952:
exile" and the
Maronite settlement of the Kisrawan in the 16th and 17th centuries as their "return". On the other hand, Beydoun views the narratives of the expeditions by modern Shia Lebanese historians, which emphasize Shia Muslims' defense of the mountains' autonomy from the Mamluks, as part of an effort to bolster Shia credentials as a core Lebanese community. Lebanese Sunni authors generally write of the campaigns from a pro-Mamluk stance, seeing in them the legitimate Muslim state's efforts to incorporate Mount Lebanon into the Islamic realm, while Druze authors write with a focus on the Druze community's consistent connection to Mount Lebanon and defense of its practical autonomy.
914:, clients of the Assafs who became the dominant force in the countryside of Tripoli in the 18th century. The mass population displacements in the Kisrawan made way for new arrivals to settle there. Theodorus noted that "after several years Christians from every region started coming into the country ". The Assafs played a role facilitating the migration of Maronites from the Byblos hills into the Kisrawan. In the end, the Mamluks were unable to continuously pacify the region and adapted to working with the mostly Shia and Christian mountaineers.
285:
511:, though its actual collection in Mount Lebanon was likely done on an inconsistent basis. In response to an Abbasid tax levy in 759, the Christians in the Munaytara region immediately north of the Kisrawan revolted against the government, in coordination with the Byzantines. It was severely suppressed by the Abbasids with heavy rebel casualties and large-scale deportations. A number of the deportees were allowed to return after the intervention of the Muslim scholar
923:
that the campaigns to subjugate the rebel mountaineers of
Kisrawan are "doubtless the best-known episode in the history of Mamluk–Shiite relations". While the near-contemporary Muslim chroniclers do not mention Christians in their accounts of the campaigns, Ottoman-era Maronite historians emphasize the episode as an example of their community's standoff against the oppressiveness of the Muslim authorities. The historian
678:, who were established north and east of the Mamluk empire. While the mostly Christian or non-Sunni Muslim-populated mountain regions between the coast and the interior plains of the Levant were not treated with suspicion as potential Crusader allies by the Mamluks, the Kisrawan's inhabitants were viewed differently. The Druze in the hills south and east of Beirut allied with the Mamluks. Neither the Twelver Shia of
430:
751:
123:
292:
730:
reinforcements entering the Byblos mountains from the south were driven back by the mountaineers stationed at Nahr al-Fidar. Those who fled north were confronted by mountaineers stationed at Nahr al-Madfun. There, the rebels confiscated their arms, horses and goods. Afterward, the chiefs met at the Byblos village of Ma'd where the booty was divided. One
Maronite
766:, Druze emirs of the Gharb (the mountainous area south of Beirut) by incorporating them into the military. The Buhturids were posted to guard Beirut from future Crusader naval assaults and piracy. In Tripoli, the Mamluks rebuilt and refortified the city, making it the capital of Niyabat Tripoli (Tripoli Province), whose jurisdiction extended to
875:" (derogatory term for Shia Muslims) of the Kisrawan. The Twelvers were not completely expelled from the area, though several families were forcibly relocated to Tripoli by the governor of the province. The Buhturids diplomatically intervened to prevent the total evacuation of the Kisrawan, some of whose inhabitants were their confederates.
865:
Through August 1305 the
Mamluks destroyed villages, pillaged the countryside, leveled churches, ruined vineyards, and expelled numerous inhabitants. The destruction of churches was recorded only by Maronite historians, the omission in the Muslim accounts likely due to the operation's emphasis against
741:
The mountaineers may have relented from their assaults upon realizing the Mamluk troops were the elite units of the sultan and not the lower-ranking troops of
Damascus. Afterward, Baydara negotiated the withdrawal of his men after sending gifts to the mountain chiefs and releasing captives. Upon the
922:
The 14th and 15th-century Muslim accounts of the campaigns indicate that the rebels belonged to heterodox Muslim sects, i.e. Twelver Shia, Alawites and Druze. Modern historians generally follow the early Muslim chronicles in determining Shia
Muslims as the campaigns' principal target. Winter states
909:
The
Alawites of the Kisrawan disappeared from the historical record after the campaign. The Twelvers continued to be the largest confessional group in the area, though they were permanently removed from the coastal villages and their numbers were reduced, likely never recovering to pre-1305 levels.
896:
hinterlands north and south of
Tripoli city after the collapse of the Crusader state were resettled in the Kisrawan. The Mamluks later transferred Ala al-Din's lands to them. Their role was to serve as permanent, direct guards of the area's key roads. Among these Turkmen tribes were the progenitors
883:
After the campaign, the
Kisrawan was administratively separated from Tripoli and became part of Wilayat Beirut (Beirut District) in Niyabat Damascus. In the immediate aftermath, the Mamluks allotted lands in the Kisrawan to a Mamluk commander, Ala al-Din of the Beqaa Valley. In early 1306, A number
814:
noted were "difficult to invade". The
Mamluks assaulted the Kisrawani positions from several sides on 9 July 1300. After six days of fighting, the mountaineers conceded, several of their men having been killed and captured. Mamluk troops then entered their strongholds and summoned their chiefs, who
631:
relates that Tripoli was heavily pillaged, many of the inhabitants' treasures were seized, and many others fled to different places to avoid the Crusaders' attacks. The mountaineers of the Kisrawan, regardless of religious confession, did not recognize the authority of either the Crusader states or
626:
asserts that the origins of the Kisrawan Shia community in the 12th–13th centuries "are shrouded in mystery, with no clues in Arabic chronicles". However, according to al-Muhajir, the Twelvers of Kisrawan were likely remnants of the Shias of Tripoli who relocated to the Kisrawan during or after the
404:
in the coastal parts of the Kisrawan to keep a permanent, direct presence in the region. The Alawites fared particularly badly, and were no longer mentioned inhabiting the Kisrawan in the historical record. The Twelver Shia remained the largest confessional group, but their numbers never recovered.
951:
Beydoun describes the efforts by 20th-century Maronite authors to emphasize the Maronite role in the events as an attempt to prove the community's early presence in the Kisrawan. In this way, the Maronites' abandonment of the region in the aftermath of the campaigns could be described as a "forced
850:
recorded the number of Mamluk troops marching from Damascus at 50,000, in addition to the troops of Tripoli marching from the north and the Druze warriors of the Gharb, led by the Buhturid emir Nasir al-Din Husayn ibn Khidr. Harris considers the number to be exaggerated, but notes that it reflects
617:
The Maronites of the Kisrawan maintained close relations and cooperated with the Crusaders, who abolished the jizya. Maronite mountaineers had lent their support to the siege of Tripoli. The Shia communities may also have been on better terms with the Crusaders than with the Sunni Muslim rulers of
842:
was also sent, but his entreaties to the mountaineers to embrace state-sponsored Sunni Islam were rebuffed. Consequently, Ibn Taymiyya advocated their suppression by force. To that end, he rallied Muslims across the Levant to join the impending Mamluk expedition against the Kisrawan and the Jurd.
682:
further south nor the Alawites in the hills east of Latakia in the north lived within the strategic Damascus–Tripoli–Beirut corridors. The Maronites in northern Mount Lebanon had already been pacified by the Mamluks. All of these mountain communities had opposed the Crusaders at point or another,
553:
area to the north during the same time period, though Shia-leaning Muslims may have been present as early as the Umayyad period or entered following the deportations of Christians in 759. According to the historian Ja'far al-Muhajir, pro-Alid and Shia-leaning Muslims, represented by the tribes of
827:
The campaign of 1300 did not end rebel activity in the Kisrawan and the Jurd. In the assessment of Harris, "reduction of the Kisrawan required the main Mamluk field army", which was preoccupied in the war with the Mongols led by Ghazan. When the latter died in 1304, these forces were freed up to
939:
characterizes the competing approaches to the expedition by modern Lebanese authors from different religious communities as efforts to "boost the community with which the historian identifies". The modern Lebanese narrative of the Mamluk expeditions, along with the historical topics of the core
793:
from Beirut. During their evacuation through this route, the mountaineers of the Kisrawan, likely interpreting the withdrawal as a collapse of Mamluk rule in the Levant, attacked and robbed passing Mamluk troops. The Buhturids, on the other hand, provided the troops safe haven in the Gharb. The
416:
In modern Lebanese historical narratives, the Kisrawan campaigns have been a source of controversy by historians from different religious groups. Maronite, Shia and Druze historians have each sought to emphasize the roles of their respective confessional group, over each other, in defending the
673:
After the conquest, the Kisrawan remained a "lawless terrain" between the Mamluk provincial capitals of Damascus and Tripoli, according to Harris. The new rulers remained on guard for potential seaborne Crusader assaults on the Levantine coast in the west and joint military offensives with the
729:
The Mamluk force likely became divided across different points along the coastal road of the Kisrawan and Byblos and the valley tracks deeper into the mountains. They were harried by the mountaineers, though Ibn al-Qilai narrates a wider-scale assault against them by Maronite fighters. Mamluk
683:
while the non-Sunni and Maronite mountaineers of the Kisrawan had never been in conflict with them. According to Harris, the "anomaly" that the Kisrawan presented with regard to its strategic location and historically Crusader-friendly population, "predisposed the Mamluks to military action".
715:) ordered the operation in response to the mountaineers' blockading of the coastal road between Beirut and the Kisrawan. The Mamluk commanders in Damascus, to whom the task was charged, were wary of combating large numbers of battle-hardened mountaineers in the narrow passes of the Kisrawan.
374:. During that campaign, the Mamluks, spread along the coastal road and cut off from each other at various points, were constantly harried by the mountaineers, who confiscated their weapons, horses and money. Baydara withdrew his men only after paying off the mountain chiefs.
862:. The mountaineers were defeated in the ensuing battles, with several hundred killed and six hundred taken as captives. A number of high-ranking Mamluk emirs and two Buhturid emirs, Nasir al-Din's cousins Najm al-Din Muhammad ibn Hajji and his brother Ahmad, were slain.
475:
Information about the Christians of the Kisrawan before the 12th century is scant, though in the 9th century there was evidently an organized Christian, likely Maronite, community governed by village headmen. The Christians of Mount Lebanon had been tolerated under the
905:
rule (1516–1917). The Buhturids' status was further enhanced, their emirs were promoted and their guard duties over Beirut were formalized. Tensions later developed between the Turkmens and the Buhturids over influence in greater Beirut in the following decades.
722:, who led a 3,000-strong army northward through the Levantine coast until reaching the Kisrawan. The mountain warriors who met the Mamluk cavalries numbered around 10,000. Upon the Mamluks' arrival, Maronite villagers rang their church bells to alert their
870:
of Hama noted that the Mamluks "killed and seized all the Alawites and renegades they encountered, and other heretics, and cleared them out of the hills". Ibn Taymiyya wrote a letter to the sultan congratulating him for its success and for subjugating the
695:
against the mountaineers of the Kisrawan and the landlocked Jurd area immediately to its south in July 1292. The medieval Muslim histories identify the mountaineers as Twelver Shia, Alawites and Druze, though the late 15th-century Maronite historian
866:
the non-Sunni Muslims. By 5 January 1306 the Mamluks completed their operation. A local Maronite chronicler, possibly contemporary to the events, noted that "not a monastery, church, or fort was saved from destruction". The 14th-century historian
597:
since 1065, and the Tanukhs, maintained their autonomy amid Seljuk internal squabbles. The Fatimids resumed control of Byblos and other coastal cities before the end of the century, but Tripoli remained independent. In 1109, the Latin Christian
797:
In retaliation against the fighters of the Kisrawan, who al-Ayni dubbed "the most extreme turncoats and freethinkers", the Mamluks organized a large punitive expedition. The army was composed of the provincial garrisons of Damascus, Tripoli,
726:("chiefs"), who met and drafted attack plans. Accordingly, men were stationed at the river gorges of Nahr al-Fidar and Nahr al-Madfoun, the southern and northern natural boundaries of the Byblos area immediately north of the Kisrawan.
393:, defeated the Kisrawani fighters in a number of engagements, after which they conceded, handed over the weapons they had confiscated in 1292 and paid a heavy fine. Persistent rebellion by the mountaineers led Aqqush to lead a final
518:
From 860, Mount Lebanon and the Levant in general no longer came under direct Abbasid rule except for a short revival in the 10th century. Instead, a host of Muslim rulerships prevailed in all or part of the Levant, including the
858:, near the mountain pass of Dahr al-Baydar on the road between Damascus and Beirut. The Mamluks routed the mountaineers and pursued them into the Kisrawan heights. There, they assaulted the mountaineers in multiple
828:
focus on the mountaineers, who had revolted against Mamluk authority that year. Several Muslim scholars were sent by the government to resolve the crisis diplomatically. Aqqush al-Afram sent the openly Twelver Shia
934:
The Kisrawan campaigns are among "the most contested issues in Lebanese historiography" due largely to the "evidence they appear to give of the region's demographic composition", according to Winter. The historian
742:
troops' return to Damascus, Baydara's lieutenants lodged complaints to the sultan, accusing their commander of incompetence and bribery. He was nonetheless spared any serious punishment by al-Ashraf Khalil.
927:
notes that Christians became a larger segment of the Kisrawan's population after the campaign, but "suffered from the expeditions as much as did the heterodox Muslims". In the historian
570:
in 661. The Druze religion, which branched off of Isma'ili Shia Islam in the early 11th century, gained adherents among people in Mount Lebanon and its environs, including much of the
503:
tribe in the hills around Beirut, south of the Kisrawan, to strengthen their authority in the region in the mid-8th century. Under Muslim rule, Christians were mandated to pay the
931:'s assessment, the campaigns had little to do with religious zeal and were driven by the mountaineers' attacks against Mamluk troops in 1292 and 1300 and a tax rebellion in 1305.
409:(1516–1917), Maronites became the predominant religious group in the Kisrawan due to migration there from northern Mount Lebanon. Their settlement was patronized by the Turkmen
582:
and foreign by Sunni and Shia Muslims, but contributed to solidarity among the Druze, who closed their religion to new converts in 1046 due to the threat of persecution.
377:
The second campaign was launched in 1300 to punish the mountaineers for attacking and robbing Mamluk troops retreating along the coastal road following their rout by the
1714:
The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period, from al-Kamil fi'l-Ta'rikh: Part 1, The Years 491–541/1097–1146: The Coming of the Franks and the Muslim Response
851:
the wide scale of the operation. Overall command of the Mamluk force was held again by Aqqush. The Druze Abu al-Lama family were among the leaders of the mountaineers.
284:
1935:
1895:
1890:
834:(head of the Islamic prophet Muhammad's descendants) of Damascus, Muhammad ibn Adnan al-Husayni, to mediate between the two sides, but his effort failed. The
1960:
1950:
666:) likely intended to suppress the potential resistance of the Maronite mountaineers of Tripoli's hinterland in preparation of his planned siege of the city.
1965:
810:, the viceroy of Damascus. The Kisrawanis prepared their defenses and entrenched themselves in the mountains, which the 15th-century Mamluk historian
762:
Throughout the 1290s, the Mamluks consolidated their defenses in Mount Lebanon and the adjacent coast. They formalized their alliance with the Tanukh
300:
350:
tribesmen who historically acted autonomously of any central authority. The Maronites in particular had maintained close cooperation with the last
515:
of Beirut. Further tax rebellions by Christians, presumably inspired by Byzantine military gains against the Caliphate, occurred in 791 and 845.
1945:
1680:
1850:
1722:
1701:
1955:
421:
authors, the Mamluks are portrayed as the legitimate Muslim state working to incorporate Mount Lebanon into the rest of the Islamic realm.
1659:
The Foundation for the History of the Shiites in Lebanon and Syria: The First Scientific Study on the History of the Shiites in the Region
789:
near Homs. A panicked Mamluk flight was precipitated, with troops marching south along the Levantine coast until crossing east into the
405:
While the Maronites were also dealt heavy human and material losses, they were not the principal targets of the campaign. During early
71:
1915:
1871:
397:
against the Kisrawan in 1305, which caused mass destruction of villages and the killings and mass displacement of its inhabitants.
1925:
670:
and the last Crusader outposts along the coast fell within the next three years. The Mamluks reinstated the jizya obligations.
491:
caliphs, who toppled the Umayyads in 750. The distance of Mount Lebanon from the central government and renewed assaults by the
819:
penalty was imposed on the Kisrawan and Aqqush returned to Damascus with a number of Kisrawani elders and chiefs as hostages.
1940:
910:
Little is mentioned of them in the 14th and 15th centuries. Among the Shia who remained may have been the ancestors of the
495:, viewed as natural allies of the Christians, contributed to Abbasid anxieties. In response, the Abbasids installed Muslim
1930:
655:
and Byblos, both north of the Kisrawan. Several villages were plundered and their inhabitants killed. The Mamluk sultan
786:
755:
382:
774:
in the north and east, as well as the Kisrawan. A 4,000-strong garrison of Mamluk troops was stationed in the city.
1920:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1666:
623:
196:
1828:
928:
567:
575:
667:
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by the late 10th century. Twelver communities may have been established in the Kisrawan and the bordering
418:
359:
542:
137:
585:
The regional order changed with the conquest of the interior regions of the Levant by the Sunni Muslim
847:
697:
456:(Nahr Ibrahim) in the north. In the 12th century it had a tribal and religiously mixed population of
936:
911:
701:
692:
622:, or at least were not enthusiastic supporters of their cause against the Crusaders. The historian
461:
394:
162:
1816:
1787:
1752:
603:
362:
to the Mamluks in 1289, the mountaineers would often block the coastal road between Tripoli and
704:(d. 1453) is considered "the best account" of the campaign by Harris. Al-Ayni held that Sultan
1867:
1846:
1718:
1697:
1676:
611:
538:
481:
355:
17:
610:, a process they had started from 1102. Northern Mount Lebanon thereafter became part of the
1838:
1808:
1779:
1744:
705:
644:
607:
546:
531:
492:
319:
233:
182:
173:
128:
65:
1799:
Salibi, Kamal S. (June 1967). "Northern Lebanon under the Dominance of Ġazīr (1517–1591)".
643:, but the cities reverted to Crusader possession in 1197. In 1266–1268 and 1283, the Sunni
945:
859:
830:
807:
640:
579:
390:
351:
166:
1735:(September 1957). "The Maronites of Lebanon under Frankish and Mamluk Rule (1099–1516)".
1693:
The Ottoman Cities of Lebanon: Historical Legacy and Identity in the Modern Middle East
972:
902:
893:
885:
406:
401:
1884:
898:
794:
Mongol victory was short lived and the Mamluks drove them out of the Levant by 1300.
675:
648:
586:
445:
438:
410:
331:
61:
718:
In response to Damascene reticence, the sultan commissioned his Egypt-based viceroy
1732:
968:
924:
839:
790:
628:
535:
520:
453:
948:, thus varies considerably depending on the religious affiliation of the author.
512:
429:
1861:
1832:
1712:
1691:
1670:
901:, which remained in practical control of the Kisrawan into the first century of
867:
815:
handed over the weapons seized from the Mamluks in the 1292 campaign. A 100,000-
559:
555:
335:
750:
1767:"The Buḥturids of the Garb. Mediaeval Lords of Beirut and of Southern Lebanon"
811:
679:
594:
1842:
854:
The Mamluks set off in July 1305. The first clash occurred at the village of
651:
in 1260, raided the Maronite countryside of Tripoli, namely the mountains of
334:. The offensives were launched in 1292, 1300 and 1305. The mountaineers were
86:
73:
1812:
1783:
1748:
941:
778:
763:
599:
574:
settlers in the hills east of Beirut. Certain aspects of the faith, such as
571:
527:
500:
378:
343:
224:
149:
132:
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of Tripoli along the coast adjacent to Mount Lebanon, ruled by a family of
723:
619:
563:
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508:
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457:
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386:
323:
57:
1820:
1791:
1756:
855:
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719:
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488:
371:
367:
339:
229:
141:
1863:
A History of the 'Alawis: From Medieval Aleppo to the Turkish Republic
1766:
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Al-Ayni, al-Maqrizi and the 15th-century, Gharb-based Druze historian
1520:
872:
816:
782:
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484:
477:
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363:
327:
274:
Destruction of several villages, churches, monasteries, and vineyards
219:
210:
205:
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launched a surprise offensive against the Mamluks in December 1299,
632:
Damascus, and their territory remained outside of either's control.
530:
in the late 9th–early 10th centuries, followed by the Twelver Shia
889:
803:
749:
691:
Following the withdrawal of the Crusaders, the Mamluks launched a
504:
469:
428:
347:
145:
799:
771:
496:
1074:
1072:
417:
autonomy of the Kisrawan from Mamluk outsiders. In writings by
977:. Faculty of Arts and Sciences, American University of Beirut.
487:(660–750), but became a source of suspicion to the Iraq-based
1258:
1256:
1577:
1575:
944:, and the significance of the local, Ottoman-era governor
366:, prompting the first Mamluk expedition in 1292 under the
1502:
1500:
1498:
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999:
986:
984:
291:
1020:
1018:
1016:
940:
Lebanese population, the identity of the 7th-century
322:
military expeditions against the mountaineers of the
1866:. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press.
1834:
The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516-1788
1765:
1522:A Great Compilation of Fatwa, vol. 28 (in Arabic)
700:mentions only Maronites. The Mamluk chronicle of
562:in local tradition, could have settled in nearby
400:After the final expedition, the Mamluks settled
272:Mass killings and/or expulsions of mountaineers
34:
8:
606:to the south and the north Levantine coast,
1078:
787:routing a Mamluk army at Wadi al-Khaznadar
304:Location of the Kisrawan in modern Lebanon
31:
1163:
635:In 1187–1188, Beirut and Byblos fell to
974:Maronite Historians of Medieval Lebanon
960:
541:in the late 10th–early 11th centuries.
1641:
1629:
1617:
1605:
1593:
1581:
1566:
1554:
1535:
1506:
1487:
1475:
1463:
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1418:
1403:
1386:
1355:
1343:
1318:
1306:
1289:
1262:
1247:
1235:
1223:
1211:
1199:
1187:
1175:
1151:
1132:
1117:
1105:
1090:
1063:
1048:
1036:
1024:
1007:
990:
326:, as well as the neighboring areas of
1675:. New York: Oxford University Press.
27:Series of Mamluk military expeditions
7:
1936:Persecution of Christians by Muslims
1896:14th century in the Mamluk Sultanate
1891:13th century in the Mamluk Sultanate
879:Aftermath and long-term consequences
647:, who had succeeded the Ayyubids in
172:Najm al-Din Muhammad ibn Hajji
1961:Anti-Christian sentiment in Lebanon
1951:Wars involving the Mamluk Sultanate
1717:. Farnham and Burlington: Ashgate.
1966:Massacres of Christians in Lebanon
1661:(in Arabic). Beirut: Dar Al-Malak.
578:between adherents, were viewed as
545:were well established in close-by
270:Hundreds of mountaineers captured
25:
1764:Salibi, Kamal S. (January 1961).
385:the year before. The viceroy of
290:
283:
121:
710:
661:
1837:. Cambridge University Press.
170:Nasir al-Din Husayn ibn Khidr
18:Keserwan campaigns (1292–1305)
1:
1946:Violence against Shia Muslims
1711:Richards, D. S., ed. (2010).
738:, was slain in the fighting.
1672:Lebanon: A History, 600–2011
668:Tripoli was captured in 1289
444:The Kisrawan is the area of
1956:Medieval history of Lebanon
1657:Al-Muhajir, Ja'far (1992).
756:Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar
627:Crusader siege of Tripoli.
383:Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar
1982:
602:, having already captured
193:Abu al-Lama family chiefs
122:
1690:Reilly, James A. (2016).
1608:, pp. 11–13, 16, 22.
278:
269:
256:
243:
156:
114:
39:
1916:History of the Maronites
1843:10.1017/CBO9780511676413
1696:. London: I. B. Tauris.
152:mountaineers of Kisrawan
129:Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)
1926:Persecution of Alawites
1860:Winter, Stefan (2016).
1813:10.1163/157005867X00029
1784:10.1163/157005861X00043
1749:10.1163/157005857X00057
888:who had settled in the
754:An illustration of the
639:, founder of the Sunni
576:transmigration of souls
566:to the north after the
1519:Ibn Taymiyyah, Ahmad.
759:
441:
157:Commanders and leaders
1941:Shia Islam in Lebanon
1490:, p. 92, note 2.
806:under the command of
753:
432:
257:Casualties and losses
181:Ahmad ibn Hajji
1931:Persecution of Druze
1525:. pp. 398, 407.
698:Gabriel ibn al-Qilai
595:Twelver Shia jurists
568:Hasan–Muawiya treaty
462:Twelver Shia Muslims
452:in the south to the
301:class=notpageimage|
191:Banu al-Awd clerics
1478:, pp. 299–300.
1321:, pp. 298–299.
1265:, pp. 297–298.
1166:, pp. 578–579.
1081:, pp. 139–141.
781:led by their ruler
777:The Mongols of the
720:Badr al-Din Baydara
702:Badr al-Din al-Ayni
693:punitive expedition
458:Maronite Christians
202:Sulayman of Aylij
163:Badr al-Din Baydara
83: /
47:1292, 1300 and 1305
1682:978-0-19-518-111-1
760:
442:
433:A hillside in the
316:Kisrawan campaigns
35:Kisrawan campaigns
1921:Keserwan District
1911:Conflicts in 1305
1906:Conflicts in 1300
1901:Conflicts in 1292
1852:978-0-521-76584-8
1724:978-0-7546-4077-6
1703:978-1-78672-036-8
1632:, pp. 13–15.
1620:, pp. 13–14.
1584:, pp. 62–63.
1466:, pp. 91–92.
1358:, pp. 69–70.
1238:, pp. 67–68.
1093:, pp. 45–47.
1039:, pp. 39–40.
886:Turkmen tribesmen
612:County of Tripoli
608:conquered Tripoli
402:Turkmen tribesmen
395:punitive campaign
356:County of Tripoli
330:and the Jurd, in
318:were a series of
312:
311:
110:
109:
16:(Redirected from
1973:
1877:
1856:
1824:
1795:
1769:
1760:
1733:Salibi, Kamal S.
1728:
1707:
1686:
1662:
1645:
1639:
1633:
1627:
1621:
1615:
1609:
1603:
1597:
1591:
1585:
1579:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1552:
1539:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1516:
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1504:
1491:
1485:
1479:
1473:
1467:
1461:
1455:
1449:
1422:
1416:
1407:
1401:
1390:
1384:
1359:
1353:
1347:
1341:
1322:
1316:
1310:
1304:
1293:
1287:
1266:
1260:
1251:
1245:
1239:
1233:
1227:
1221:
1215:
1209:
1203:
1197:
1191:
1185:
1179:
1173:
1167:
1161:
1155:
1149:
1136:
1130:
1121:
1115:
1109:
1103:
1094:
1088:
1082:
1076:
1067:
1061:
1052:
1046:
1040:
1034:
1028:
1022:
1011:
1005:
994:
988:
979:
978:
965:
884:of Sunni Muslim
860:pincer movements
714:
713: 1290–1293
712:
706:al-Ashraf Khalil
665:
664: 1271–1290
663:
413:of the region.
368:viceroy of Egypt
294:
293:
287:
238:
187:
178:
127:
125:
124:
98:
97:
95:
94:
93:
88:
84:
81:
80:
79:
76:
66:Mamluk Sultanate
41:
40:
32:
21:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1971:
1970:
1881:
1880:
1874:
1859:
1853:
1827:
1798:
1763:
1731:
1725:
1710:
1704:
1689:
1683:
1667:Harris, William
1665:
1656:
1653:
1648:
1640:
1636:
1628:
1624:
1616:
1612:
1604:
1600:
1592:
1588:
1580:
1573:
1565:
1561:
1553:
1542:
1534:
1530:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1505:
1494:
1486:
1482:
1474:
1470:
1462:
1458:
1450:
1425:
1417:
1410:
1402:
1393:
1385:
1362:
1354:
1350:
1342:
1325:
1317:
1313:
1305:
1296:
1288:
1269:
1261:
1254:
1246:
1242:
1234:
1230:
1222:
1218:
1210:
1206:
1198:
1194:
1186:
1182:
1174:
1170:
1162:
1158:
1150:
1139:
1131:
1124:
1116:
1112:
1104:
1097:
1089:
1085:
1079:Al-Muhajir 1992
1077:
1070:
1062:
1055:
1047:
1043:
1035:
1031:
1023:
1014:
1006:
997:
989:
982:
967:
966:
962:
958:
946:Fakhr al-Din II
920:
881:
848:Salih ibn Yahya
831:naqib al-ashraf
825:
808:Aqqush al-Afram
748:
709:
689:
660:
641:Ayyubid dynasty
448:extending from
427:
411:Assaf governors
391:Aqqush al-Afram
360:fall of Tripoli
308:
307:
306:
305:
303:
297:
296:
295:
273:
271:
234:
227:
222:
217:
215:
213:
208:
203:
201:
200:Sinan of Aylij
199:
194:
192:
183:
180:
174:
171:
169:
167:Aqqush al-Afram
165:
131:
120:
91:
89:
85:
82:
77:
74:
72:
70:
69:
68:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1979:
1977:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1883:
1882:
1879:
1878:
1872:
1857:
1851:
1829:Winter, Stefan
1825:
1807:(2): 144–166.
1796:
1761:
1743:(3): 288–303.
1729:
1723:
1708:
1702:
1687:
1681:
1663:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1646:
1634:
1622:
1610:
1598:
1586:
1571:
1559:
1540:
1538:, p. 146.
1528:
1511:
1509:, p. 300.
1492:
1480:
1468:
1456:
1423:
1408:
1391:
1360:
1348:
1346:, p. 299.
1323:
1311:
1309:, p. 298.
1294:
1267:
1252:
1240:
1228:
1216:
1214:, p. 296.
1204:
1202:, p. 295.
1192:
1190:, p. 294.
1180:
1168:
1156:
1154:, p. 145.
1137:
1135:, p. 289.
1122:
1110:
1095:
1083:
1068:
1053:
1041:
1029:
1012:
995:
980:
959:
957:
954:
919:
918:Historiography
916:
880:
877:
824:
821:
747:
744:
734:, Benjamin of
688:
685:
624:William Harris
426:
423:
352:Crusader state
310:
309:
299:
298:
289:
288:
282:
281:
280:
279:
276:
275:
267:
266:
263:
259:
258:
254:
253:
250:
246:
245:
241:
240:
189:
159:
158:
154:
153:
135:
117:
116:
112:
111:
108:
107:
106:Mamluk victory
104:
100:
99:
55:
53:
49:
48:
45:
37:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1978:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1888:
1886:
1875:
1873:9780691173894
1869:
1865:
1864:
1858:
1854:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1835:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1768:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1720:
1716:
1715:
1709:
1705:
1699:
1695:
1694:
1688:
1684:
1678:
1674:
1673:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1654:
1650:
1644:, p. 15.
1643:
1638:
1635:
1631:
1626:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1611:
1607:
1602:
1599:
1596:, p. 22.
1595:
1590:
1587:
1583:
1578:
1576:
1572:
1569:, p. 62.
1568:
1563:
1560:
1557:, p. 72.
1556:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1529:
1524:
1523:
1515:
1512:
1508:
1503:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1484:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1469:
1465:
1460:
1457:
1454:, p. 71.
1453:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1421:, p. 59.
1420:
1415:
1413:
1409:
1406:, p. 63.
1405:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1389:, p. 70.
1388:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1352:
1349:
1345:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1315:
1312:
1308:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1295:
1292:, p. 69.
1291:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1259:
1257:
1253:
1250:, p. 68.
1249:
1244:
1241:
1237:
1232:
1229:
1226:, p. 67.
1225:
1220:
1217:
1213:
1208:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1193:
1189:
1184:
1181:
1178:, p. 54.
1177:
1172:
1169:
1165:
1164:Richards 2010
1160:
1157:
1153:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1120:, p. 50.
1119:
1114:
1111:
1108:, p. 49.
1107:
1102:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1066:, p. 45.
1065:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1051:, p. 44.
1050:
1045:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1030:
1026:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1013:
1010:, p. 42.
1009:
1004:
1002:
1000:
996:
993:, p. 56.
992:
987:
985:
981:
976:
975:
970:
969:Salibi, Kamal
964:
961:
955:
953:
949:
947:
943:
938:
937:Ahmed Beydoun
932:
930:
929:Stefan Winter
926:
917:
915:
913:
912:Hamade family
907:
904:
900:
899:Assaf dynasty
895:
891:
887:
878:
876:
874:
869:
863:
861:
857:
852:
849:
844:
841:
837:
833:
832:
823:1305 campaign
822:
820:
818:
813:
809:
805:
801:
795:
792:
788:
784:
780:
775:
773:
769:
765:
757:
752:
746:1300 campaign
745:
743:
739:
737:
733:
727:
725:
721:
716:
707:
703:
699:
694:
687:1292 campaign
686:
684:
681:
677:
671:
669:
658:
654:
650:
649:Islamic Syria
646:
642:
638:
633:
630:
625:
621:
615:
613:
609:
605:
601:
596:
592:
589:in 1071. The
588:
583:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
552:
548:
544:
543:Twelver Shias
540:
537:
533:
529:
525:
522:
516:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
483:
479:
473:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
454:Ibrahim River
451:
447:
446:Mount Lebanon
440:
439:Mount Lebanon
436:
431:
424:
422:
420:
414:
412:
408:
403:
398:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
375:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
332:Mount Lebanon
329:
325:
321:
317:
302:
286:
277:
268:
264:
262:Several emirs
261:
260:
255:
252:10,000-40,000
251:
248:
247:
242:
239:
237:
231:
226:
221:
212:
207:
198:
190:
188:
186:
179:
177:
168:
164:
161:
160:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
136:
134:
130:
119:
118:
113:
105:
102:
101:
96:
87:34.1°N 35.8°E
67:
63:
62:Mount Lebanon
59:
54:
51:
50:
46:
43:
42:
38:
33:
30:
19:
1862:
1833:
1804:
1800:
1778:(1): 74–97.
1775:
1771:
1740:
1736:
1713:
1692:
1671:
1658:
1651:Bibliography
1637:
1625:
1613:
1601:
1589:
1562:
1531:
1521:
1514:
1483:
1471:
1459:
1351:
1314:
1243:
1231:
1219:
1207:
1195:
1183:
1171:
1159:
1113:
1086:
1044:
1032:
1027:, p. 5.
973:
963:
950:
933:
925:Kamal Salibi
921:
908:
882:
864:
853:
845:
840:Ibn Taymiyya
829:
826:
796:
791:Beqaa Valley
776:
761:
740:
731:
728:
717:
690:
672:
634:
629:Ibn al-Athir
616:
584:
536:Ismaili Shia
521:Sunni Muslim
517:
507:, a form of
474:
443:
419:Sunni Muslim
415:
407:Ottoman rule
399:
376:
358:. After the
315:
313:
235:
228:Benjamin of
184:
175:
138:Twelver Shia
115:Belligerents
29:
1642:Reilly 2016
1630:Reilly 2016
1618:Reilly 2016
1606:Reilly 2016
1594:Reilly 2016
1582:Winter 2010
1567:Winter 2010
1555:Harris 2012
1536:Salibi 1967
1507:Salibi 1957
1488:Salibi 1961
1476:Salibi 1957
1464:Salibi 1961
1452:Harris 2012
1419:Winter 2016
1404:Winter 2010
1387:Harris 2012
1356:Harris 2012
1344:Salibi 1957
1319:Salibi 1957
1307:Salibi 1957
1290:Harris 2012
1263:Salibi 1957
1248:Harris 2012
1236:Harris 2012
1224:Harris 2012
1212:Salibi 1957
1200:Salibi 1957
1188:Salibi 1957
1176:Harris 2012
1152:Salibi 1967
1133:Salibi 1957
1118:Harris 2012
1106:Harris 2012
1091:Harris 2012
1064:Harris 2012
1049:Harris 2012
1037:Harris 2012
1025:Harris 2012
1008:Harris 2012
991:Harris 2012
868:Abu al-Fida
336:Shia Muslim
223:Niqula the
90: /
1885:Categories
956:References
812:al-Maqrizi
680:Jabal Amil
493:Byzantines
425:Background
209:Sarkis of
204:Sa'ada of
195:Khalid of
92:34.1; 35.8
60:region of
942:Mardaites
779:Ilkhanate
764:Buhturids
724:muqaddams
604:Palestine
600:Crusaders
580:heretical
532:Hamdanids
528:Ikshidids
513:al-Awza'i
499:from the
379:Ilkhanate
225:Centurion
218:Antar of
133:Buhturids
1831:(2010).
1669:(2012).
971:(1959).
732:muqaddam
620:Damascus
564:Dinniyeh
560:Madh'hij
539:Fatimids
524:Tulunids
509:poll tax
466:Alawites
437:area of
435:Kisrawan
387:Damascus
344:Maronite
324:Kisrawan
265:Hundreds
244:Strength
197:Mishmish
150:Maronite
58:Kisrawan
52:Location
1821:4055631
1801:Arabica
1792:4054971
1772:Arabica
1757:4055054
1737:Arabica
903:Ottoman
897:of the
838:cleric
836:Hanbali
768:Latakia
758:in 1299
736:Hardine
676:Mongols
657:Qalawun
653:Bsharri
645:Mamluks
637:Saladin
591:emirate
587:Seljuks
547:Tripoli
489:Abbasid
485:caliphs
482:Umayyad
480:-based
381:at the
372:Baydara
340:Alawite
236:†
230:Hardine
216:Mansur
185:†
176:†
142:Alawite
78:35°48′E
75:34°06′N
1870:
1849:
1819:
1790:
1755:
1721:
1700:
1679:
873:Rafida
856:Sawfar
817:dirham
783:Ghazan
572:Tanukh
556:Hamdan
551:Byblos
501:Tanukh
478:Levant
450:Beirut
364:Beirut
354:, the
328:Byblos
320:Mamluk
249:50,000
232:
220:Aqoura
214:Akkar
211:Lehfed
206:Lehfed
126:
103:Result
1817:JSTOR
1788:JSTOR
1753:JSTOR
894:Koura
890:Akkar
804:Safed
505:jizya
497:emirs
470:Druze
348:Druze
146:Druze
1868:ISBN
1847:ISBN
1719:ISBN
1698:ISBN
1677:ISBN
892:and
802:and
800:Hama
772:Homs
770:and
558:and
534:and
526:and
468:and
346:and
314:The
148:and
56:The
44:Date
1839:doi
1809:doi
1780:doi
1745:doi
614:.
472:.
1887::
1845:.
1815:.
1805:14
1803:.
1786:.
1774:.
1770:.
1751:.
1739:.
1574:^
1543:^
1495:^
1426:^
1411:^
1394:^
1363:^
1326:^
1297:^
1270:^
1255:^
1140:^
1125:^
1098:^
1071:^
1056:^
1015:^
998:^
983:^
711:r.
662:r.
464:,
460:,
389:,
370:,
342:,
338:,
144:,
140:,
64:,
1876:.
1855:.
1841::
1823:.
1811::
1794:.
1782::
1776:8
1759:.
1747::
1741:4
1727:.
1706:.
1685:.
871:"
708:(
659:(
20:)
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