93:-strategists, varies widely, seemingly to promote success in particular environments. The concepts of quantity or quality offspring are sometimes referred to as "cheap" or "expensive", a comment on the expendable nature of the offspring and parental commitment made. The stability of the environment can predict if many expendable offspring are made or if fewer offspring of higher quality would lead to higher reproductive success. An unstable environment would encourage the parent to make many offspring, because the likelihood of all (or the majority) of them surviving to adulthood is slim. In contrast, more stable environments allow parents to confidently invest in one offspring because they are more likely to survive to adulthood.
614:
31:
1216:-selection paradigm was the focus on density-dependent selection as the important agent of selection on organisms' life histories. This paradigm was challenged as it became clear that other factors, such as age-specific mortality, could provide a more mechanistic causative link between an environment and an optimal life history (Wilbur et al. 1974; Stearns 1976, 1977). The
172:
1157:
When
Stearns reviewed the status of the theory again in 1992, he noted that from 1977 to 1982 there was an average of 42 references to the theory per year in the BIOSIS literature search service, but from 1984 to 1989 the average dropped to 16 per year and continued to decline. He concluded that
1228:-selection paradigm was replaced by new paradigm that focused on age-specific mortality (Stearns, 1976; Charlesworth, 1980). This new life-history paradigm has matured into one that uses age-structured models as a framework to incorporate many of the themes important to the
339:
1126:-selection, which led him to question whether the assumption of a relation between reproductive expenditure and packaging of offspring was justified. A 1982 study by Templeton and Johnson showed that in a population of
517:
rapidly. There is little advantage in adaptations that permit successful competition with other organisms, because the environment is likely to change again. Among the traits that are thought to characterize
243:
958:
posits that intermediate levels of disturbance in a landscape create patches at different levels of succession, promoting coexistence of colonizers and competitors at the regional scale.
789:-strategists, the majority of organisms do not follow this pattern. For instance, trees have traits such as longevity and strong competitiveness that characterise them as
77:
in an organism that trade off between quantity and quality of offspring. The focus on either an increased quantity of offspring at the expense of reduced individual
3981:
3234:
647:-selected species display traits associated with living at densities close to carrying capacity and typically are strong competitors in such crowded niches, that
4125:
824:-traits: Although sea turtles are large organisms with long lifespans (provided they reach adulthood), they produce large numbers of unnurtured offspring.
4806:
4195:
1687:
1097:
selection theory became widely used during the 1970s, it also began to attract more critical attention. In particular, a review in 1977 by the ecologist
907:. The ability of an environment to increase energetic content, through photosynthetic capture of solar energy, increases with the increase in complex
143:
selection paradigm, but continues to incorporate its important themes as a subset of life history theory. Some scientists now prefer to use the terms
3732:
1980:
van
Bodegom, D.; May, L.; Meij, H.J.; Westendorp, R.G.J. (2007). "Regulation of human life histories: The role of the inflammatory host response".
2508:
Wilbur, H.M.; Tinkle, D.W.; Collins, J.P. (1974). "Environmental certainty, trophic level, and resource availability in life history evolution".
179:-selection strategy, with many offspring, short gestation, less parental care, and a short time until sexual maturity. The same applies to mice.
4791:
4205:
3933:
1896:
Fewell, Jennifer H.; Bertram, Susan M. (2002). "Evidence for genetic variation in worker task performance by
African and European honeybees".
3033:
2800:
2219:
2199:
1835:
1740:
1486:
1461:
1415:
4210:
3767:
946:. Traditionally, biodiversity was considered maximized at this stage, with introductions of new species resulting in the replacement and
795:-strategists. In reproduction, however, trees typically produce thousands of offspring and disperse them widely, traits characteristic of
4398:
955:
3815:
4151:
3974:
3227:
3487:
3099:
1405:
1187:
and Lance
Gunderson have revived interest in the theory, and use it as a way of integrating social systems, economics, and ecology.
1114:
selection literature by Parry demonstrated that there was no agreement among researchers using the theory about the definition of
2674:
1506:
4230:
3943:
3810:
3522:
2629:
Getz, W.M. (1993). "Metaphysiological and evolutionary dynamics of populations exploiting constant and interactive resources –
1297:
4488:
4615:
4260:
2816:
Snell, Terry W.; King, Charles E. (December 1977). "Lifespan and fecundity patterns in rotifers: The cost of reproduction".
4661:
4215:
3967:
3220:
4093:
698:-selected organisms typically are very constant in number and close to the maximum that the environment can bear (unlike
4786:
4801:
4450:
3341:
3049:
Graves, J.L. (2002). "What a tangled web he weaves: Race, reproductive strategies and
Rushton's life history theory".
1287:
1066:
942:-strategists which are more competitive and better adapted to the emerging micro-environmental characteristics of the
651:
more heavily in fewer offspring, each of which has a relatively high probability of surviving to adulthood (i.e., low
1600:
48:-selection strategy, with few offspring, long gestation, long parental care, and a long period until sexual maturity.
4515:
4235:
3439:
3336:
2078:
Figueredo, Aurelio José; Vásquez, Geneva; Brumbach, Barbara
Hagenah; Schneider, Stephanie M. R. (2007-03-01). "The
1565:
Jeschke, Jonathan M.; Kokko, Hanna (2009). "The roles of body size and phylogeny in fast and slow life histories".
35:
4696:
4308:
4200:
4058:
4043:
4038:
3429:
1101:
drew attention to gaps in the theory, and to ambiguities in the interpretation of empirical data for testing it.
1026:
4455:
1537:
334:{\displaystyle {\frac {\ \operatorname {d} N\ }{\ \operatorname {d} t\ }}=r\ N\left(1-{\frac {\ N\ }{K}}\right)}
4686:
4681:
4651:
3918:
3800:
1267:
613:
1707:
1316:
415:) is the rate of change in population with time. Thus, the equation relates the growth rate of the population
1075:
theory has been debunked as being devoid of empirical basis, and has also been described as a key example of
4796:
4530:
4393:
4303:
4171:
4053:
4023:
3880:
3845:
3565:
3532:
3507:
4676:
4620:
4555:
4418:
4353:
4288:
3948:
3850:
3638:
3346:
3326:
2259:"Statement from the Department of Psychology regarding research conducted by Dr. J. Philippe Rushton"
1860:
893:. Because of their higher reproductive rates and ecological opportunism, primary colonisers typically are
361:
87:-strategists, or on a reduced quantity of offspring with a corresponding increased parental investment of
4580:
4525:
4388:
4373:
4156:
4113:
4103:
4098:
3855:
3835:
3691:
3681:
3623:
3618:
3454:
3306:
1128:
1056:
1001:
886:
689:
664:
129:
device, but lost importance in the early 1990s, when it was criticized by several empirical studies. A
2171:
Peregrine, P (2003). "Cross-cultural evaluation of predicted associations between race and behavior".
4706:
4671:
4666:
4590:
4585:
4540:
4408:
4403:
4255:
4118:
4108:
3653:
3492:
3281:
2735:
2463:
1989:
1643:
1180:
993:
537:
3212:
2972:
2919:
2258:
1865:
4756:
4731:
4595:
4565:
4510:
4423:
4313:
4298:
4245:
4078:
4013:
3895:
3825:
3356:
1703:
1272:
1255:
1138:-selection the population actually produced a higher frequency of traits typically associated with
1052:
1022:
977:
838:
648:
234:
130:
115:
107:
78:
3959:
118:; although the concept of the evolution of life history strategies has a longer history (see e.g.
4811:
4767:
4716:
4711:
4520:
4483:
4181:
4146:
4003:
3928:
3830:
3762:
3752:
3686:
3633:
3444:
3389:
3351:
3276:
3143:
3066:
2892:
2833:
2788:
2759:
2652:
2611:
2533:
2525:
2487:
2432:
2320:
2312:
2138:
Weizmann, Fredric; Wiener, Neil I.; Wiesenthal, David L.; Ziegler, Michael (1990). "Differential
2117:
2013:
1913:
1878:
1582:
1379:
1292:
1172:
1098:
1044:
74:
39:
4225:
2977:
V. Female phenotypic expression on natural genetic backgrounds and in natural environments"
30:
633:-strategists have longer life expectancies, produce fewer offspring, and when young tend to be
4656:
4625:
4413:
4240:
4048:
3913:
3890:
3747:
3628:
3404:
3316:
3301:
3286:
3266:
3199:
3135:
3095:
3029:
3006:
2953:
2900:
2841:
2796:
2751:
2479:
2381:
2215:
2109:
2101:
2060:
2005:
1962:
1831:
1802:
1736:
1730:
1669:
1604:
1482:
1457:
1411:
1176:
1076:
371:
230:
70:
2211:
1254:
for an age-structured population) and for density-dependent selection (e.g. variable density
472:-selected species are those that emphasize high growth rates, typically exploit less-crowded
4610:
4473:
4465:
4383:
4265:
4250:
4186:
4166:
4083:
4073:
4068:
4033:
3865:
3805:
3676:
3477:
3419:
3331:
3291:
3189:
3127:
3089:
3058:
2996:
2988:
2943:
2935:
2884:
2825:
2743:
2689:
2644:
2603:
2517:
2471:
2424:
2371:
2363:
2304:
2207:
2180:
2153:
2093:
2052:
1997:
1952:
1944:
1905:
1870:
1792:
1784:
1659:
1651:
1574:
1533:
1397:
1371:
947:
927:
870:
473:
119:
1168:
theory was a once useful heuristic that no longer serves a purpose in life history theory.
4746:
4605:
4575:
4570:
4560:
4493:
4478:
4358:
4338:
4220:
4088:
3994:
3885:
3795:
3737:
3722:
3321:
3247:
1282:
714:
533:
440:
2739:
2693:
2467:
1993:
1647:
1250:
Alternative approaches are now available both for studying life history evolution (e.g.
421:
to the current population size, incorporating the effect of the two constant parameters
4726:
4550:
4503:
4433:
4428:
4323:
4190:
4063:
3870:
3860:
3840:
3717:
3643:
3608:
3547:
3424:
3379:
3271:
3001:
2948:
2376:
2339:
1957:
1932:
1797:
1772:
1432:
997:
591:
480:, each of which has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood (i.e., high
2697:
2184:
1664:
1631:
1541:
4780:
4751:
3727:
3701:
3658:
3648:
3603:
3590:
3570:
3462:
3296:
3251:
3085:
3070:
1655:
1359:
1251:
1184:
837:
dichotomy can be re-expressed as a continuous spectrum using the economic concept of
3147:
2763:
2656:
2537:
2491:
2436:
2324:
2235:
Weizmann, Frederic; Wiener, Neil I.; Wiesenthal, David L.; Ziegler, Michael (1989).
2121:
2017:
1917:
1586:
1383:
4736:
4721:
4378:
4348:
4293:
4176:
4141:
4018:
3517:
2615:
1827:
1632:"Distribution and Life Strategies of Two Bacterial Populations in a Eutrophic Lake"
1401:
908:
718:
634:
514:
111:
2939:
2475:
2056:
1882:
1519:-selection revisited: the role of population regulation in life-history evolution"
2992:
2778:
1821:
1451:
1437:
Mode of evolution of species in relation to their places in ecological succession
4028:
3757:
3575:
3537:
3512:
3502:
3467:
3414:
3394:
3062:
2582:
Kuno, E. (1991). "Some strange properties of the logistic equation defined with
2367:
2236:
1355:
987:
981:
861:
In areas of major ecological disruption or sterilisation (such as after a major
758:
584:
899:-strategists and they are followed by a succession of increasingly competitive
4741:
4318:
4283:
3923:
3875:
3820:
3790:
3696:
3613:
3557:
3434:
3384:
3194:
3177:
2277:
1909:
1578:
809:
618:
587:
400:
351:
194:
2105:
2064:
704:-selected populations, where population sizes can change much more rapidly).
4646:
4600:
4328:
3772:
3742:
3542:
3497:
3472:
3409:
3399:
3374:
3366:
3311:
2675:"Evolution of life-history traits – critique of theory and a review of data"
2001:
1018:
976:
selection theory is also useful in studying the evolution of ecological and
943:
890:
862:
529:
525:
500:
477:
198:
126:
3203:
2904:
2845:
2793:
Ecological genetics and evolution: The cactus-yeast-drosophila model system
2755:
2483:
2450:
Luckinbill, L.S. (1978). "r and K selection in experimental populations of
2290:-selection — evidence from wild flowers and some theoretical consideration"
2113:
2009:
1966:
1806:
1788:
1190:
Writing in 2002, Reznick and colleagues reviewed the controversy regarding
3010:
2957:
2385:
1673:
673:-selected species are occasionally referred to as "opportunistic" whereas
17:
4701:
4630:
4161:
3668:
3580:
3527:
3482:
3139:
951:
866:
746:
568:
175:
A litter of rats with their mother. The reproduction of rats follows an
4691:
4498:
4368:
4363:
3990:
3938:
3598:
3243:
2896:
2837:
2747:
2648:
2607:
2529:
2428:
2316:
2097:
1948:
1874:
1851:
McNeely, J.A. (1994). "Lessons of the past: Forests and biodiversity".
1277:
926:
Eventually a new equilibrium is approached (sometimes referred to as a
805:
226:
171:
53:
1758:
Mother Nature: Maternal instincts and how they shape the human species
3118:
Stearns, S.C. (1976). "Life history tactics: A review of the ideas".
2157:
762:
599:
595:
576:
572:
125:
The theory was popular in the 1970s and 1980s, when it was used as a
3091:
Panarchy: Understanding transformations in human and natural systems
2888:
2829:
2352:-selection on components of variance for 2 quantitative traits"
1823:
1605:"Notice sur la loi que la population pursuit dans son accroissement"
992:. At the other end of the scale, it has also been used to study the
980:
differences between subspecies, for instance the
African honey bee,
433:. (Note that decrease is negative growth.) The choice of the letter
3131:
2521:
2308:
1375:
1144:-selection. Several other studies contradicting the predictions of
2973:"The molecular through ecological genetics of abnormal abdomen in
2924:
VI. The non-neutrality of the Y chromosome rDNA polymorphism"
2920:"The molecular through ecological genetics of abnormal abdomen in
1040:
904:
900:
766:
754:
750:
612:
580:
170:
29:
27:
Ecological theory concerning the selection of life history traits
1729:
Duffus, John H.; Templeton, Douglas M.; Nordberg, Monica (2009).
692:
successfully for limited resources is crucial and populations of
3178:"Density-dependent selection and the limits of relative fitness"
3963:
3216:
1000:. Other researchers have proposed that the evolution of human
721:
until they mature. Organisms whose life history is subject to
2241:
International
Journal of Dynamic Assessment & Instruction
717:, and the production of fewer offspring, which often require
2971:
Templeton, A.R.; Hollocher, H.; Johnston, J.S. (June 1993).
2785:-selection in a Natural Population of Drosophila mercatorum"
2043:
selection: An extension of gene-based evolutionary theory".
1154:
selection theory were also published between 1977 and 1994.
1538:
10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[1509:RAKSRT]2.0.CO;2
1048:
2263:
Department of
Psychology, University of Western Ontario
1039:
selection theory to various human behaviors, including
1065:" to attempt to explain variations in behavior across
2859:
Taylor, Charles E.; Condra, Cindra (November 1980). "
1773:"The discounted reproductive number for epidemiology"
1410:(2001 reprint ed.). Princeton University Press.
847:-selection corresponding to large discount rates and
246:
777:
Although some organisms are identified as primarily
4639:
4539:
4464:
4337:
4274:
4134:
4002:
3904:
3783:
3710:
3667:
3589:
3556:
3453:
3365:
3259:
1350:
1348:
917:species proliferate to reach a peak possible with
853:-selection corresponding to small discount rates.
679:-selected species are described as "equilibrium".
333:
2200:"Scientific Racism and North American Psychology"
745:-selected traits include large organisms such as
151:life history as a replacement for, respectively,
2031:Ellis, Lee (1987-01-01). "Criminal behavior and
1453:Evolution Of Life Histories: Theory and Analysis
757:, but also smaller long-lived organisms such as
707:Traits that are thought to be characteristic of
1630:Weinbauer, M.G.; Höfle, M.G. (1 October 1998).
1500:
1498:
1202:
966:While usually applied at the level of species,
3176:Bertram, Jason; Masel, Joanna (October 2019).
3113:
3111:
2668:
2666:
2237:"Scientific racism in contemporary psychology"
1505:Reznick, D.; Bryant, M.J.; Bashey, F. (2002).
513:-selection predominates due to the ability to
3975:
3228:
2918:Hollocher, H.; Templeton, A.R. (April 1994).
2779:"Life History Evolution Under Pleiotropy and
2399:Grahame, J. (1977). "Reproductive effort and
1771:Reluga, T.; Medlock, J.; Galvani, A. (2009).
1624:
1622:
8:
3165:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
2714:Parry, G.D. (March 1981). "The meanings of
2503:
2501:
2133:
2131:
1933:"Tradeoffs in bacteriophage life histories"
1820:Gunderson, Lance H.; Holling, C.S. (2001).
1735:. Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 171.
543:Organisms whose life history is subject to
507:In unstable or unpredictable environments,
4196:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
3982:
3968:
3960:
3235:
3221:
3213:
1982:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
688:-selection predominates as the ability to
193:selection theory, selective pressures are
3193:
3000:
2947:
2375:
2204:Oxford Research Encyclopedias: Psychology
1956:
1864:
1796:
1663:
1439:. XVTH International Congress of Zoology.
936:-strategists gradually being replaced by
713:-selection include large body size, long
308:
247:
245:
4094:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
3733:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
1777:Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering
885:-strategists play distinct roles in the
106:-selection was coined by the ecologists
4126:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
3163:Evolution in age structured populations
2777:Templeton, A.R.; Johnson, J.S. (1982).
2084:-factor, covitality, and personality".
1308:
682:In stable or predictable environments,
3934:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
2212:10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.516
1200:selection theory and concluded that:
996:of whole groups of organisms, such as
637:, requiring extensive care by parents.
201:in one of two generalized directions:
2565:Acta Oecologica – Oecologia Generalis
590:, certain families of birds, such as
225:, are drawn from standard ecological
7:
3949:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
2795:. Academic Press. pp. 225–239.
727:-selection are often referred to as
549:-selection are often referred to as
4399:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
2694:10.1146/annurev.es.08.110177.001045
1898:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
956:intermediate disturbance hypothesis
4152:Ecological effects of biodiversity
2594:– inherent defects or artifacts".
2276:Gadgil, M.; Solbrig, O.T. (1972).
2198:Winston, Andrew S. (29 May 2020).
1204:The distinguishing feature of the
561:-selected. Organisms that exhibit
270:
253:
25:
4807:Race and intelligence controversy
3488:Generalist and specialist species
2563:-selection operative concepts?".
1407:The Theory of Island Biogeography
1245:Reznick, Bryant, and Bashey, 2002
229:as illustrated in the simplified
4211:Occupancy–abundance relationship
2596:Researches on Population Ecology
2551:Barbault, R. (1987). "Are still
2411:-selection in 2 species of
2144:theory and racial hierarchies".
1656:10.1128/AEM.64.10.3776-3783.1998
567:-selected traits can range from
498:species is the dandelion (genus
4231:Relative abundance distribution
3944:Plant defense against herbivory
3811:Competitive exclusion principle
3523:Mesopredator release hypothesis
3026:The Evolution of Life Histories
1479:The Evolution of Life Histories
114:in 1967 based on their work on
3816:Consumer–resource interactions
3182:Theoretical Population Biology
1051:, and other traits related to
532:, early maturity onset, short
374:of the local environment, and
1:
4792:Evolutionary biology concepts
4662:Biological data visualization
4489:Environmental niche modelling
4216:Population viability analysis
2476:10.1126/science.202.4373.1201
2415:(Gastropoda-Prosobranchia)".
2185:10.1016/s1090-5138(03)00040-0
2057:10.1080/01639625.1987.9967739
1853:Biodiversity and Conservation
621:, an individual of a typical
4147:Density-dependent inhibition
2173:Evolution and Human Behavior
1756:Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer (2000).
1477:Stearns, Stephen C. (1992).
4616:Liebig's law of the minimum
4451:Resource selection function
3342:Metabolic theory of ecology
3120:Quarterly Review of Biology
3094:. Island Press. p. 7.
3063:10.1177/1469962002002002627
3028:. Oxford University Press.
2940:10.1093/genetics/136.4.1373
2682:Annual Review of Ecol. Syst
2338:Long, T.; Long, G. (1974).
1481:. Oxford University Press.
1288:Semelparity and iteroparity
4828:
4516:Niche apportionment models
4236:Relative species abundance
3440:Primary nutritional groups
3337:List of feeding behaviours
2993:10.1093/genetics/134.2.475
1298:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
1029:, have attempted to apply
1017:Some researchers, such as
739:-selected. Organisms with
133:paradigm has replaced the
36:North Atlantic right whale
4765:
4697:Ecosystem based fisheries
4309:Interspecific competition
4201:Minimum viable population
4059:Maximum sustainable yield
4044:Intraspecific competition
4039:Effective population size
3919:Anti-predator adaptations
3430:Photosynthetic efficiency
3195:10.1016/j.tpb.2018.11.006
3161:Charlesworth, B. (1980).
2635:-K selection revisited".
2368:10.1093/genetics/76.3.567
1910:10.1007/s00265-002-0501-3
1702:. Department of Biology.
1579:10.1007/s10682-008-9276-y
1104:In 1981, a review of the
839:discounted future returns
213:-selection. These terms,
4687:Ecological stoichiometry
4652:Alternative stable state
2873:Drosophila pseudoobscura
1636:Appl. Environ. Microbiol
1278:Minimax/maximin strategy
1268:Evolutionary game theory
446:(capacity limit), while
4531:Ontogenetic niche shift
4394:Ideal free distribution
4304:Ecological facilitation
4054:Malthusian growth model
4024:Consumer-resource model
3881:Paradox of the plankton
3846:Energy systems language
3566:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
3533:Optimal foraging theory
3508:Heterotrophic nutrition
2002:10.1196/annals.1395.007
1450:Roff, Derek A. (1993).
986:, and the Italian bee,
719:extensive parental care
163:reproductive strategy.
4677:Ecological forecasting
4621:Marginal value theorem
4419:Landscape epidemiology
4354:Cross-boundary subsidy
4289:Biological interaction
3639:Microbial intelligence
3327:Green world hypothesis
3051:Anthropological Theory
3024:Stearns, S.C. (1992).
2673:Stearns, S.C. (1977).
1789:10.3934/mbe.2009.6.377
1732:Concepts in Toxicology
1360:"On r and K selection"
1248:
1027:Aurelio José Figueredo
1002:inflammatory responses
954:species. However, the
638:
335:
180:
49:
4682:Ecological humanities
4581:Ecological energetics
4526:Niche differentiation
4389:Habitat fragmentation
4157:Ecological extinction
4104:Small population size
3856:Feed conversion ratio
3836:Ecological succession
3768:San Francisco Estuary
3682:Ecological efficiency
3624:Microbial cooperation
2975:Drosophila mercatorum
2922:Drosophila mercatorum
2787:. In Barker, J.S.F.;
1129:Drosophila mercatorum
1055:. Rushton developed "
889:that regenerates the
887:ecological succession
857:Ecological succession
665:scientific literature
627:-strategist species.
616:
536:, and the ability to
409:with respect to time
336:
174:
33:
4707:Evolutionary ecology
4672:Ecological footprint
4667:Ecological economics
4591:Ecological threshold
4586:Ecological indicator
4456:Source–sink dynamics
4409:Land change modeling
4404:Insular biogeography
4256:Species distribution
3995:Modelling ecosystems
3654:Microbial metabolism
3493:Intraguild predation
3282:Biogeochemical cycle
3248:Modelling ecosystems
2637:Evolutionary Ecology
1567:Evolutionary Ecology
994:evolutionary ecology
524:-selection are high
244:
38:with solitary calf.
4787:Ecological theories
4757:Theoretical ecology
4732:Natural environment
4596:Ecosystem diversity
4566:Ecological collapse
4556:Bateman's principle
4511:Limiting similarity
4424:Landscape limnology
4246:Species homogeneity
4084:Population modeling
4079:Population dynamics
3896:Trophic state index
2789:Starmer, William T.
2740:1981Oecol..48..260P
2510:American Naturalist
2468:1978Sci...202.1201L
2462:(4373): 1201–1203.
2146:Canadian Psychology
1994:2007NYASA1100...84V
1931:Keen, E.C. (2014).
1760:. Ballantine Books.
1704:University of Miami
1648:1998ApEnM..64.3776W
1609:Corresp. Math. Phys
1364:American Naturalist
1273:Life history theory
1171:More recently, the
1053:life history theory
1023:J. Philippe Rushton
773:Continuous spectrum
476:, and produce many
403:of population size
235:population dynamics
116:island biogeography
96:The terminology of
79:parental investment
73:of combinations of
4802:Population ecology
4768:Outline of ecology
4717:Industrial ecology
4712:Functional ecology
4576:Ecological deficit
4521:Niche construction
4484:Ecosystem engineer
4261:Species–area curve
4182:Introduced species
3997:: Other components
3929:Deimatic behaviour
3831:Ecological network
3763:North Pacific Gyre
3748:hydrothermal vents
3687:Ecological pyramid
3634:Microbial food web
3445:Primary production
3390:Foundation species
2748:10.1007/BF00347974
2649:10.1007/BF01237746
2608:10.1007/BF02514572
2429:10.1007/BF00390877
2098:10.1007/bf02820846
1949:10.4161/bact.28365
1875:10.1007/BF00115329
1293:Survivorship curve
1099:Stephen C. Stearns
1045:sexual promiscuity
639:
540:offspring widely.
331:
181:
50:
40:Whale reproduction
4774:
4773:
4657:Balance of nature
4414:Landscape ecology
4299:Community ecology
4241:Species diversity
4177:Indicator species
4172:Gradient analysis
4049:Logistic function
3957:
3956:
3914:Animal coloration
3891:Trophic mutualism
3629:Microbial ecology
3420:Photoheterotrophs
3405:Myco-heterotrophy
3317:Ecosystem ecology
3302:Carrying capacity
3267:Abiotic component
3084:Gunderson, L.H.;
3035:978-0-19-857741-6
2802:978-0-12-078820-0
2221:978-0-19-023655-7
1837:978-1-55963-857-9
1742:978-0-85404-157-2
1642:(10): 3776–3783.
1488:978-0-19-857741-6
1463:978-0-412-02391-0
1417:978-0-691-08836-5
1333:www.bio.miami.edu
1177:adaptive capacity
1077:scientific racism
474:ecological niches
372:carrying capacity
324:
319:
313:
293:
283:
281:
269:
264:
252:
16:(Redirected from
4819:
4474:Ecological niche
4446:selection theory
4266:Umbrella species
4251:Species richness
4187:Invasive species
4167:Flagship species
4074:Population cycle
4069:Overexploitation
4034:Ecological yield
3984:
3977:
3970:
3961:
3866:Mesotrophic soil
3806:Climax community
3738:Marine food webs
3677:Biomagnification
3478:Chemoorganotroph
3332:Keystone species
3292:Biotic component
3237:
3230:
3223:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3197:
3173:
3167:
3166:
3158:
3152:
3151:
3115:
3106:
3105:
3081:
3075:
3074:
3057:(2): 2 131–154.
3046:
3040:
3039:
3021:
3015:
3014:
3004:
2968:
2962:
2961:
2951:
2915:
2909:
2908:
2870:
2864:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2813:
2807:
2806:
2784:
2774:
2768:
2767:
2725:
2719:
2711:
2705:
2704:
2702:
2696:. Archived from
2679:
2670:
2661:
2660:
2634:
2626:
2620:
2619:
2593:
2587:
2579:
2573:
2572:
2562:
2556:
2548:
2542:
2541:
2516:(964): 805–816.
2505:
2496:
2495:
2452:Escherichia coli
2447:
2441:
2440:
2410:
2404:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2379:
2351:
2345:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2294:
2289:
2283:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2232:
2226:
2225:
2195:
2189:
2188:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2158:10.1037/h0078934
2143:
2135:
2126:
2125:
2083:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2045:Deviant Behavior
2042:
2041:
2028:
2022:
2021:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1960:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1893:
1887:
1886:
1868:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1800:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1706:. Archived from
1699:
1693:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1667:
1626:
1617:
1616:
1597:
1591:
1590:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1552:
1546:
1540:. Archived from
1532:(6): 1509–1520.
1523:
1518:
1512:
1502:
1493:
1492:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1428:
1422:
1421:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1370:(940): 592–597.
1352:
1343:
1342:
1340:
1339:
1328:
1322:
1313:
1246:
1239:
1233:
1227:
1221:
1215:
1209:
1199:
1167:
1153:
1143:
1137:
1125:
1119:
1113:
1096:
1074:
1062:
1038:
1013:
983:A. m. scutellata
975:
948:local extinction
941:
935:
928:climax community
922:
916:
898:
884:
878:
871:Mount St. Helens
865:eruption, as at
852:
846:
836:
823:
817:
800:
794:
788:
782:
744:
738:
733:-strategists or
732:
726:
712:
703:
697:
687:
678:
672:
662:
656:
646:
632:
626:
566:
560:
555:-strategists or
554:
548:
523:
512:
497:
491:
485:
471:
451:
444:Kapazitätsgrenze
438:
432:
426:
420:
414:
408:
398:
397:
395:
394:
388:
385:
369:
359:
349:
340:
338:
337:
332:
330:
326:
325:
320:
317:
311:
309:
291:
284:
282:
279:
267:
265:
262:
250:
248:
224:
218:
212:
206:
192:
162:
156:
142:
120:plant strategies
108:Robert MacArthur
105:
92:
86:
67:selection theory
66:
47:
21:
4827:
4826:
4822:
4821:
4820:
4818:
4817:
4816:
4777:
4776:
4775:
4770:
4761:
4747:Systems ecology
4635:
4606:Extinction debt
4571:Ecological debt
4561:Bioluminescence
4542:
4535:
4504:marine habitats
4479:Ecological trap
4460:
4340:
4333:
4276:
4270:
4226:Rapoport's rule
4221:Priority effect
4162:Endemic species
4130:
4089:Population size
4005:
3998:
3988:
3958:
3953:
3906:
3900:
3886:Trophic cascade
3796:Bioaccumulation
3779:
3706:
3663:
3585:
3552:
3449:
3361:
3322:Ecosystem model
3255:
3241:
3211:
3175:
3174:
3170:
3160:
3159:
3155:
3117:
3116:
3109:
3102:
3083:
3082:
3078:
3048:
3047:
3043:
3036:
3023:
3022:
3018:
2970:
2969:
2965:
2917:
2916:
2912:
2889:10.2307/2408299
2866:
2860:
2858:
2857:
2853:
2830:10.2307/2407451
2815:
2814:
2810:
2803:
2780:
2776:
2775:
2771:
2721:
2715:
2713:
2712:
2708:
2700:
2677:
2672:
2671:
2664:
2630:
2628:
2627:
2623:
2589:
2583:
2581:
2580:
2576:
2558:
2557:-selection and
2552:
2550:
2549:
2545:
2507:
2506:
2499:
2449:
2448:
2444:
2406:
2405:-selection and
2400:
2398:
2397:
2393:
2347:
2346:-selection and
2341:
2337:
2336:
2332:
2292:
2285:
2284:-selection and
2279:
2275:
2274:
2270:
2257:
2256:
2252:
2234:
2233:
2229:
2222:
2197:
2196:
2192:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2129:
2079:
2077:
2076:
2072:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2029:
2025:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1866:10.1.1.461.5908
1850:
1849:
1845:
1838:
1819:
1818:
1814:
1770:
1769:
1765:
1755:
1754:
1750:
1743:
1728:
1727:
1723:
1713:
1711:
1695:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1629:
1627:
1620:
1599:
1598:
1594:
1564:
1563:
1559:
1550:
1548:
1544:
1521:
1514:
1508:
1504:
1503:
1496:
1489:
1476:
1475:
1471:
1464:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1431:
1429:
1425:
1418:
1396:
1395:
1391:
1354:
1353:
1346:
1337:
1335:
1324:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1283:Ruderal species
1264:
1247:
1244:
1235:
1229:
1223:
1217:
1211:
1205:
1191:
1159:
1145:
1139:
1133:
1121:
1115:
1105:
1088:
1085:
1070:
1069:. Differential
1058:
1030:
1005:
989:A. m. ligustica
967:
964:
937:
931:
918:
912:
894:
880:
874:
859:
848:
842:
828:
819:
813:
796:
790:
784:
778:
775:
740:
734:
728:
722:
715:life expectancy
708:
699:
693:
683:
674:
668:
658:
652:
642:
628:
622:
611:
598:, particularly
562:
556:
550:
544:
534:generation time
519:
508:
493:
487:
481:
467:
465:
447:
434:
428:
422:
416:
410:
404:
389:
386:
379:
378:
376:
375:
365:
360:is the maximum
355:
345:
310:
301:
297:
266:
249:
242:
241:
220:
214:
208:
202:
184:
169:
158:
152:
134:
97:
88:
82:
69:relates to the
58:
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4825:
4823:
4815:
4814:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4797:Mating systems
4794:
4789:
4779:
4778:
4772:
4771:
4766:
4763:
4762:
4760:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4727:Microecosystem
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4669:
4664:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4643:
4641:
4637:
4636:
4634:
4633:
4628:
4626:Thorson's rule
4623:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4553:
4551:Assembly rules
4547:
4545:
4537:
4536:
4534:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4507:
4506:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4470:
4468:
4462:
4461:
4459:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4436:
4434:Patch dynamics
4431:
4429:Metapopulation
4426:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4345:
4343:
4335:
4334:
4332:
4331:
4326:
4324:Storage effect
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4280:
4278:
4272:
4271:
4269:
4268:
4263:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4206:Neutral theory
4203:
4198:
4193:
4191:Native species
4184:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4138:
4136:
4132:
4131:
4129:
4128:
4123:
4122:
4121:
4116:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4091:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4064:Overpopulation
4061:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4010:
4008:
4000:
3999:
3989:
3987:
3986:
3979:
3972:
3964:
3955:
3954:
3952:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3910:
3908:
3902:
3901:
3899:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3871:Nutrient cycle
3868:
3863:
3861:Feeding frenzy
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3841:Energy quality
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3801:Cascade effect
3798:
3793:
3787:
3785:
3781:
3780:
3778:
3777:
3776:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3714:
3712:
3708:
3707:
3705:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3673:
3671:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3661:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3644:Microbial loop
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3609:Lithoautotroph
3606:
3601:
3595:
3593:
3591:Microorganisms
3587:
3586:
3584:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3562:
3560:
3554:
3553:
3551:
3550:
3548:Prey switching
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3459:
3457:
3451:
3450:
3448:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3425:Photosynthesis
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3380:Chemosynthesis
3377:
3371:
3369:
3363:
3362:
3360:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3272:Abiotic stress
3269:
3263:
3261:
3257:
3256:
3242:
3240:
3239:
3232:
3225:
3217:
3210:
3209:
3168:
3153:
3132:10.1086/409052
3107:
3100:
3076:
3041:
3034:
3016:
2963:
2934:(4): 1373–84.
2910:
2883:(6): 1183–93.
2871:-selection in
2851:
2824:(4): 882–890.
2808:
2801:
2769:
2706:
2703:on 2008-12-16.
2662:
2643:(3): 287–305.
2621:
2574:
2543:
2522:10.1086/282956
2497:
2442:
2423:(3): 217–224.
2391:
2362:(3): 567–573.
2330:
2309:10.1086/282748
2303:(947): 14–31.
2268:
2250:
2227:
2220:
2190:
2179:(5): 357–364.
2163:
2127:
2070:
2051:(2): 149–176.
2023:
1972:
1923:
1888:
1843:
1836:
1812:
1783:(2): 377–393.
1763:
1748:
1741:
1721:
1679:
1618:
1601:Verhulst, P.F.
1592:
1573:(6): 867–878.
1557:
1494:
1487:
1469:
1462:
1442:
1423:
1416:
1389:
1376:10.1086/282697
1344:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1301:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1263:
1260:
1242:
1084:
1081:
1004:is related to
998:bacteriophages
963:
960:
858:
855:
801:-strategists.
774:
771:
610:
604:
592:dabbling ducks
464:
458:
439:came from the
342:
341:
329:
323:
316:
307:
304:
300:
296:
290:
287:
278:
275:
272:
261:
258:
255:
231:Verhulst model
168:
165:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4824:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4784:
4782:
4769:
4764:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4752:Urban ecology
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4644:
4642:
4638:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4611:Kleiber's law
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4548:
4546:
4544:
4538:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4505:
4502:
4501:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4471:
4469:
4467:
4463:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4445:
4441:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4384:Foster's rule
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4346:
4344:
4342:
4336:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4281:
4279:
4273:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4139:
4137:
4133:
4127:
4124:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4111:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4011:
4009:
4007:
4001:
3996:
3992:
3985:
3980:
3978:
3973:
3971:
3966:
3965:
3962:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3911:
3909:
3903:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3788:
3786:
3782:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3740:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3715:
3713:
3709:
3703:
3702:Trophic level
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3674:
3672:
3670:
3666:
3660:
3659:Phage ecology
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3649:Microbial mat
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3604:Bacteriophage
3602:
3600:
3597:
3596:
3594:
3592:
3588:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3571:Decomposition
3569:
3567:
3564:
3563:
3561:
3559:
3555:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3518:Mesopredators
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3463:Apex predator
3461:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3452:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3372:
3370:
3368:
3364:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3297:Biotic stress
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3262:
3258:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3238:
3233:
3231:
3226:
3224:
3219:
3218:
3215:
3205:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3172:
3169:
3164:
3157:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3114:
3112:
3108:
3103:
3101:9781597269391
3097:
3093:
3092:
3087:
3086:Holling, C.S.
3080:
3077:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3045:
3042:
3037:
3031:
3027:
3020:
3017:
3012:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2987:(2): 475–85.
2986:
2982:
2978:
2976:
2967:
2964:
2959:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2923:
2914:
2911:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2869:
2863:
2855:
2852:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2812:
2809:
2804:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2783:
2773:
2770:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2726:-selection".
2724:
2718:
2710:
2707:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2676:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2633:
2625:
2622:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2592:
2586:
2578:
2575:
2570:
2566:
2561:
2555:
2547:
2544:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2504:
2502:
2498:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2446:
2443:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2409:
2403:
2395:
2392:
2387:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2350:
2344:
2334:
2331:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2288:
2282:
2272:
2269:
2264:
2260:
2254:
2251:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2231:
2228:
2223:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2194:
2191:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2167:
2164:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2142:
2134:
2132:
2128:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2082:
2074:
2071:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2040:
2036:
2027:
2024:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1943:(1): e28365.
1942:
1938:
1937:Bacteriophage
1934:
1927:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1904:(4): 318–25.
1903:
1899:
1892:
1889:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1847:
1844:
1839:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1824:
1816:
1813:
1808:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1767:
1764:
1759:
1752:
1749:
1744:
1738:
1734:
1733:
1725:
1722:
1710:on 2014-09-05
1709:
1705:
1701:
1698:
1692:
1683:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1628:For example:
1625:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1596:
1593:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1558:
1547:on 2010-12-30
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1520:
1517:
1511:
1501:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1484:
1480:
1473:
1470:
1465:
1459:
1455:
1454:
1446:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1430:For example:
1427:
1424:
1419:
1413:
1409:
1408:
1403:
1399:
1398:MacArthur, R.
1393:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1334:
1330:
1327:
1321:
1312:
1309:
1303:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1265:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1256:lottery model
1253:
1252:Leslie matrix
1241:
1238:
1232:
1226:
1220:
1214:
1208:
1201:
1198:
1194:
1188:
1186:
1185:C. S. Holling
1182:
1178:
1174:
1169:
1166:
1162:
1155:
1152:
1148:
1142:
1136:
1131:
1130:
1124:
1118:
1112:
1108:
1102:
1100:
1095:
1091:
1082:
1080:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1064:
1061:
1057:differential
1054:
1050:
1047:, fertility,
1046:
1042:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1012:
1008:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
990:
985:
984:
979:
974:
970:
961:
959:
957:
953:
949:
945:
940:
934:
929:
924:
921:
915:
910:
906:
902:
897:
892:
888:
883:
877:
872:
868:
864:
856:
854:
851:
845:
840:
835:
831:
825:
822:
816:
812:display both
811:
807:
802:
799:
793:
787:
781:
772:
770:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
743:
737:
731:
725:
720:
716:
711:
705:
702:
696:
691:
686:
680:
677:
671:
666:
661:
655:
650:
645:
641:By contrast,
636:
631:
625:
620:
615:
608:
605:
603:
601:
597:
593:
589:
586:
583:, to various
582:
578:
574:
570:
565:
559:
553:
547:
541:
539:
535:
531:
527:
522:
516:
511:
505:
503:
502:
496:
492:). A typical
490:
484:
479:
475:
470:
462:
459:
457:
455:
450:
445:
442:
437:
431:
425:
419:
413:
407:
402:
393:
383:
373:
368:
363:
358:
353:
348:
327:
321:
314:
305:
302:
298:
294:
288:
285:
276:
273:
259:
256:
240:
239:
238:
236:
232:
228:
223:
217:
211:
205:
200:
196:
191:
187:
178:
173:
166:
164:
161:
155:
150:
146:
141:
137:
132:
128:
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
104:
100:
94:
91:
85:
80:
76:
72:
68:
65:
61:
55:
46:
41:
37:
32:
19:
4737:Regime shift
4722:Macroecology
4443:
4439:
4438:
4379:Edge effects
4349:Biogeography
4294:Commensalism
4142:Biodiversity
4019:Allee effect
3758:kelp forests
3711:Example webs
3576:Detritivores
3415:Organotrophs
3395:Kinetotrophs
3347:Productivity
3185:
3181:
3171:
3162:
3156:
3123:
3119:
3090:
3079:
3054:
3050:
3044:
3025:
3019:
2984:
2980:
2974:
2966:
2931:
2927:
2921:
2913:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2867:
2861:
2854:
2821:
2817:
2811:
2792:
2781:
2772:
2734:(2): 260–4.
2731:
2727:
2722:
2716:
2709:
2698:the original
2685:
2681:
2640:
2636:
2631:
2624:
2599:
2595:
2590:
2584:
2577:
2568:
2564:
2559:
2553:
2546:
2513:
2509:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2445:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2407:
2401:
2394:
2359:
2355:
2348:
2342:
2340:"Effects of
2333:
2300:
2296:
2286:
2280:
2278:"Concept of
2271:
2262:
2253:
2244:
2240:
2230:
2203:
2193:
2176:
2172:
2166:
2149:
2145:
2140:
2092:(1): 47–73.
2089:
2086:Human Nature
2085:
2080:
2073:
2048:
2044:
2038:
2034:
2026:
1988:(1): 84–97.
1985:
1981:
1975:
1940:
1936:
1926:
1901:
1897:
1891:
1856:
1852:
1846:
1828:Island Press
1822:
1815:
1780:
1776:
1766:
1757:
1751:
1731:
1724:
1712:. Retrieved
1708:the original
1696:
1690:
1682:
1639:
1635:
1612:
1608:
1595:
1570:
1566:
1560:
1549:. Retrieved
1542:the original
1529:
1525:
1515:
1509:
1478:
1472:
1456:. Springer.
1452:
1445:
1436:
1433:Margalef, R.
1426:
1406:
1402:Wilson, E.O.
1392:
1367:
1363:
1356:Pianka, E.R.
1336:. Retrieved
1332:
1325:
1319:
1311:
1249:
1236:
1230:
1224:
1218:
1212:
1206:
1203:
1196:
1192:
1189:
1183:promoted by
1175:theories of
1170:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1150:
1146:
1140:
1134:
1127:
1122:
1116:
1110:
1106:
1103:
1093:
1089:
1086:
1071:
1059:
1035:
1031:
1016:
1010:
1006:
988:
982:
978:life history
972:
968:
965:
938:
932:
925:
923:strategies.
919:
913:
909:biodiversity
895:
881:
875:
860:
849:
843:
833:
829:
826:
820:
814:
803:
797:
791:
785:
779:
776:
759:Arctic terns
741:
735:
729:
723:
709:
706:
700:
694:
684:
681:
675:
669:
659:
653:
643:
640:
629:
623:
606:
594:, and small
563:
557:
551:
545:
542:
520:
509:
506:
499:
494:
488:
482:
468:
466:
460:
453:
448:
443:
435:
429:
423:
417:
411:
405:
391:
381:
366:
356:
346:
343:
221:
215:
209:
203:
195:hypothesised
189:
185:
182:
176:
159:
153:
148:
144:
139:
135:
131:life-history
124:
112:E. O. Wilson
102:
98:
95:
89:
83:
63:
59:
57:
51:
44:
4374:Disturbance
4277:interaction
4099:Recruitment
4029:Depensation
3821:Copiotrophs
3692:Energy flow
3614:Lithotrophy
3558:Decomposers
3538:Planktivore
3513:Insectivore
3503:Heterotroph
3468:Bacterivore
3435:Phototrophs
3385:Chemotrophs
3357:Restoration
3307:Competition
3126:(1): 3–47.
2688:: 145–171.
2247:(1): 81–93.
2152:(1): 1–13.
1067:human races
1014:selection.
962:Application
810:sea turtles
804:Similarly,
588:cephalopods
585:semelparous
362:growth rate
4781:Categories
4742:Sexecology
4319:Parasitism
4284:Antibiosis
4119:Resistance
4114:Resilience
4004:Population
3924:Camouflage
3876:Oligotroph
3791:Ascendency
3753:intertidal
3743:cold seeps
3697:Food chain
3498:Herbivores
3473:Carnivores
3400:Mixotrophs
3375:Autotrophs
3254:components
1714:4 February
1700:selection"
1615:: 113–121.
1551:2013-05-11
1338:2020-10-27
1329:selection"
1304:References
1240:paradigm.
1181:resilience
619:bald eagle
609:-selection
463:-selection
452:came from
401:derivative
352:population
42:follows a
18:K-selected
4812:Selection
4647:Allometry
4601:Emergence
4329:Symbiosis
4314:Mutualism
4109:Stability
4014:Abundance
3826:Dominance
3784:Processes
3773:tide pool
3669:Food webs
3543:Predation
3528:Omnivores
3455:Consumers
3410:Mycotroph
3367:Producers
3312:Ecosystem
3277:Behaviour
3188:: 81–92.
3071:144377864
2877:Evolution
2818:Evolution
2728:Oecologia
2602:: 33–39.
2417:Mar. Biol
2106:1045-6767
2065:0163-9625
1861:CiteSeerX
1087:Although
1019:Lee Ellis
944:landscape
891:ecosystem
747:elephants
635:altricial
530:body size
526:fecundity
515:reproduce
501:Taraxacum
478:offspring
306:−
274:
257:
199:evolution
197:to drive
127:heuristic
71:selection
4702:Endolith
4631:Xerosere
4543:networks
4359:Ecocline
3905:Defense,
3581:Detritus
3483:Foraging
3352:Resource
3204:30664884
3148:37813334
3088:(2001).
2981:Genetics
2928:Genetics
2905:28568469
2846:28563718
2791:(eds.).
2764:30728470
2756:28309810
2657:21296836
2571:: 63–70.
2538:84902967
2492:43276882
2484:17735406
2437:82459157
2356:Genetics
2325:86412666
2122:10877330
2114:26181744
2018:43589115
2010:17460167
1967:24616839
1918:22128779
1859:: 3–20.
1807:19364158
1603:(1838).
1587:38289373
1435:(1959).
1404:(1967).
1384:83933177
1358:(1970).
1262:See also
1243:—
1173:panarchy
930:), with
867:Krakatoa
863:volcanic
808:such as
806:reptiles
569:bacteria
538:disperse
528:, small
380: d
167:Overview
4692:Ecopath
4499:Habitat
4369:Ecotype
4364:Ecotone
4341:ecology
4339:Spatial
4275:Species
4135:Species
4006:ecology
3991:Ecology
3939:Mimicry
3907:counter
3851:f-ratio
3599:Archaea
3287:Biomass
3260:General
3252:Trophic
3244:Ecology
3011:8325484
3002:1205491
2958:8013914
2949:1205918
2897:2408299
2838:2407451
2736:Bibcode
2616:9459529
2530:2459610
2464:Bibcode
2456:Science
2386:4208860
2377:1213086
2317:2459833
2297:Am. Nat
1990:Bibcode
1958:3942329
1798:3685506
1674:9758799
1644:Bibcode
1526:Ecology
952:endemic
841:, with
763:parrots
690:compete
657:, high
600:rodents
596:mammals
581:grasses
577:insects
573:diatoms
396:
377:
370:is the
350:is the
227:formula
157:versus
147:versus
54:ecology
3723:Rivers
3619:Marine
3202:
3146:
3140:778893
3138:
3098:
3069:
3032:
3009:
2999:
2956:
2946:
2903:
2895:
2865:- and
2844:
2836:
2799:
2762:
2754:
2720:- and
2655:
2614:
2536:
2528:
2490:
2482:
2435:
2413:Lacuna
2384:
2374:
2323:
2315:
2218:
2120:
2112:
2104:
2063:
2016:
2008:
1965:
1955:
1916:
1883:245731
1881:
1863:
1834:
1805:
1795:
1739:
1672:
1665:106546
1662:
1585:
1485:
1460:
1414:
1382:
1222:- and
1210:- and
1132:under
1120:- and
1083:Status
1063:theory
1025:, and
879:- and
818:- and
767:eagles
765:, and
755:whales
753:, and
751:humans
663:). In
649:invest
486:, low
441:German
384:
344:where
318:
312:
292:
280:
268:
263:
251:
75:traits
4640:Other
4541:Other
4494:Guild
4466:Niche
3718:Lakes
3144:S2CID
3067:S2CID
2893:JSTOR
2834:JSTOR
2760:S2CID
2701:(PDF)
2678:(PDF)
2653:S2CID
2612:S2CID
2534:S2CID
2526:JSTOR
2488:S2CID
2433:S2CID
2321:S2CID
2313:JSTOR
2293:(PDF)
2118:S2CID
2014:S2CID
1914:S2CID
1879:S2CID
1583:S2CID
1545:(PDF)
1522:(PDF)
1513:-and
1380:S2CID
1041:crime
905:fauna
901:flora
783:- or
575:, to
399:(the
207:- or
3728:Soil
3200:PMID
3136:PMID
3096:ISBN
3030:ISBN
3007:PMID
2954:PMID
2901:PMID
2842:PMID
2797:ISBN
2752:PMID
2588:and
2480:PMID
2382:PMID
2216:ISBN
2110:PMID
2102:ISSN
2061:ISSN
2006:PMID
1986:1100
1963:PMID
1832:ISBN
1803:PMID
1737:ISBN
1716:2011
1694:and
1670:PMID
1483:ISBN
1458:ISBN
1412:ISBN
1323:and
1179:and
903:and
827:The
579:and
571:and
454:rate
427:and
219:and
149:slow
145:fast
110:and
3190:doi
3186:129
3128:doi
3059:doi
2997:PMC
2989:doi
2985:134
2944:PMC
2936:doi
2932:136
2885:doi
2875:".
2826:doi
2744:doi
2690:doi
2645:doi
2604:doi
2518:doi
2514:108
2472:doi
2460:202
2454:".
2425:doi
2372:PMC
2364:doi
2305:doi
2301:106
2208:doi
2181:doi
2154:doi
2094:doi
2053:doi
1998:doi
1953:PMC
1945:doi
1906:doi
1871:doi
1793:PMC
1785:doi
1660:PMC
1652:doi
1575:doi
1534:doi
1372:doi
1368:104
1258:).
950:of
911:as
873:),
869:or
504:).
233:of
183:In
122:).
81:of
52:In
4783::
4189:/
3993::
3250::
3246::
3198:.
3184:.
3180:.
3142:.
3134:.
3124:51
3122:.
3110:^
3065:.
3053:.
3005:.
2995:.
2983:.
2979:.
2952:.
2942:.
2930:.
2926:.
2899:.
2891:.
2881:34
2879:.
2840:.
2832:.
2822:31
2820:.
2758:.
2750:.
2742:.
2732:48
2730:.
2684:.
2680:.
2665:^
2651:.
2639:.
2610:.
2600:33
2598:.
2567:.
2532:.
2524:.
2512:.
2500:^
2486:.
2478:.
2470:.
2458:.
2431:.
2421:40
2419:.
2380:.
2370:.
2360:76
2358:.
2354:.
2319:.
2311:.
2299:.
2295:.
2261:.
2243:.
2239:.
2214:.
2206:.
2202:.
2177:24
2175:.
2150:31
2148:.
2130:^
2116:.
2108:.
2100:.
2090:18
2088:.
2059:.
2047:.
2012:.
2004:.
1996:.
1984:.
1961:.
1951:.
1939:.
1935:.
1912:.
1902:52
1900:.
1877:.
1869:.
1855:.
1830:.
1826:.
1801:.
1791:.
1779:.
1775:.
1668:.
1658:.
1650:.
1640:64
1638:.
1634:.
1621:^
1613:10
1611:.
1607:.
1581:.
1571:23
1569:.
1530:83
1528:.
1524:.
1497:^
1400:;
1378:.
1366:.
1362:.
1347:^
1331:.
1079:.
1049:IQ
1043:,
1021:,
769:.
761:,
749:,
667:,
617:A
602:.
456:.
390:d
364:,
354:,
237::
56:,
34:A
4444:K
4442:/
4440:r
3983:e
3976:t
3969:v
3236:e
3229:t
3222:v
3206:.
3192::
3150:.
3130::
3104:.
3073:.
3061::
3055:2
3038:.
3013:.
2991::
2960:.
2938::
2907:.
2887::
2868:K
2862:r
2848:.
2828::
2805:.
2782:K
2766:.
2746::
2738::
2723:K
2717:r
2692::
2686:8
2659:.
2647::
2641:7
2632:r
2618:.
2606::
2591:K
2585:r
2569:8
2560:K
2554:r
2540:.
2520::
2494:.
2474::
2466::
2439:.
2427::
2408:K
2402:r
2388:.
2366::
2349:K
2343:r
2327:.
2307::
2287:K
2281:r
2265:.
2245:1
2224:.
2210::
2187:.
2183::
2160:.
2156::
2141:K
2124:.
2096::
2081:K
2067:.
2055::
2049:8
2039:K
2037:/
2035:r
2020:.
2000::
1992::
1969:.
1947::
1941:4
1920:.
1908::
1885:.
1873::
1857:3
1840:.
1809:.
1787::
1781:6
1745:.
1718:.
1697:K
1691:r
1688:"
1676:.
1654::
1646::
1589:.
1577::
1554:.
1536::
1516:K
1510:r
1507:"
1491:.
1466:.
1420:.
1386:.
1374::
1341:.
1326:K
1320:r
1317:"
1237:K
1234:–
1231:r
1225:K
1219:r
1213:K
1207:r
1197:K
1195:/
1193:r
1165:K
1163:/
1161:r
1151:K
1149:/
1147:r
1141:r
1135:K
1123:K
1117:r
1111:K
1109:/
1107:r
1094:K
1092:/
1090:r
1072:K
1060:K
1036:K
1034:/
1032:r
1011:K
1009:/
1007:r
973:K
971:/
969:r
939:K
933:r
920:K
914:r
896:r
882:K
876:r
850:K
844:r
834:K
832:/
830:r
821:K
815:r
798:r
792:K
786:K
780:r
742:K
736:K
730:K
724:K
710:K
701:r
695:K
685:K
676:K
670:r
660:K
654:r
644:K
630:K
624:K
607:K
564:r
558:r
552:r
546:r
521:r
510:r
495:r
489:K
483:r
469:r
461:r
449:r
436:K
430:K
424:r
418:N
412:t
406:N
392:t
387:/
382:N
367:K
357:r
347:N
328:)
322:K
315:N
303:1
299:(
295:N
289:r
286:=
277:t
271:d
260:N
254:d
222:K
216:r
210:K
204:r
190:K
188:/
186:r
177:r
160:K
154:r
140:K
138:/
136:r
103:K
101:/
99:r
90:K
84:r
64:K
62:/
60:r
45:K
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
