecular biologist
158:Columbia University
8400:Jewish eugenicists
8178:G. Brent Dalrymple
7996:Arthur L. Schawlow
7903:James A. Van Allen
7794:Philip W. Anderson
7750:Richard P. Feynman
7676:Linus Carl Pauling
7311:Dennis P. Sullivan
6868:John B. Goodenough
6801:Edwin N. Lightfoot
6769:Yuan-Cheng B. Fung
6750:Kenneth N. Stevens
6518:Raymond D. Mindlin
6441:Harold E. Edgerton
6286:A. Paul Alivisatos
6165:Stephen J. Lippard
6144:Ernest R. Davidson
6081:Harold S. Johnston
5915:William S. Johnson
5879:George C. Pimentel
5714:Susan L. Lindquist
5696:Francis S. Collins
5590:Victor A. McKusick
5565:Francisco J. Ayala
5547:Nancy C. Andreasen
5497:Robert A. Weinberg
5271:Har Gobind Khorana
5256:Michael E. DeBakey
5243:George Emil Palade
5215:Wendell L. Roelofs
5205:Howard L. Bachrach
5035:Barbara McClintock
4937:Edward F. Knipling
4108:Ayatollah Khomeini
3773:John Foster Dulles
3185:William Kaelin Jr.
3181:Peter J. Ratcliffe
2924:Leland H. Hartwell
2813:Richard J. Roberts
2693:Barbara McClintock
2637:Godfrey Hounsfield
2538:Nikolaas Tinbergen
2470:Marshall Nirenberg
2438:Charles B. Huggins
2227:Tadeusz Reichstein
2215:António Egas Moniz
2010:Christiaan Eijkman
1683:"Joshua Lederberg"
1650:"Joshua Lederberg"
1629:on Nobelprize.org
1459:The New York Times
1448:Troianovski, Anton
1400:"Joshua Lederberg"
1379:"Joshua Lederberg"
1330:"Joshua Lederberg"
1231:. 30 October 2018.
886:The New York Times
879:Broad, William J.
755:on the surface of
726:
559:
411:Bacterial genetics
8365:Jewish biologists
8322:
8321:
8318:
8317:
8314:
8313:
8251:Esther M. Conwell
8191:Robert N. Clayton
8183:Riccardo Giacconi
8147:Raymond Davis Jr.
8035:Albert Overhauser
7978:Edwin M. McMillan
7939:Arnold O. Beckman
7916:Paul Ching-Wu Chu
7893:Paul C. Lauterbur
7870:Robert Hofstadter
7822:Maurice Goldhaber
7809:Charles H. Townes
7760:Edward M. Purcell
7727:Frederick Rossini
7581:Wolfgang Panofsky
7512:John H. Van Vleck
7428:Physical sciences
7418:
7417:
7414:
7413:
7380:Solomon W. Golomb
7340:Andrew J. Viterbi
7335:Leonard Kleinrock
7282:Calyampudi R. Rao
7250:Ronald R. Coifman
7158:George F. Carrier
7139:Donald C. Spencer
7134:Saunders Mac Lane
7069:Marshall H. Stone
7019:Shiing-Shen Chern
6926:Solomon Lefschetz
6888:
6887:
6884:
6883:
6825:David J. Wineland
6793:John M. Prausnitz
6734:C. Kumar N. Patel
6729:James L. Flanagan
6697:John Roy Whinnery
6684:H. Guyford Stever
6666:Nick Holonyak Jr.
6629:George W. Housner
6624:Willis M. Hawkins
6619:Daniel C. Drucker
6601:Robert Byron Bird
6593:Bernard M. Oliver
6500:Peter C. Goldmark
6487:Wernher von Braun
6433:George E. Mueller
6406:Nathan M. Newmark
6401:J. Presper Eckert
6380:Claude E. Shannon
6349:Charles S. Draper
6298:
6297:
6294:
6293:
6265:Judith P. Klinman
6149:Gábor A. Somorjai
6060:Isabella L. Karle
6047:George S. Hammond
6008:Gertrude B. Elion
5961:Rudolph A. Marcus
5812:
5811:
5808:
5807:
5738:Ralph L. Brinster
5657:Torsten N. Wiesel
5634:Norman E. Borlaug
5621:Solomon H. Snyder
5616:J. Michael Bishop
5575:Mario R. Capecchi
5455:Salome G. Waelsch
5386:E. Donnall Thomas
5261:Theodor O. Diener
5160:Paul Alfred Weiss
4988:Bernard B. Brodie
4924:George G. Simpson
4868:
4867:
4864:
4863:
4813:Michael I. Posner
4714:Eleanor J. Gibson
4666:George J. Stigler
4634:Neal Elgar Miller
4565:
4564:
4547:Spirit of Ukraine
4247:Pope John Paul II
4224:The Peacemakers:
4200:George H. W. Bush
4192:Mikhail Gorbachev
4176:Mikhail Gorbachev
4020:Susan Brownmiller
3936:Lyndon B. Johnson
3912:Lyndon B. Johnson
3821:U.S. Scientists:
3805:Charles de Gaulle
3797:Nikita Khrushchev
3749:Mohammed Mosaddeq
3722:Winston Churchill
3650:Winston Churchill
3542:Charles Lindbergh
3490:
3489:
3254:
3253:
3219:Ardem Patapoutian
3068:Ralph M. Steinman
3064:Jules A. Hoffmann
3052:Robert G. Edwards
3020:Harald zur Hausen
2944:H. Robert Horvitz
2845:Eric F. Wieschaus
2781:E. Donnall Thomas
2765:J. Michael Bishop
2753:Gertrude B. Elion
2625:Hamilton O. Smith
2550:Christian de Duve
2286:Frederick Robbins
2163:Alexander Fleming
2102:Corneille Heymans
1948:Frederick Banting
1853:Allvar Gullstrand
685:genetic condition
645:Gulf War Syndrome
606:Edward Feigenbaum
543:Sir Gustav Nossal
495:M. Laurance Morse
400:Neurospora crassa
389:. He enrolled in
287:
286:
266:Doctoral students
220:Scientific career
176:Neurospora crassa
8517:
8134:Gilbert F. White
8079:George Wetherill
7973:Allan M. Cormack
7931:Jack Steinberger
7911:D. Allan Bromley
7860:H. Richard Crane
7837:Frederick Reines
7827:Helmut Landsberg
7742:George Uhlenbeck
7643:Vladimir Haensel
7605:Allan R. Sandage
7576:Herbert C. Brown
7558:Herbert Friedman
7484:Leon M. Lederman
7456:Julian Schwinger
7435:
7424:
7393:Alexandre Chorin
7367:Richard A. Tapia
7348:David B. Mumford
7176:Alberto Calderón
7121:Joseph B. Keller
7108:Michael Freedman
7077:Herman Goldstine
6931:H. Marston Morse
6905:
6894:
6833:Rudolf E. Kálmán
6817:Robert S. Langer
6809:Jan D. Achenbach
6642:Herbert E. Grier
6393:Igor I. Sikorsky
6354:Othmar H. Ammann
6315:
6304:
6270:Jerrold Meinwald
6039:Norman Hackerman
6018:Glenn T. Seaborg
5933:William O. Baker
5861:F. Albert Cotton
5829:
5818:
5795:Mary-Claire King
5688:Bert W. O'Malley
5644:Thomas E. Starzl
5639:Phillip A. Sharp
5626:Charles Yanofsky
5608:Evelyn M. Witkin
5603:James E. Darnell
5429:Paul C. Zamecnik
5394:Mary Ellen Avery
5366:Herbert W. Boyer
5361:Baruj Benacerraf
5332:Joshua Lederberg
5322:Viktor Hamburger
5284:Michael S. Brown
5130:Robert H. Burris
4885:
4874:
4821:Mortimer Mishkin
4746:William K. Estes
4730:Roger N. Shepard
4722:Robert K. Merton
4706:George A. Miller
4653:Herbert A. Simon
4621:
4610:
4592:
4585:
4578:
4569:
4558:
4550:
4538:
4530:
4518:
4510:
4508:
4481:
4473:
4465:
4457:
4455:
4439:
4431:
4423:
4415:
4407:
4399:
4391:
4383:
4375:
4373:
4356:
4348:
4340:
4338:
4321:
4318:Rudolph Giuliani
4302:
4294:
4286:
4274:
4266:
4258:
4250:
4242:
4240:
4219:
4211:
4203:
4195:
4187:
4179:
4171:
4163:
4155:
4147:
4135:
4127:
4119:
4111:
4103:
4095:
4087:
4068:
4066:
4052:Billie Jean King
4018:American Women:
4013:
4005:
3997:
3985:
3977:
3969:
3961:
3959:
3939:
3931:
3923:
3915:
3907:
3899:
3891:
3883:
3881:
3863:William Shockley
3839:Joshua Lederberg
3835:Donald A. Glaser
3816:
3808:
3800:
3792:
3784:
3776:
3768:
3760:
3752:
3733:
3725:
3717:
3709:
3701:
3693:
3685:
3677:
3669:
3661:
3653:
3645:
3637:
3629:
3617:
3609:
3601:
3593:
3585:
3577:
3569:
3561:
3553:
3545:
3517:
3510:
3503:
3494:
3428:
3411:Joshua Lederberg
3306:Frederick Sanger
3281:
3274:
3267:
3258:
3247:
3232:
3221:
3206:
3200:Michael Houghton
3187:
3177:Gregg L. Semenza
3171:
3165:James P. Allison
3159:
3157:Michael W. Young
3143:
3141:Yoshinori Ohsumi
3135:
3119:
3103:
3101:Thomas C. Südhof
3087:
3075:
3054:
3046:
3040:Carol W. Greider
3030:
3014:
2998:
2986:
2974:
2962:
2950:
2934:
2907:
2891:
2883:
2867:
2859:
2853:Peter C. Doherty
2847:
2831:
2825:Alfred G. Gilman
2819:
2807:
2795:
2783:
2771:
2769:Harold E. Varmus
2759:
2743:
2735:
2723:
2711:
2695:
2687:
2671:
2655:
2645:Baruj Benacerraf
2639:
2627:
2611:
2595:
2572:
2556:
2540:
2524:
2512:
2504:
2488:
2472:
2462:Robert W. Holley
2456:
2440:
2428:
2412:
2400:
2384:
2368:
2366:Georg von Békésy
2360:
2348:
2336:
2334:Joshua Lederberg
2320:
2312:
2306:Werner Forssmann
2296:
2288:
2272:
2260:
2252:
2233:
2217:
2205:
2197:
2195:Bernardo Houssay
2181:
2173:
2157:
2145:
2133:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2112:
2104:
2096:
2088:
2076:
2068:
2052:
2044:
2032:
2024:
2022:Karl Landsteiner
2016:
2004:
1996:
1988:
1986:Johannes Fibiger
1969:
1968:
1962:
1960:Willem Einthoven
1954:
1942:
1930:
1929:
1923:
1915:
1907:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1893:
1892:
1886:
1885:
1879:
1871:
1863:
1855:
1847:
1839:
1831:
1825:Élie Metchnikoff
1819:
1817:Alphonse Laveran
1811:
1799:
1791:
1783:
1775:
1767:
1738:
1731:
1724:
1715:
1710:
1704:
1692:
1677:
1671:
1659:
1634:
1627:Joshua Lederberg
1603:
1602:
1591:
1585:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1566:
1560:
1557:
1551:
1548:
1542:
1539:
1533:
1530:
1524:
1517:
1511:
1508:
1502:
1499:
1493:
1490:
1484:
1483:
1470:
1464:
1463:
1462:. Yekaterinburg.
1455:
1444:
1438:
1437:
1430:
1424:
1423:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1395:
1389:
1388:
1374:
1368:
1367:
1365:
1364:
1350:
1344:
1343:
1341:
1340:
1326:
1320:
1319:
1317:
1316:
1307:. Archived from
1296:
1290:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1242:
1233:
1232:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1204:
1196:
1190:
1189:
1179:
1143:
1137:
1136:
1126:
1090:
1084:
1083:
1071:
1065:
1064:
1046:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1019:
980:
974:
973:
955:
953:10.1038/158558a0
920:
914:
913:
911:
910:
899:
890:
877:
871:
865:
859:
858:
847:
841:
840:
807:
656:anthrax bacteria
597:in 1959 and the
514:Esther Lederberg
476:Esther Lederberg
449:Escherichia coli
290:Joshua Lederberg
255:Doctoral advisor
249:
125:
122:February 2, 2008
109:
107:
95:Personal details
81:
69:
60:
36:
23:Joshua Lederberg
19:
8525:
8524:
8520:
8519:
8518:
8516:
8515:
8514:
8475:Astrobiologists
8325:
8324:
8323:
8310:
8298:Sean C. Solomon
8260:
8212:Daniel Kleppner
8204:Lonnie Thompson
8199:Ralph A. Alpher
8165:W. Jason Morgan
8152:Charles Keeling
8142:Marvin L. Cohen
8109:
8092:John N. Bahcall
8087:Don L. Anderson
8053:Peter Goldreich
8006:Steven Weinberg
7958:
7888:Walter Elsasser
7865:Herman Feshbach
7779:
7717:Samuel Goudsmit
7709:Chien-Shiung Wu
7648:Frederick Seitz
7615:John A. Wheeler
7600:Robert H. Dicke
7585:
7448:Luis W. Alvarez
7429:
7410:
7398:David Blackwell
7352:
7303:Carl R. de Boor
7274:Karen Uhlenbeck
7254:
7208:Louis Nirenberg
7143:
7116:Ralph E. Gomory
7054:
7050:Donald E. Knuth
7037:Hassler Whitney
6975:
6899:
6880:
6845:
6777:Andreas Acrivos
6754:
6742:Eli Ruckenstein
6721:Hermann A. Haus
6692:Calvin F. Quate
6679:Luna B. Leopold
6646:
6537:
6523:Robert N. Noyce
6513:Emmett N. Leith
6472:Manson Benedict
6454:Rudolf Kompfner
6418:
6372:Warren K. Lewis
6309:
6290:
6224:
6186:Peter B. Dervan
6157:John I. Brauman
6116:
6068:Norman Davidson
5995:John D. Roberts
5970:
5938:Konrad E. Bloch
5884:Richard N. Zare
5846:
5823:
5804:
5761:Sallie Chisholm
5743:Rudolf Jaenisch
5723:
5706:J. Craig Venter
5665:Rita R. Colwell
5532:
5518:David Baltimore
5409:Robert W. Kates
5381:David G. Nathan
5376:Edward B. Lewis
5346:
5342:Harland G. Wood
5337:Roger W. Sperry
5192:Glenn W. Burton
5164:
5140:Arthur Kornberg
5107:Roger Guillemin
5084:Hallowell Davis
5048:Daniel I. Arnon
5040:Albert B. Sabin
5020:
4993:Detlev W. Bronk
4965:Harry F. Harlow
4960:Kenneth S. Cole
4947:William C. Rose
4919:Francis P. Rous
4879:
4860:
4825:
4805:Gordon H. Bower
4766:
4762:Robert M. Solow
4678:
4674:Milton Friedman
4638:
4615:
4604:
4596:
4566:
4561:
4553:
4541:
4533:
4521:
4513:
4488:Jamal Khashoggi
4486:The Guardians:
4485:
4484:
4476:
4468:
4460:
4443:
4442:
4434:
4426:
4418:
4412:Mark Zuckerberg
4410:
4402:
4394:
4386:
4378:
4360:
4359:
4351:
4343:
4336:Sherron Watkins
4325:
4324:
4316:
4305:
4297:
4289:
4277:
4269:
4261:
4253:
4245:
4223:
4222:
4214:
4206:
4198:
4190:
4182:
4174:
4166:
4158:
4152:Peter Ueberroth
4150:
4138:
4130:
4122:
4114:
4106:
4098:
4090:
4082:
4071:
4024:Kathleen Byerly
4017:
4016:
4008:
4000:
3990:Henry Kissinger
3988:
3980:
3972:
3964:
3943:
3942:
3934:
3926:
3918:
3910:
3902:
3896:Pope John XXIII
3894:
3888:John F. Kennedy
3886:
3879:Robert Woodward
3875:James Van Allen
3820:
3819:
3811:
3803:
3795:
3787:
3779:
3771:
3765:Konrad Adenauer
3763:
3755:
3747:
3736:
3728:
3720:
3714:Harry S. Truman
3712:
3706:George Marshall
3704:
3698:James F. Byrnes
3696:
3690:Harry S. Truman
3688:
3680:
3674:George Marshall
3672:
3664:
3656:
3648:
3640:
3632:
3622:Chiang Kai-shek
3620:
3612:
3604:
3596:
3590:Hugh S. Johnson
3588:
3580:
3572:
3566:Mohandas Gandhi
3564:
3556:
3550:Walter Chrysler
3548:
3540:
3529:
3521:
3491:
3486:
3424:
3416:
3413:(United States)
3407:(United States)
3401:(United States)
3385:
3368:Pavel Cherenkov
3354:
3335:
3330:Boris Pasternak
3311:
3308:(Great Britain)
3292:
3285:
3255:
3250:
3235:
3224:
3209:
3204:Charles M. Rice
3196:Harvey J. Alter
3190:
3174:
3162:
3153:Michael Rosbash
3149:Jeffrey C. Hall
3146:
3138:
3122:
3113:May-Britt Moser
3106:
3090:
3085:Shinya Yamanaka
3078:
3057:
3049:
3044:Jack W. Szostak
3033:
3017:
3012:Oliver Smithies
3001:
2989:
2977:
2965:
2960:Peter Mansfield
2953:
2948:John E. Sulston
2937:
2921:
2910:
2894:
2886:
2870:
2862:
2850:
2837:Edward B. Lewis
2834:
2822:
2810:
2798:
2786:
2774:
2762:
2746:
2741:Susumu Tonegawa
2738:
2726:
2714:
2698:
2690:
2674:
2658:
2642:
2630:
2614:
2601:Roger Guillemin
2598:
2593:Daniel Gajdusek
2589:Baruch Blumberg
2586:
2575:
2566:Renato Dulbecco
2562:David Baltimore
2559:
2543:
2530:Karl von Frisch
2527:
2515:
2507:
2491:
2475:
2459:
2450:Haldan Hartline
2443:
2431:
2415:
2403:
2387:
2382:Maurice Wilkins
2371:
2363:
2351:
2346:Arthur Kornberg
2339:
2323:
2315:
2299:
2291:
2275:
2263:
2255:
2247:
2236:
2220:
2208:
2200:
2184:
2176:
2160:
2151:Joseph Erlanger
2148:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2123:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2107:
2099:
2091:
2079:
2071:
2055:
2047:
2035:
2027:
2019:
2007:
2002:Charles Nicolle
1999:
1991:
1983:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1957:
1945:
1933:
1927:
1926:
1918:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1874:
1866:
1858:
1850:
1845:Albrecht Kossel
1842:
1834:
1822:
1814:
1802:
1794:
1786:
1778:
1770:
1762:
1751:
1742:
1702:
1695:
1680:
1669:
1662:
1647:
1611:
1606:
1593:
1592:
1588:
1578:
1576:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1549:
1545:
1540:
1536:
1531:
1527:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1505:
1500:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1446:
1445:
1441:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1418:
1417:
1413:
1397:
1396:
1392:
1376:
1375:
1371:
1362:
1360:
1352:
1351:
1347:
1338:
1336:
1328:
1327:
1323:
1314:
1312:
1298:
1297:
1293:
1283:
1281:
1244:
1243:
1236:
1229:Find My Pathway
1223:
1222:
1218:
1208:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1197:
1193:
1145:
1144:
1140:
1092:
1091:
1087:
1073:
1072:
1068:
1049:Yale University
1038:
1037:
1033:
982:
981:
977:
922:
921:
917:
908:
906:
901:
900:
893:
878:
874:
866:
862:
849:
848:
844:
809:
808:
804:
800:
778:
766:
714:
674:
668:
551:
465:Yale University
441:Yale University
413:
395:Francis J. Ryan
359:
247:
210:
205:
190:
186:
182:
178:
162:Yale University
160:
156:
142:
127:
123:
111:
105:
103:
85:David Baltimore
79:
73:Frederick Seitz
67:
61:
56:
39:
27:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
8523:
8521:
8513:
8512:
8507:
8502:
8497:
8492:
8487:
8482:
8477:
8472:
8467:
8462:
8457:
8452:
8447:
8442:
8437:
8432:
8427:
8422:
8417:
8412:
8407:
8402:
8397:
8392:
8387:
8382:
8377:
8372:
8367:
8362:
8357:
8352:
8347:
8342:
8337:
8327:
8326:
8320:
8319:
8316:
8315:
8312:
8311:
8309:
8308:
8303:
8300:
8295:
8293:Burton Richter
8290:
8287:
8282:
8277:
8272:
8268:
8266:
8262:
8261:
8259:
8258:
8253:
8248:
8246:Yakir Aharonov
8243:
8240:
8235:
8230:
8227:
8222:
8217:
8214:
8209:
8206:
8201:
8196:
8193:
8188:
8185:
8180:
8175:
8172:
8167:
8162:
8160:Richard Garwin
8157:
8154:
8149:
8144:
8139:
8136:
8131:
8126:
8124:Willis E. Lamb
8121:
8117:
8115:
8111:
8110:
8108:
8107:
8102:
8097:
8094:
8089:
8084:
8081:
8076:
8071:
8066:
8063:
8058:
8055:
8050:
8045:
8042:
8037:
8032:
8029:
8024:
8019:
8016:
8011:
8008:
8003:
7998:
7993:
7990:
7985:
7980:
7975:
7970:
7966:
7964:
7960:
7959:
7957:
7956:
7951:
7946:
7941:
7936:
7933:
7928:
7923:
7918:
7913:
7908:
7905:
7900:
7895:
7890:
7885:
7883:Philip Abelson
7880:
7877:
7875:Chen-Ning Yang
7872:
7867:
7862:
7857:
7852:
7849:
7844:
7842:Bruno B. Rossi
7839:
7834:
7829:
7824:
7819:
7814:
7811:
7806:
7801:
7799:Yoichiro Nambu
7796:
7791:
7787:
7785:
7781:
7780:
7778:
7777:
7772:
7767:
7762:
7757:
7752:
7747:
7744:
7739:
7734:
7729:
7724:
7719:
7714:
7711:
7706:
7701:
7696:
7691:
7686:
7683:
7678:
7673:
7668:
7663:
7658:
7655:
7650:
7645:
7640:
7635:
7630:
7625:
7622:
7617:
7612:
7610:John C. Slater
7607:
7602:
7597:
7593:
7591:
7587:
7586:
7584:
7583:
7578:
7573:
7570:
7565:
7560:
7555:
7550:
7547:
7542:
7537:
7532:
7527:
7522:
7519:
7514:
7509:
7504:
7499:
7497:Jacob Bjerknes
7494:
7491:
7486:
7481:
7476:
7471:
7468:
7463:
7458:
7453:
7450:
7445:
7441:
7439:
7431:
7430:
7427:
7420:
7419:
7416:
7415:
7412:
7411:
7409:
7408:
7403:
7400:
7395:
7390:
7387:
7382:
7377:
7374:
7369:
7364:
7360:
7358:
7354:
7353:
7351:
7350:
7345:
7342:
7337:
7332:
7329:
7324:
7321:
7316:
7313:
7308:
7305:
7300:
7297:
7295:James G. Glimm
7292:
7289:
7287:Elias M. Stein
7284:
7279:
7276:
7271:
7266:
7262:
7260:
7256:
7255:
7253:
7252:
7247:
7242:
7239:
7234:
7231:
7229:Shing-Tung Yau
7226:
7223:
7218:
7213:
7210:
7205:
7202:
7197:
7194:
7189:
7186:
7181:
7178:
7173:
7170:
7165:
7160:
7155:
7151:
7149:
7145:
7144:
7142:
7141:
7136:
7131:
7126:
7123:
7118:
7113:
7110:
7105:
7100:
7097:
7095:Antoni Zygmund
7092:
7087:
7084:
7082:Isadore Singer
7079:
7074:
7071:
7066:
7062:
7060:
7056:
7055:
7053:
7052:
7047:
7045:Joseph L. Doob
7042:
7039:
7034:
7029:
7026:
7024:George Dantzig
7021:
7016:
7014:John W. Backus
7011:
7008:
7003:
7000:
6995:
6992:
6990:Richard Brauer
6987:
6983:
6981:
6977:
6976:
6974:
6973:
6971:William Feller
6968:
6965:
6960:
6957:
6952:
6949:
6944:
6941:
6936:
6933:
6928:
6923:
6920:
6918:Norbert Wiener
6915:
6911:
6909:
6901:
6900:
6897:
6890:
6889:
6886:
6885:
6882:
6881:
6879:
6878:
6876:Thomas Kailath
6873:
6870:
6865:
6862:
6857:
6853:
6851:
6847:
6846:
6844:
6843:
6838:
6835:
6830:
6827:
6822:
6819:
6814:
6811:
6806:
6803:
6798:
6795:
6790:
6787:
6782:
6779:
6774:
6771:
6766:
6762:
6760:
6756:
6755:
6753:
6752:
6747:
6744:
6739:
6736:
6731:
6726:
6723:
6718:
6715:
6710:
6707:
6702:
6699:
6694:
6689:
6686:
6681:
6676:
6671:
6668:
6663:
6658:
6654:
6652:
6648:
6647:
6645:
6644:
6639:
6634:
6631:
6626:
6621:
6616:
6613:
6608:
6606:H. Bolton Seed
6603:
6598:
6595:
6590:
6585:
6580:
6577:
6572:
6567:
6562:
6559:
6557:Donald L. Katz
6554:
6549:
6545:
6543:
6539:
6538:
6536:
6535:
6530:
6528:Earl R. Parker
6525:
6520:
6515:
6510:
6507:
6502:
6497:
6492:
6489:
6484:
6479:
6474:
6469:
6466:
6461:
6456:
6451:
6448:
6443:
6438:
6435:
6430:
6426:
6424:
6420:
6419:
6417:
6416:
6411:
6408:
6403:
6398:
6395:
6390:
6385:
6382:
6377:
6374:
6369:
6364:
6362:Hugh L. Dryden
6359:
6356:
6351:
6346:
6343:
6338:
6333:
6330:
6325:
6321:
6319:
6311:
6310:
6307:
6300:
6299:
6296:
6295:
6292:
6291:
6289:
6288:
6283:
6280:
6275:
6272:
6267:
6262:
6259:
6254:
6249:
6246:
6244:Peter J. Stang
6241:
6236:
6232:
6230:
6226:
6225:
6223:
6222:
6220:Marye Anne Fox
6217:
6212:
6209:
6204:
6199:
6196:
6191:
6188:
6183:
6178:
6175:
6173:Tobin J. Marks
6170:
6167:
6162:
6159:
6154:
6151:
6146:
6141:
6138:
6133:
6128:
6124:
6122:
6118:
6117:
6115:
6114:
6109:
6104:
6102:Stuart A. Rice
6099:
6096:
6091:
6086:
6083:
6078:
6073:
6070:
6065:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6049:
6044:
6041:
6036:
6034:Donald J. Cram
6031:
6028:
6023:
6020:
6015:
6010:
6005:
6003:Ronald Breslow
6000:
5997:
5992:
5987:
5982:
5978:
5976:
5972:
5971:
5969:
5968:
5963:
5958:
5953:
5948:
5945:
5943:Elias J. Corey
5940:
5935:
5930:
5927:
5922:
5917:
5912:
5909:
5904:
5902:Carl S. Marvel
5899:
5894:
5889:
5886:
5881:
5876:
5874:Roald Hoffmann
5871:
5868:
5863:
5858:
5854:
5852:
5848:
5847:
5845:
5844:
5839:
5835:
5833:
5825:
5824:
5821:
5814:
5813:
5810:
5809:
5806:
5805:
5803:
5802:
5797:
5792:
5790:Stanley Falkow
5787:
5784:
5782:Rakesh K. Jain
5779:
5776:
5771:
5766:
5763:
5758:
5753:
5748:
5745:
5740:
5735:
5731:
5729:
5725:
5724:
5722:
5721:
5716:
5711:
5708:
5703:
5698:
5693:
5690:
5685:
5680:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5662:
5659:
5654:
5649:
5646:
5641:
5636:
5631:
5628:
5623:
5618:
5613:
5610:
5605:
5600:
5597:
5592:
5587:
5585:Gene E. Likens
5582:
5577:
5572:
5570:George F. Bass
5567:
5562:
5559:
5554:
5552:Peter H. Raven
5549:
5544:
5540:
5538:
5534:
5533:
5531:
5530:
5525:
5520:
5515:
5512:
5507:
5502:
5499:
5494:
5489:
5486:
5481:
5478:
5476:Alexander Rich
5473:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5457:
5452:
5450:Daniel Nathans
5447:
5444:
5439:
5434:
5431:
5426:
5424:Folke K. Skoog
5421:
5416:
5414:Salvador Luria
5411:
5406:
5404:Elvin A. Kabat
5401:
5396:
5391:
5388:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5354:
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5348:
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5339:
5334:
5329:
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5319:
5317:Katherine Esau
5314:
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5306:
5304:Eric R. Kandel
5301:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5258:
5253:
5250:
5248:Joan A. Steitz
5245:
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5225:
5222:
5220:Berta Scharrer
5217:
5212:
5207:
5202:
5199:
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5187:Seymour Benzer
5184:
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5179:Philip Handler
5176:
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5119:
5114:
5109:
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5078:
5073:
5068:
5066:Erwin Chargaff
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5061:Britton Chance
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5037:
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5019:
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5011:Robert Huebner
5008:
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5000:
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4990:
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4898:C. B. van Niel
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4859:
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4856:Albert Bandura
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4848:Robert Axelrod
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4833:
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4445:Ebola Fighters
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4408:
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4392:
4388:Vladimir Putin
4384:
4376:
4357:
4353:George W. Bush
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4328:Cynthia Cooper
4322:
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4299:George W. Bush
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4234:Nelson Mandela
4230:F. W. de Klerk
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4188:
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4172:
4168:Corazon Aquino
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4096:
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4079:
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4048:Barbara Jordan
4014:
4006:
3998:
3986:
3978:
3970:
3962:
3949:William Anders
3940:
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3924:
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3908:
3900:
3892:
3884:
3871:Charles Townes
3851:Edward Purcell
3827:Charles Draper
3817:
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3793:
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3781:Harlow Curtice
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3626:Soong Mei-ling
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3614:Wallis Simpson
3610:
3606:Haile Selassie
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3382:(Soviet Union)
3377:
3376:(Soviet Union)
3371:
3370:(Soviet Union)
3364:
3362:
3356:
3355:
3353:
3352:
3349:Dominique Pire
3345:
3343:
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3333:
3332:(Soviet Union)
3326:
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3310:
3309:
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3293:
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3261:
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3241:Katalin Karikó
3233:
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3188:
3172:
3160:
3144:
3136:
3120:
3104:
3097:Randy Schekman
3088:
3076:
3055:
3047:
3031:
3024:Luc Montagnier
3015:
3004:Mario Capecchi
2999:
2987:
2980:Barry Marshall
2975:
2963:
2956:Paul Lauterbur
2951:
2940:Sydney Brenner
2935:
2918:
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2909:
2908:
2901:Paul Greengard
2897:Arvid Carlsson
2892:
2884:
2868:
2860:
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2832:
2829:Martin Rodbell
2820:
2808:
2805:Edwin G. Krebs
2801:Edmond Fischer
2796:
2784:
2772:
2760:
2749:James W. Black
2744:
2736:
2724:
2712:
2709:César Milstein
2705:Georges Köhler
2696:
2688:
2677:Sune Bergström
2672:
2669:Torsten Wiesel
2665:David H. Hubel
2656:
2640:
2628:
2621:Daniel Nathans
2612:
2605:Andrew Schally
2596:
2583:
2581:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2573:
2557:
2541:
2525:
2518:Gerald Edelman
2513:
2505:
2502:Julius Axelrod
2489:
2486:Salvador Luria
2482:Alfred Hershey
2473:
2457:
2441:
2429:
2418:François Jacob
2413:
2401:
2385:
2369:
2361:
2349:
2337:
2321:
2313:
2302:André Cournand
2297:
2289:
2273:
2261:
2258:Selman Waksman
2253:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2223:Edward Kendall
2218:
2206:
2198:
2182:
2179:Hermann Muller
2174:
2158:
2155:Herbert Gasser
2146:
2134:
2127:
2120:
2113:
2110:Gerhard Domagk
2105:
2097:
2089:
2077:
2069:
2066:William Murphy
2058:George Whipple
2053:
2045:
2033:
2025:
2017:
2005:
1997:
1989:
1980:
1978:
1974:
1973:
1971:
1970:
1963:
1955:
1943:
1936:Archibald Hill
1931:
1924:
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1894:
1887:
1880:
1872:
1869:Charles Richet
1864:
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1610:
1609:External links
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1234:
1216:
1191:
1162:(5): 758–779.
1138:
1109:(1): 142–156.
1085:
1076:"Transduction"
1066:
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1002:(5): 679–699.
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720:Impact crater
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509:very quickly.
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230:Microbiologist
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172:Known for
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126:(aged 82)
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8430:Phage workers
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7988:Roger Revelle
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7954:Henry Stommel
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7804:Edward Teller
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7689:Hans A. Bethe
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7633:Maurice Ewing
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6659:
6656:
6655:
6653:
6649:
6643:
6640:
6638:
6635:
6632:
6630:
6627:
6625:
6622:
6620:
6617:
6614:
6612:
6609:
6607:
6604:
6602:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6584:
6581:
6578:
6576:
6575:John G. Trump
6573:
6571:
6568:
6566:
6563:
6560:
6558:
6555:
6553:
6550:
6547:
6546:
6544:
6540:
6534:
6531:
6529:
6526:
6524:
6521:
6519:
6516:
6514:
6511:
6508:
6506:
6503:
6501:
6498:
6496:
6493:
6490:
6488:
6485:
6483:
6480:
6478:
6475:
6473:
6470:
6467:
6465:
6462:
6460:
6457:
6455:
6452:
6449:
6447:
6444:
6442:
6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
6428:
6427:
6425:
6421:
6415:
6412:
6409:
6407:
6404:
6402:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6389:
6388:Edwin H. Land
6386:
6383:
6381:
6378:
6375:
6373:
6370:
6368:
6365:
6363:
6360:
6357:
6355:
6352:
6350:
6347:
6344:
6342:
6339:
6337:
6336:Vannevar Bush
6334:
6331:
6329:
6326:
6323:
6322:
6320:
6316:
6312:
6305:
6301:
6287:
6284:
6281:
6279:
6276:
6273:
6271:
6268:
6266:
6263:
6260:
6258:
6255:
6253:
6252:Allen J. Bard
6250:
6247:
6245:
6242:
6240:
6237:
6234:
6233:
6231:
6227:
6221:
6218:
6216:
6213:
6210:
6208:
6207:JoAnne Stubbe
6205:
6203:
6202:Joanna Fowler
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6189:
6187:
6184:
6182:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6168:
6166:
6163:
6160:
6158:
6155:
6152:
6150:
6147:
6145:
6142:
6139:
6137:
6134:
6132:
6129:
6126:
6125:
6123:
6119:
6113:
6112:Susan Solomon
6110:
6108:
6105:
6103:
6100:
6097:
6095:
6092:
6090:
6087:
6084:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6074:
6071:
6069:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6050:
6048:
6045:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6035:
6032:
6029:
6027:
6024:
6021:
6019:
6016:
6014:
6011:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6001:
5998:
5996:
5993:
5991:
5988:
5986:
5983:
5980:
5979:
5977:
5973:
5967:
5964:
5962:
5959:
5957:
5956:Melvin Calvin
5954:
5952:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5941:
5939:
5936:
5934:
5931:
5928:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5916:
5913:
5910:
5908:
5905:
5903:
5900:
5898:
5897:Yuan Tseh Lee
5895:
5893:
5892:Harry B. Gray
5890:
5887:
5885:
5882:
5880:
5877:
5875:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5866:Gilbert Stork
5864:
5862:
5859:
5856:
5855:
5853:
5849:
5843:
5840:
5837:
5836:
5834:
5830:
5826:
5819:
5815:
5801:
5798:
5796:
5793:
5791:
5788:
5785:
5783:
5780:
5777:
5775:
5774:Bruce Alberts
5772:
5770:
5769:May Berenbaum
5767:
5764:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5733:
5732:
5730:
5726:
5720:
5717:
5715:
5712:
5709:
5707:
5704:
5702:
5699:
5697:
5694:
5691:
5689:
5686:
5684:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5675:Lubert Stryer
5673:
5671:
5670:Nina Fedoroff
5668:
5666:
5663:
5660:
5658:
5655:
5653:
5652:Anthony Fauci
5650:
5647:
5645:
5642:
5640:
5637:
5635:
5632:
5629:
5627:
5624:
5622:
5619:
5617:
5614:
5611:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5595:Harold Varmus
5593:
5591:
5588:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5566:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5550:
5548:
5545:
5542:
5541:
5539:
5535:
5529:
5528:Lynn Margulis
5526:
5524:
5523:Jared Diamond
5521:
5519:
5516:
5513:
5511:
5508:
5506:
5503:
5500:
5498:
5495:
5493:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5479:
5477:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5463:Thomas Eisner
5461:
5458:
5456:
5453:
5451:
5448:
5445:
5443:
5440:
5438:
5437:Maxine Singer
5435:
5432:
5430:
5427:
5425:
5422:
5420:
5419:Paul A. Marks
5417:
5415:
5412:
5410:
5407:
5405:
5402:
5400:
5397:
5395:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5356:
5355:
5353:
5349:
5343:
5340:
5338:
5335:
5333:
5330:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5318:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5279:
5277:
5274:
5272:
5269:
5267:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5257:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5241:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5228:Stanley Cohen
5226:
5223:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5208:
5206:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5174:
5173:
5171:
5167:
5161:
5158:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5117:Efraim Racker
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5071:James V. Neel
5069:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5056:
5054:
5051:
5049:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5030:
5029:
5027:
5023:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4983:Horace Barker
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4952:Sewall Wright
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4893:
4892:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4875:
4871:
4857:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4840:Anne Treisman
4838:
4835:
4834:
4832:
4828:
4822:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4797:Kenneth Arrow
4795:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4779:
4776:
4775:
4773:
4769:
4763:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4749:
4747:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4733:
4731:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4709:
4707:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4688:
4687:
4685:
4681:
4675:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4661:Anne Anastasi
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4648:
4647:
4645:
4641:
4635:
4632:
4629:
4628:
4626:
4622:
4618:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4600:
4593:
4588:
4586:
4581:
4579:
4574:
4573:
4570:
4556:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4536:
4532:
4528:
4527:Kamala Harris
4524:
4520:
4516:
4512:
4507:
4506:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4462:Angela Merkel
4459:
4454:
4453:Salome Karwah
4450:
4446:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4420:The Protester
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4372:
4371:Melinda Gates
4368:
4364:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4337:
4333:
4332:Coleen Rowley
4329:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4314:
4312:
4308:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4255:Newt Gingrich
4252:
4248:
4244:
4239:
4238:Yitzhak Rabin
4235:
4231:
4227:
4226:Yasser Arafat
4221:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4160:Deng Xiaoping
4157:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4144:Yuri Andropov
4141:
4140:Ronald Reagan
4137:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4116:Ronald Reagan
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4100:Deng Xiaoping
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4080:
4078:
4074:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3994:Richard Nixon
3991:
3987:
3983:
3982:Richard Nixon
3979:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3867:Edward Teller
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3847:Linus Pauling
3844:
3843:Willard Libby
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3823:George Beadle
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3757:Elizabeth II
3754:
3750:
3746:
3745:
3743:
3739:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3666:Joseph Stalin
3663:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3642:Joseph Stalin
3639:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3558:Owen D. Young
3555:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3538:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3526:
3518:
3513:
3511:
3506:
3504:
3499:
3498:
3495:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3427:
3423:
3422:
3419:
3412:
3409:
3406:
3403:
3400:
3397:
3396:
3394:
3392:
3388:
3381:
3378:
3375:
3372:
3369:
3366:
3365:
3363:
3361:
3357:
3350:
3347:
3346:
3344:
3342:
3338:
3331:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3307:
3304:
3303:
3301:
3299:
3295:
3290:
3282:
3277:
3275:
3270:
3268:
3263:
3262:
3259:
3246:
3245:Drew Weissman
3242:
3238:
3234:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3173:
3170:
3166:
3161:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3145:
3142:
3137:
3134:
3130:
3129:Satoshi Ōmura
3126:
3121:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3105:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3093:James Rothman
3089:
3086:
3082:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3060:Bruce Beutler
3056:
3053:
3048:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3032:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3016:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3000:
2997:
2993:
2988:
2985:
2981:
2976:
2973:
2972:Linda B. Buck
2969:
2964:
2961:
2957:
2952:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2936:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2920:
2919:
2917:
2913:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2893:
2890:
2889:Günter Blobel
2885:
2882:
2878:
2877:Louis Ignarro
2874:
2869:
2866:
2861:
2858:
2854:
2849:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2833:
2830:
2826:
2821:
2818:
2817:Phillip Sharp
2814:
2809:
2806:
2802:
2797:
2794:
2790:
2785:
2782:
2778:
2777:Joseph Murray
2773:
2770:
2766:
2761:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2745:
2742:
2737:
2734:
2730:
2729:Stanley Cohen
2725:
2722:
2718:
2717:Michael Brown
2713:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2697:
2694:
2689:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2673:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2638:
2634:
2633:Allan Cormack
2629:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2613:
2610:
2609:Rosalyn Yalow
2606:
2602:
2597:
2594:
2590:
2585:
2584:
2582:
2578:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2558:
2555:
2554:George Palade
2551:
2547:
2546:Albert Claude
2542:
2539:
2535:
2534:Konrad Lorenz
2531:
2526:
2523:
2522:Rodney Porter
2519:
2514:
2511:
2506:
2503:
2499:
2498:Ulf von Euler
2495:
2490:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2458:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2446:Ragnar Granit
2442:
2439:
2435:
2430:
2427:
2426:Jacques Monod
2423:
2419:
2414:
2411:
2407:
2402:
2399:
2398:Andrew Huxley
2395:
2391:
2386:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2374:Francis Crick
2370:
2367:
2362:
2359:
2358:Peter Medawar
2355:
2350:
2347:
2343:
2338:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2326:George Beadle
2322:
2319:
2314:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2298:
2295:
2294:Hugo Theorell
2290:
2287:
2283:
2282:Thomas Weller
2279:
2274:
2271:
2270:Fritz Lipmann
2267:
2262:
2259:
2254:
2251:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2219:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2204:
2199:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2183:
2180:
2175:
2172:
2171:Howard Florey
2168:
2164:
2159:
2156:
2152:
2147:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2128:
2121:
2114:
2111:
2106:
2103:
2098:
2095:
2090:
2087:
2083:
2078:
2075:
2070:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2054:
2051:
2050:Thomas Morgan
2046:
2043:
2039:
2034:
2031:
2026:
2023:
2018:
2015:
2011:
2006:
2003:
1998:
1995:
1990:
1987:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1975:
1964:
1961:
1956:
1953:
1949:
1944:
1941:
1940:Otto Meyerhof
1937:
1932:
1925:
1922:
1917:
1914:
1909:
1902:
1895:
1888:
1881:
1878:
1877:Róbert Bárány
1873:
1870:
1865:
1862:
1861:Alexis Carrel
1857:
1854:
1849:
1846:
1841:
1838:
1833:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1818:
1813:
1810:
1806:
1805:Camillo Golgi
1801:
1798:
1793:
1790:
1785:
1782:
1777:
1774:
1769:
1766:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1734:
1732:
1727:
1725:
1720:
1719:
1716:
1708:
1701:
1700:
1694:
1690:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1675:
1668:
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1311:on 2016-01-23
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1153:
1149:
1148:Lederberg, J.
1142:
1139:
1134:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1095:Lederberg, J.
1089:
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993:
989:
988:Lederberg, J.
985:
984:Zinder, N. D.
979:
976:
971:
967:
963:
959:
954:
949:
945:
941:
938:(4016): 558.
937:
933:
929:
925:
924:Lederberg, J.
919:
916:
904:
898:
896:
892:
888:
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873:
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864:
861:
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852:
851:"News - News"
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660:Yakaterinberg
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483:Norton Zinder
479:
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383:New York City
380:
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349:
348:expert system
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
325:
323:
322:George Beadle
319:
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270:Norton Zinder
268:
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129:New York City
121:
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83:
77:
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71:
65:
59:
54:
51:
46:
42:
35:
30:
20:
8280:Sandra Faber
8275:Sidney Drell
8105:Leo Kadanoff
8100:James Cronin
8048:Hans Dehmelt
7983:Robert Pound
7949:Robert Sharp
7765:John Sinfelt
7732:Verner Suomi
7699:Lewis Sarett
7563:Lars Onsager
7507:Henry Eyring
7474:John Bardeen
7216:Richard Karp
7184:Allen Newell
6963:Jerzy Neyman
6588:Tung-Yen Lin
6565:Bill Hewlett
6495:Morris Cohen
6089:John W. Cahn
5990:Karl Folkers
5751:Lucy Shapiro
5701:Elaine Fuchs
5580:Ann Graybiel
5510:Janet Rowley
5492:James Watson
5484:Ruth Patrick
5331:
5327:Philip Leder
5197:Mildred Cohn
5145:Severo Ochoa
5122:E. O. Wilson
4555:Taylor Swift
4503:
4470:Donald Trump
4449:Kent Brantly
4436:Pope Francis
4428:Barack Obama
4404:Ben Bernanke
4396:Barack Obama
4310:2001–present
4279:Bill Clinton
4271:Andrew Grove
4216:Bill Clinton
4132:The Computer
4084:Jimmy Carter
4060:Carol Sutton
4028:Alison Cheek
3974:Willy Brandt
3953:Frank Borman
3859:Emilio Segrè
3838:
3634:Adolf Hitler
3574:Pierre Laval
3524:
3456:
3410:
3230:Svante Pääbo
3215:David Julius
3169:Tasuku Honjo
3117:Edvard Moser
3109:John O'Keefe
3072:posthumously
3071:
3008:Martin Evans
2984:Robin Warren
2968:Richard Axel
2915:2001–present
2793:Bert Sakmann
2661:Roger Sperry
2653:George Snell
2649:Jean Dausset
2617:Werner Arber
2570:Howard Temin
2494:Bernard Katz
2478:Max Delbrück
2434:Francis Rous
2410:Feodor Lynen
2406:Konrad Bloch
2394:Alan Hodgkin
2378:James Watson
2354:Frank Burnet
2342:Severo Ochoa
2333:
2330:Edward Tatum
2318:Daniel Bovet
2231:Philip Hench
2143:Edward Doisy
2074:Hans Spemann
2062:George Minot
2042:Edgar Adrian
2030:Otto Warburg
1952:John Macleod
1921:August Krogh
1913:Jules Bordet
1829:Paul Ehrlich
1781:Niels Finsen
1765:Emil Behring
1698:
1686:
1665:
1653:
1598:
1589:
1579:November 26,
1577:. Retrieved
1564:
1555:
1546:
1537:
1528:
1515:
1506:
1497:
1488:
1477:
1468:
1457:
1442:
1428:
1414:
1403:
1393:
1382:
1372:
1361:. Retrieved
1357:
1348:
1337:. Retrieved
1333:
1324:
1313:. Retrieved
1309:the original
1304:
1294:
1282:. Retrieved
1257:(1): 19–25.
1254:
1250:
1228:
1219:
1207:. Retrieved
1194:
1159:
1155:
1147:
1141:
1106:
1102:
1094:
1088:
1079:
1069:
1059:– via
1042:
1034:
999:
995:
987:
978:
935:
931:
923:
918:
907:. Retrieved
884:
875:
863:
854:
845:
820:
814:
805:
792:LCF notation
767:
753:Xanthe Terra
705:spina bifida
697:
676:
675:
654:epidemic of
652:Soviet Union
649:
637:Jimmy Carter
629:
614:
603:
592:
573:
571:
560:
541:
522:
511:
502:
499:transduction
491:transduction
486:
480:
469:
457:
447:
437:Edward Tatum
421:Oswald Avery
414:
398:
360:
341:life on Mars
326:
318:Edward Tatum
289:
288:
260:Edward Tatum
241:
219:
192:Transduction
188:Astrobiology
124:(2008-02-02)
110:May 23, 1925
80:Succeeded by
57:
8345:2008 deaths
8335:1925 births
8233:Berni Alder
8040:Frank Press
7921:Walter Kohn
7898:George Pake
7832:Walter Munk
7755:Herman Mark
7737:Henry Taube
7525:Jesse Beams
7479:Peter Debye
7461:Harold Urey
7385:Barry Mazur
6947:John Milnor
6841:Amnon Yariv
6785:Leo Beranek
6611:Ernst Weber
6464:Abel Wolman
6055:Thomas Cech
5985:Elkan Blout
5925:Max Tishler
5842:Roger Adams
5800:Simon Levin
5266:Harry Eagle
5089:Paul Gyorgy
4781:Gary Becker
4505:The Capital
4502:/ Staff of
4500:Kyaw Soe Oo
4492:Maria Ressa
4124:Lech Wałęsa
4092:Anwar Sadat
4064:Addie Wyatt
4056:Susie Sharp
4044:Carla Hills
4040:Ella Grasso
4032:Jill Conway
4010:King Faisal
4002:John Sirica
3855:Isidor Rabi
3831:John Enders
3289:Nobel Prize
3081:John Gurdon
2996:Craig Mello
2992:Andrew Fire
2905:Eric Kandel
2881:Ferid Murad
2789:Erwin Neher
2701:Niels Jerne
2466:Har Khorana
2454:George Wald
2422:André Lwoff
2390:John Eccles
2278:John Enders
2250:Max Theiler
2211:Walter Hess
2203:Paul Müller
2167:Ernst Chain
1837:Emil Kocher
1797:Robert Koch
1789:Ivan Pavlov
1773:Ronald Ross
1284:23 February
823:: 229–251.
493:. In 1956,
474:. His wife
68:Preceded by
8329:Categories
8027:Vera Rubin
7666:Paul Flory
7327:Hyman Bass
7200:John Cocke
7103:Raoul Bott
7006:Kurt Gödel
6998:John Tukey
6955:Paul Cohen
6570:George Low
6533:Simon Ramo
5756:Leroy Hood
5557:Carl Woese
5505:Bruce Ames
5016:Ernst Mayr
4367:Bill Gates
4291:Jeff Bezos
4208:Ted Turner
4036:Betty Ford
3957:Jim Lovell
3374:Ilya Frank
3317:Literature
2932:Paul Nurse
2266:Hans Krebs
2191:Gerty Cori
2139:Henrik Dam
2086:Otto Loewi
2082:Henry Dale
1363:2022-11-29
1339:2022-11-29
1315:2016-01-24
909:2007-10-31
868:Warwick, K
811:Bodmer, W.
798:References
701:folic acid
681:phenotypic
588:exobiology
584:Carl Sagan
507:antibiotic
461:chromosome
149:Alma mater
106:1925-05-23
8022:Val Fitch
7090:Peter Lax
6860:Shu Chien
6107:John Ross
5822:Chemistry
5210:Paul Berg
4602:laureates
4535:Elon Musk
4523:Joe Biden
4283:Ken Starr
4076:1976–2000
3741:1951–1975
3534:1927–1950
3380:Igor Tamm
3351:(Belgium)
3298:Chemistry
3291:laureates
3133:Tu Youyou
2685:John Vane
2580:1976–2000
2241:1951–1975
2187:Carl Cori
1977:1926–1950
1756:1901–1925
1745:Laureates
1271:0066-4197
1057:702748249
1047:(Ph.D.).
782:Euphenics
722:Lederberg
677:Euphenics
666:Euphenics
601:in 1960.
445:bacterium
425:discovery
345:chemistry
135:Spouse(s)
62:1978–1990
58:In office
8001:Ed Stone
4998:Jay Lush
4263:David Ho
2928:Tim Hunt
1305:Nautilus
1279:18983254
1186:17247661
1156:Genetics
1150:(1956).
1133:17247607
1103:Genetics
1097:(1956).
1061:ProQuest
1026:12999698
990:(1952).
962:21001945
837:57778869
776:See also
764:Personal
689:eugenics
621:emeritus
343:and the
310:bacteria
294:ForMemRS
26:ForMemRS
4496:Wa Lone
3360:Physics
1747:of the
1209:5 April
1177:1209815
1124:1209761
970:1826960
940:Bibcode
744:, 2006.
737:, 2002.
733:of the
610:DENDRAL
575:Sputnik
503:E. coli
458:E. coli
405:malaria
365:, to a
351:Dendral
329:biology
184:Dendral
4557:(2023)
4549:(2022)
4537:(2021)
4529:(2020)
4517:(2019)
4509:(2018)
4480:(2017)
4472:(2016)
4464:(2015)
4456:(2014)
4438:(2013)
4430:(2012)
4422:(2011)
4414:(2010)
4406:(2009)
4398:(2008)
4390:(2007)
4382:(2006)
4374:(2005)
4355:(2004)
4347:(2003)
4339:(2002)
4320:(2001)
4301:(2000)
4293:(1999)
4285:(1998)
4273:(1997)
4265:(1996)
4257:(1995)
4249:(1994)
4241:(1993)
4218:(1992)
4210:(1991)
4202:(1990)
4194:(1989)
4186:(1988)
4178:(1987)
4170:(1986)
4162:(1985)
4154:(1984)
4146:(1983)
4134:(1982)
4126:(1981)
4118:(1980)
4110:(1979)
4102:(1978)
4094:(1977)
4086:(1976)
4067:(1975)
4012:(1974)
4004:(1973)
3996:(1972)
3984:(1971)
3976:(1970)
3968:(1969)
3960:(1968)
3938:(1967)
3930:(1966)
3922:(1965)
3914:(1964)
3906:(1963)
3898:(1962)
3890:(1961)
3882:(1960)
3815:(1959)
3807:(1958)
3799:(1957)
3791:(1956)
3783:(1955)
3775:(1954)
3767:(1953)
3759:(1952)
3751:(1951)
3732:(1950)
3724:(1949)
3716:(1948)
3708:(1947)
3700:(1946)
3692:(1945)
3684:(1944)
3676:(1943)
3668:(1942)
3660:(1941)
3652:(1940)
3644:(1939)
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3628:(1937)
3616:(1936)
3608:(1935)
3600:(1934)
3592:(1933)
3584:(1932)
3576:(1931)
3568:(1930)
3560:(1929)
3552:(1928)
3544:(1927)
3175:2019:
3163:2018:
3147:2017:
3139:2016:
3123:2015:
3107:2014:
3091:2013:
3079:2012:
3058:2011:
3050:2010:
3034:2009:
3018:2008:
3002:2007:
2990:2006:
2978:2005:
2966:2004:
2954:2003:
2938:2002:
2922:2001:
2895:2000:
2887:1999:
2871:1998:
2863:1997:
2851:1996:
2835:1995:
2823:1994:
2811:1993:
2799:1992:
2787:1991:
2775:1990:
2763:1989:
2747:1988:
2739:1987:
2727:1986:
2715:1985:
2699:1984:
2691:1983:
2675:1982:
2659:1981:
2643:1980:
2631:1979:
2615:1978:
2599:1977:
2587:1976:
2560:1975:
2544:1974:
2528:1973:
2516:1972:
2508:1971:
2492:1970:
2476:1969:
2460:1968:
2444:1967:
2432:1966:
2416:1965:
2404:1964:
2388:1963:
2372:1962:
2364:1961:
2352:1960:
2340:1959:
2324:1958:
2316:1957:
2300:1956:
2292:1955:
2276:1954:
2264:1953:
2256:1952:
2248:1951:
2221:1950:
2209:1949:
2201:1948:
2185:1947:
2177:1946:
2161:1945:
2149:1944:
2137:1943:
2108:1939:
2100:1938:
2092:1937:
2080:1936:
2072:1935:
2056:1934:
2048:1933:
2036:1932:
2028:1931:
2020:1930:
2008:1929:
2000:1928:
1992:1927:
1984:1926:
1958:1924:
1946:1923:
1934:1922:
1919:1920:
1911:1919:
1875:1914:
1867:1913:
1859:1912:
1851:1911:
1843:1910:
1835:1909:
1823:1908:
1815:1907:
1803:1906:
1795:1905:
1787:1904:
1779:1903:
1771:1902:
1763:1901:
1420:"AAAS"
1277:
1269:
1184:
1174:
1131:
1121:
1055:
1024:
1017:169409
1014:
968:
960:
932:Nature
905:. 1958
835:
433:clones
367:Jewish
248:(1947)
246:
237:Thesis
226:Fields
214:(2006)
209:(1989)
204:(1958)
198:Awards
8265:2010s
8114:2000s
7963:1990s
7784:1980s
7590:1970s
7438:1960s
7357:2010s
7259:2000s
7148:1990s
7059:1980s
6980:1970s
6908:1960s
6850:2010s
6759:2000s
6651:1990s
6542:1980s
6423:1970s
6318:1960s
6229:2010s
6121:2000s
5975:1990s
5851:1980s
5832:1960s
5728:2010s
5537:2000s
5351:1990s
5169:1980s
5025:1970s
4888:1960s
4830:2010s
4771:2000s
4683:1990s
4643:1980s
4624:1960s
3457:1958
3341:Peace
3287:1958
1703:(PDF)
1670:(PDF)
1203:(PDF)
966:S2CID
833:S2CID
371:Rabbi
8302:2014
8289:2012
8271:2011
8242:2009
8229:2008
8216:2007
8208:2006
8195:2005
8187:2004
8174:2003
8156:2002
8138:2001
8120:2000
8096:1999
8083:1998
8065:1997
8057:1996
8044:1995
8031:1994
8018:1993
8010:1992
7992:1991
7969:1990
7935:1989
7907:1988
7879:1987
7851:1986
7813:1983
7790:1982
7746:1979
7713:1976
7685:1975
7657:1974
7624:1973
7596:1970
7572:1969
7549:1968
7521:1967
7493:1966
7470:1965
7452:1964
7444:1963
7402:2013
7389:2012
7376:2011
7363:2010
7344:2009
7331:2007
7323:2006
7315:2005
7307:2004
7299:2003
7291:2002
7278:2001
7265:2000
7241:1999
7233:1998
7225:1997
7212:1996
7204:1995
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7188:1993
7180:1992
7172:1991
7154:1990
7125:1989
7112:1988
7099:1987
7086:1986
7073:1983
7065:1982
7041:1979
7028:1976
7010:1975
7002:1974
6994:1973
6986:1970
6967:1969
6959:1968
6951:1967
6943:1966
6935:1965
6922:1964
6914:1963
6872:2012
6864:2011
6856:2010
6837:2009
6829:2008
6821:2007
6813:2006
6805:2005
6797:2004
6789:2003
6781:2002
6773:2001
6765:2000
6746:1999
6738:1998
6725:1996
6717:1995
6709:1994
6701:1993
6688:1992
6670:1991
6657:1990
6633:1989
6615:1988
6597:1987
6579:1986
6561:1983
6548:1982
6509:1979
6491:1976
6468:1975
6450:1974
6437:1973
6429:1970
6410:1969
6397:1968
6384:1967
6376:1966
6358:1965
6345:1964
6332:1963
6324:1962
6282:2014
6274:2013
6261:2012
6248:2011
6235:2010
6211:2009
6198:2008
6190:2007
6177:2006
6169:2005
6161:2004
6153:2002
6140:2001
6127:2000
6098:1999
6085:1998
6072:1997
6064:1996
6051:1995
6043:1994
6030:1993
6022:1992
5999:1991
5981:1990
5947:1989
5929:1988
5911:1987
5888:1986
5870:1983
5857:1982
5838:1964
5786:2014
5778:2013
5765:2012
5747:2011
5734:2010
5710:2009
5692:2008
5679:2007
5661:2006
5648:2005
5630:2004
5612:2003
5599:2002
5561:2001
5543:2000
5514:1999
5501:1998
5488:1997
5480:1996
5472:1995
5459:1994
5446:1993
5433:1992
5390:1991
5357:1990
5313:1989
5280:1988
5252:1987
5224:1986
5201:1983
5183:1982
5175:1981
5126:1979
5103:1976
5080:1975
5057:1974
5044:1973
5031:1970
5007:1969
4979:1968
4956:1967
4933:1966
4915:1965
4902:1964
4894:1963
4852:2015
4844:2014
4836:2011
4817:2009
4809:2008
4801:2005
4793:2004
4785:2003
4777:2000
4758:1999
4750:1998
4742:1997
4734:1996
4726:1995
4718:1994
4710:1992
4702:1991
4689:1990
4670:1988
4657:1987
4649:1986
4630:1964
4363:Bono
3525:Time
3482:1963
3477:1962
3472:1961
3467:1960
3462:1959
3452:1957
3447:1956
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