210:). He discovered this by first identifying those launches that were described as having a large number of objects associated with a payload, then researching the literature to determine the rockets used in the launch. In 1979, this finding resulted in establishment of the NASA Orbital Debris Program after a briefing to NASA senior management, overturning the previously held belief that most unknown debris was from old ASAT tests, not from US upper stage rocket explosions that could seemingly be easily managed by depleting the unused fuel from the upper stage Delta rocket following the payload injection. Beginning in 1986, when it was discovered that other international agencies were possibly experiencing the same type of problem, NASA expanded its program to include international agencies, the first being the European Space Agency. A number of other Delta components in orbit (Delta was a workhorse of the US space program) had not yet exploded.
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142:(ASAT) testing, and others were the result of rocket stages blowing up in orbit as leftover propellant expanded and ruptured their tanks. To improve tracking, NORAD employee John Gabbard kept a separate database. Studying the explosions, Gabbard developed a technique for predicting the orbital paths of their products, and Gabbard diagrams (or plots) are now widely used. These studies were used to improve the modeling of orbital evolution and decay.
311:
organizations. The event resulted in at least 700 fragments, with the potential for more than 900. The debris poses a substantial risk to low-Earth orbit constellations, particularly those orbiting below 800 kilometers, and may remain in orbit for years, increasing the likelihood of collisions. This incident highlights ongoing concerns about space debris and the increasing risk of a cascading effect as more objects are launched into orbit.
250:
Strategic
Defense Initiative in the mid-1980s, large structures such as those considered in the late-1970s for building solar power stations in Earth orbit, and anti-satellite warfare using systems tested by the USSR, the US, and China over the past 30 years. Such aggressive activities could set up a situation where a single satellite failure could lead to cascading failures of many satellites in a period much shorter than years.
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in orbit. Some objects (typically, US military spacecraft) were found to be omitted from the NORAD list, and others were not included because they were considered unimportant. The list could not easily account for objects under 20 cm (8 in) in size—in particular, debris from exploding rocket stages and several 1960s anti-satellite tests.
431:(FCC) required all geostationary satellites launched after 18 March 2002 to commit to moving to a graveyard orbit at the end of their operational life. US government regulations similarly require a plan to dispose of satellites after the end of their mission: atmospheric re-entry, movement to a storage orbit, or direct retrieval.
337:. The theoretical cascading Kessler syndrome becomes more likely as satellites in orbit increase in number. As of 2014, there were about 2,000 commercial and government satellites orbiting the Earth, and as of 2021 more than 4000. It is estimated that there are 600,000 pieces of space junk ranging from 1 to 10 cm (
146:
The
Creation of a Debris Belt", demonstrating that the process controlling asteroid evolution would cause a similar collision process in LEO in decades rather than billions of years. They concluded that by about 2000, space debris would outpace micrometeoroids as the primary ablative risk to orbiting spacecraft.
277:
weather satellites was chosen as the target. The collision occurred at an altitude of 865 kilometres, when the satellite with a mass of 750 kilograms was struck in a head-on-collision by a kinetic payload traveling with a speed of 8 km/s (18,000 mph) in the opposite direction. The resulting
237:
Kessler's analysis divided the problem into three parts. With a low-enough density, the addition of debris by impacts is slower than their decay rate and the problem is not significant. Beyond that is a critical density, where additional debris leads to additional collisions. At densities beyond this
508:
program raises concerns about significantly worsening the possibility of
Kessler syndrome due to the large number of satellites the program aims to place in LEO, as the program's goal will more than double the satellites currently in LEO. In response to these concerns, SpaceX said that a large part
249:
Aggressive space activities without adequate safeguards could significantly shorten the time between collisions and produce an intolerable hazard to future spacecraft. Some of the most environmentally dangerous activities in space include large constellations such as those initially proposed by the
190:
Optical telescopes and short-wavelength radar were used to measure the number and size of space objects, and these measurements demonstrated that the published population count was at least 50% too low. Before this, it was believed that the NORAD database accounted for the majority of large objects
509:
of
Starlink satellites are launched at a lower altitude of 550 km (340 mi) to achieve lower latency (versus 1,150 km (710 mi) as originally planned), and failed satellites or debris are thus expected to deorbit within five years even without propulsion, due to atmospheric drag.
227:
In 1991, Kessler published "Collisional cascading: The limits of population growth in low Earth orbit" with the best data then available. Citing the USAF conclusions about creation of debris, he wrote that although almost all debris objects (such as paint flecks) were lightweight, most of its mass
145:
When the NORAD database became publicly available during the 1970s, NASA scientist Donald J. Kessler applied the technique developed for the asteroid-belt study to the database of known objects. In June 1978, Kessler and Burton Cour-Palais co-authored "Collision
Frequency of Artificial Satellites:
398:
off debris from the force of the collision. The fragments can then hit other objects, producing even more space debris: if a large enough collision or explosion were to occur, such as between a space station and a defunct satellite, or as the result of hostile actions in space, then the resulting
82:
that increases the likelihood of further collisions. In 2009, Kessler wrote that modeling results had concluded that the debris environment was already unstable, "such that any attempt to achieve a growth-free small debris environment by eliminating sources of past debris will likely fail because
517:
In 2024, Jon Kelvey noted in an overview article that "the scientific community hasn’t yet reached a consensus about whether the
Kessler Syndrome has begun, or, if it has not begun, how bad it will be when it starts. There is consensus, however, that the basic concept is sound and that the space
497:
satellite is a large, inactive satellite with a mass of 8,211 kg (18,102 lb) that orbits at 785 km (488 mi), an altitude where the debris environment is the greatest—two catalogued objects can be expected to pass within about 200 m (660 ft) of
Envisat every year—and
310:
A significant event related to the
Kessler Syndrome occurred on August 9, 2024, when a Chinese Long March 6A rocket broke apart in low-Earth orbit, creating a cloud of hundreds of debris fragments. The US Space Command confirmed this breakup and has been tracked by multiple space debris-tracking
269:
was carried out, in which the
Solwind P78-1 satellite flying at an altitude of 555 kilometres was struck by the 14-kilogram payload at a velocity of 24,000 kilometres per hour (15,000 mph; 6.7 km/s). When NASA learned of U.S. Air Force plans for the Solwind ASAT test, they modeled the
153:
would de-orbit debris faster than it was created. However, Gabbard was aware that the number and type of objects in space were under-represented in the NORAD data and was familiar with their behavior. In an interview shortly after the publication of the 1978 paper, Gabbard coined the term
224:(USAF) conducted an experimental program to determine what would happen if debris collided with satellites or other debris. The study demonstrated that the process differed from micrometeoroid collisions, with large chunks of debris created which would become collision threats.
232:
A 1 kg object impacting at 10 km/s, for example, is probably capable of catastrophically breaking up a 1,000 kg spacecraft if it strikes a high-density element in the spacecraft. In such a breakup, numerous fragments larger than 1 kg would be
399:
debris cascade could make prospects for long-term viability of satellites in particular low Earth orbits extremely low. However, even a catastrophic
Kessler scenario at LEO would pose minimal risk for launches continuing past LEO, or satellites travelling at
202:
which were recovered were found to be pitted. Each study indicated that the debris flux was higher than expected and debris was the primary source of micrometeoroids and orbital debris collisions in space. LEO already demonstrated the Kessler syndrome.
289:
satellite by a Russian ASAT missile on November 15, 2021, has created a large debris cloud, with 1500 pieces of debris being tracked and an estimated hundreds of thousands of pieces too small to track. Since the satellite was in a
347:
to 4 in), and 23,000 larger than that. On average, every year, one satellite is destroyed by collision with other satellites or space junk. As of 2009, there had been four collisions between catalogued objects, including
228:
was in debris about 1 kg (2 lb 3 oz) or heavier. This mass could destroy a spacecraft on impact, creating more debris in the critical-mass area. According to the National Academy of Sciences:
83:
fragments from future collisions will be generated faster than atmospheric drag will remove them". One implication is that the distribution of debris in orbit could render space activities and the use of
111:
predicted in 1960 that "In time, a number of such accidentally too-lucky shots will accumulate in space and will have to be removed when the era of manned space flight arrives". After the launch of
270:
effects of the test and determined that debris produced by the collision would still be in orbit late into the 1990s. It would force NASA to enhance debris shielding for its planned space station.
533:
features a Kessler syndrome catastrophe as the inciting incident of the story, when Russia shoots down an old satellite. It was described as "Kessler Syndrome on steroids that defies physics".
407:(GEO). The catastrophic scenarios predict an increase in the number of collisions per year, as opposed to a physically impassable barrier to space exploration that occurs in higher orbits.
655:
1388:
Daquin, J.; Rosengren, A. J.; Alessi, E. M.; Deleflie, F.; Valsecchi, G. B.; Rossi, A. (2016). "The dynamical structure of the MEO region: long-term stability, chaos, and transport".
242:
reducing the orbiting population to small objects (several centimeters in size) and increasing the hazard of space activity. This chain reaction is known as the Kessler syndrome.
498:
likely to increase. Don Kessler predicted in 2012 that it could easily become a major debris contributor from a collision during the next 150 years that it will remain in orbit.
138:
The trackers who fed the database were aware of other objects in orbit, many of which were the result of in-orbit explosions. Some were deliberately caused during the 1960s
549:
into seven large pieces, the subsequent creation of a cloud of debris by Kessler syndrome collisions, and the eventual bombardment of Earth's surface by lunar meteoroids.
427:. For US launches or satellites that will have broadcast to US territories—in order to obtain a license to provide telecommunications services in the United States—the
1603:
2081:
1241:
With enough orbiting debris, pieces will begin to hit other pieces, setting off a chain reaction of destruction that will leave a lethal halo around the Earth.
104:
Gabbard diagram of almost 300 pieces of debris from the disintegration of the five-month-old third stage of the Chinese Long March 4 booster on 11 March 2000
1150:
294:, and its debris has spread out between the altitudes of 300 km and 1000 km, it could potentially collide with any LEO satellite, including the
1179:
1808:
370:
drag can gradually bring debris down to lower altitudes where fragments finally re-enter, but this process can take millennia at very high altitudes.
603:
116:
1764:
206:
In 1978, Kessler found that 42 percent of cataloged debris was the result of 19 events, primarily explosions of spent rocket stages (especially US
1720:
876:
720:
666:
1949:
and how international law may need to address the problem to help prevent future incidents: Reynolds, G. H. (2009, July). "Collision course".
1078:
1056:
416:
1664:
Hoots, Felix; Schumacher, Paul Jr.; Glover, Robert A. (2004). "History of Analytical Orbit Modeling in the U.S. Space Surveillance System".
1236:
1853:"Critical Number of Spacecraft in Low Earth Orbit: Using Fragmentation Data to Evaluate the Stability of the Orbital Debris Environment"
1298:
1021:
History of On-Orbit Satellite Fragmentations, 14th Edition published by NASA Orbital Debris Program Office, pages 26 and 386, May 2008
2108:
123:) of all known rocket launches and objects reaching orbit: satellites, protective shields and upper- and lower-stage booster rockets.
1921:
1653:
947:
790:
428:
2007:
183:
The lack of hard data about space debris prompted a series of studies to better characterize the LEO environment. In October 1979,
1527:
937:
1473:
1615:
199:
1502:
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463:, a proposed multimegawatt land-based laser that could deorbit debris: the side of the debris hit by the laser would
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1551:
615:
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1852:
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the deliberate injection into LEO of large numbers of particles as a cheap but effective anti-satellite measure.
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1946:
609:
363:
349:
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840:
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to demonstrate that it can be safely disposed of at the end of its life, for example by use of a controlled
221:
1839:
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is numerous enough that collisions between objects could cause a cascade in which each collision generates
2123:
2118:
1322:
1174:
265:
In 1985, the first anti-satellite (ASAT) missile was used in the destruction of a satellite. The American
1101:"Chinese rocket breaks apart in low-Earth orbit, creating a cloud of space debris, US Space Command says"
1100:
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1642:
299:
260:
207:
139:
132:
1751:
883:
751:
2075:
1823:
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1735:
1706:
1695:"Estimate of Particle Densities and Collision Danger for Spacecraft Moving Through the Asteroid Belt"
1673:
1407:
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809:
735:
621:
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404:
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with a mean altitude above 850 kilometres, and will likely remain in orbit for decades or centuries.
128:
120:
35:
2064:
1989:
1965:
529:
420:
150:
38:(GSO). There are two primary debris fields: the ring of objects in GSO and the cloud of objects in
187:
provided Kessler with funding for further studies. Several approaches were used by these studies.
2113:
1423:
1397:
567:
439:
400:
2019:
1012:
NASA TP-1999-208856 David S.F. Portree and Joseph P. Loftus Jr. "Orbital Debries: A Chronology"
378:
27:
Theoretical runaway satellite collision cascade that could render parts of Earth orbit unusable
1941:
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688:
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443:
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to refer to the accumulation of debris; it became widely used after its appearance in a 1982
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1831:
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1743:
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1415:
1360:
1308:
743:
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2000:
NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day: Satellites Collide in Low Earth Orbit (18 February 2009)
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2011:
1993:
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article, which won the Aviation-Space Writers Association 1982 National Journalism Award.
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39:
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794:
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On 11 January 2007, China conducted an anti-satellite missile test in which one of their
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2004:
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Returned spacecraft were microscopically examined for small impacts, and sections of
1694:
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of the remains of the fragment until it would re-enter and be destroyed harmlessly.
70:
and Burton G. Cour-Palais in 1978, is a scenario in which the density of objects in
1961:
1945:
by Glenn Harlan Reynolds discusses the Kessler syndrome in regards to the February
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597:
478:
334:
320:
266:
79:
1441:
1023:
http://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/library/SatelliteFragHistory/TM-2008-214779.pdf
618: – 1972 treaty that expands on the liability rules in the Outer Space Treaty
460:
326:
291:
286:
172:
1765:"Sources of Orbital Debris and the Projected Environment for Future Spacecraft"
1365:
1340:
2076:
Aggregated public information research on space debris, graveyard orbits, etc.
1419:
575:
557:
367:
100:
17:
1721:"Collision Frequency of Artificial Satellites: The Creation of a Debris Belt"
1225:
1125:
721:"Collision Frequency of Artificial Satellites: The Creation of a Debris Belt"
1747:
1303:
1254:
747:
541:
358:
is much slower at altitudes where atmospheric drag is insignificant. Slight
112:
108:
84:
30:
1999:
1809:"Collisional Cascading: The Limits of Population Growth in Low Earth Orbit"
1374:
449:
One technology proposed to help deal with fragments from 1 to 10 cm (
382:
Image made from models used to track debris in Earth orbit as of July 2009
1980:
1057:"Russia blows up a satellite, creating a dangerous debris cloud in space"
627:
505:
464:
1960:(length: 22 minutes 28 seconds), included in the extra material on the
1035:"Russian anti-satellite test adds to worsening problem of space debris"
848:
633:
494:
482:
435:
415:
Designers of a new vehicle or satellite are frequently required by the
245:
In an early 2009 historical overview, Kessler summed up the situation:
1906:. Vol. 221, no. 1. pp. 48–51 – via Google Books.
1151:"Satellites and junk are littering space and ruining our night skies"
501:
195:
1791:
1685:
1402:
1079:"New images and analyses reveal extent of Cosmos 1408 debris cloud"
2088:
395:
377:
279:
274:
171:
29:
2045:"The Looming Space Junk Crisis: It's Time to Take Out the Trash"
546:
184:
124:
63:
624: – Activity aimed at minimising space environmental impact
238:
critical mass production exceeds decay, leading to a cascading
660:
474:
1860:
Proceedings of the Third European Conference on Space Debris
1264:. Physics Department, University of California, Santa Cruz.
594: – Experimental space-based radio communication project
1582:
gets lift at Comic-Con as director Cuaron leaps into space"
1552:"Starlink failures highlight space sustainability concerns"
630: – SpaceX satellite constellation and internet service
87:
in specific orbital ranges difficult for many generations.
1922:"The Kessler Syndrome (As Discussed by Donald J. Kessler)"
1126:"Lockheed Martin in space junk deal with Australian firm"
1986:
1442:"NASA Hopes Laser Broom Will Help Clean Up Space Debris"
984:
982:
1120:
1118:
1528:"SpaceX's Starlink Could Cause Cascades of Space Junk"
606: – Anti-satellite missile test conducted by China
149:
At the time, it was widely thought that drag from the
826:
127:
later published modified versions of the database in
2082:"Space junk littering orbit; might need cleaning up"
1851:Kessler, Donald; Anz-Meador, Phillip (March 2001).
1170:"Space Debris Has Chipped One Of The ISS's Windows"
719:Kessler, Donald J.; Cour-Palais, Burton G. (1978).
446:with the Sun or Moon that speeds up orbital decay.
386:The Kessler syndrome is troublesome because of the
2065:"Debris Spews Into Space After Satellites Collide"
1719:Kessler, Donald; Cour-Palais, Burton (June 1978).
1474:"Understanding the misunderstood Kessler Syndrome"
2020:"Orbiting Junk, Once a Nuisance, Is Now a Threat"
1503:"Don Kessler on Envisat and the Kessler Syndrome"
1341:"The quest to conquer Earth's space junk problem"
1323:"US Government Orbital Debris Standard Practices"
612: – First hypervelocity spacecraft collision
600:– 1985 United States anti-satellite missile test
394:wherein impacts between objects of sizable mass
1496:
1494:
656:"Scientist: Space weapons pose debris threat"
545:begins with the unexplained explosion of the
8:
1958:Collision point: The Race to Clean Up Space
1390:Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy
1255:"Star Wars Forever? – A Cosmic Perspective"
714:
712:
710:
636: – U.S. military satellite (2006–2008)
131:, and during the early 1980s the CelesTrak
34:Space debris populations seen from outside
1666:Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics
1144:
1142:
467:and create a thrust that would change the
442:is to shift it to an orbit in an unstable
350:a collision between two satellites in 2009
1467:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1401:
1364:
1293:
1291:
2089:"How space debris threatens modern life"
1648:(Report). National Academy of Sciences.
1000:
899:
862:
604:2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test
119:(NORAD) began compiling a database (the
117:North American Aerospace Defense Command
99:
1253:Primack, Joel R.; Abrams, Nancy Ellen.
988:
973:
923:
911:
875:Portree, David; Loftus, Joseph (1999).
646:
179:were widely used to study space debris.
2063:Broad, William J. (12 February 2009).
1643:Orbital Debris: A Technical Assessment
1641:Gleghorn, George; et al. (1995).
939:Space Debris: Models and Risk Analysis
784:
518:community needs to clean up its act."
2084:. Associated Press. 1 September 2011.
2018:Broad, William J. (6 February 2007).
1939:An article in the July 2009 issue of
1526:O'Callaghan, Jonathan (13 May 2019).
1149:Robin George Andrews (Oct 30, 2021).
782:
780:
778:
776:
774:
772:
770:
768:
766:
764:
434:A proposed energy-efficient means of
7:
2005:Mathematical Modeling of debris flux
1237:University of California, Santa Cruz
1226:"Debris and Future Space Activities"
1898:"The Growing Peril of Space Debris"
1081:. arstechnica.com. 17 November 2021
827:Hoots, Schumacher & Glover 2004
789:Kessler, Donald J. (8 March 2009).
2043:Schwartz, Evan I. (May 24, 2010).
1299:"FCC Enters Orbital Debris Debate"
882:. NASA. p. 13. Archived from
689:"The Danger of Space Junk – 98.07"
25:
2032:"Houston we have a trash problem"
1807:Kessler, Donald (December 1991).
1699:Physical Studies of Minor Planets
1608:– A Low-Spoiler 'Science' Review"
1576:Sinha-Roy, Piya (July 20, 2013).
1168:Carpineti, Alfredo (2016-05-15).
853:, 2-line elements dating to 1980.
429:Federal Communications Commission
315:Debris generation and destruction
1987:Orbiting Satellites in real time
1876:Kessler, Donald (8 March 2009).
1059:. theverge.com. 15 November 2021
574:
560:
1728:Journal of Geophysical Research
1602:Freeman, Daniel (18 May 2015).
1279:"Recommendation ITU-R S.1003-2"
1182:from the original on 2016-05-16
728:Journal of Geophysical Research
654:Stenger, Richard (2002-05-03).
1501:Gini, Andrea (25 April 2012).
877:"Orbital Debris: A Chronology"
481:plans a mission to remove the
1:
1037:. bbc.co.uk. 16 November 2021
459:to 4 in) in size is the
333:has the potential to produce
200:Apollo Command/Service Module
1836:10.1016/0273-1177(91)90543-S
1472:Jon, Kelvey (1 March 2024).
703:– via TheAtlantic.com.
255:Anti-satellite missile tests
1896:Schefter, Jim (July 1982).
1882:. Western University Canada
296:International Space Station
2145:
1816:Advances in Space Research
1366:10.1038/d41586-018-06170-1
1128:. BBC News. 28 August 2014
808:Ley, Willy (August 1960).
687:Olson, Steve (July 1998).
616:Space Liability Convention
318:
258:
96:NORAD, Gabbard and Kessler
2109:Meteorological hypotheses
1981:Donald Kessler's Web Page
1420:10.1007/s10569-015-9665-9
1224:Primack, Joel R. (2002).
936:Klinkrad, Heiner (2006).
423:system or a boost into a
1947:2009 satellite collision
1763:Kessler, Donald (1981).
1705:. NASA SP-267: 595–605.
1693:Kessler, Donald (1971).
1339:Witze, A. (2018-09-05).
1201:"Space Debris - A Guide"
812:. For Your Information.
610:2009 satellite collision
306:Chinese rocket explosion
1748:10.1029/JA083iA06p02637
1612:Berkeley Science Review
1205:www.spaceacademy.net.au
748:10.1029/JA083iA06p02637
411:Avoidance and reduction
285:The destruction of the
222:United States Air Force
1235:. Physics Department,
1175:I Fucking Love Science
814:Galaxy Science Fiction
791:"The Kessler Syndrome"
598:1985 ASM-135 ASAT test
485:satellite from orbit.
477:and the Swiss startup
383:
267:1985 ASM-135 ASAT test
252:
235:
220:During the 1980s, the
216:A new Kessler syndrome
180:
105:
43:
1772:Journal of Spacecraft
1507:Space Safety Magazine
841:"Historical Archives"
810:"How to Slay Dragons"
381:
300:Chinese Space Station
261:Anti-satellite weapon
247:
230:
175:
140:anti-satellite weapon
133:bulletin board system
103:
56:collisional cascading
33:
2014:at lasp.colorado.edu
1879:The Kessler Syndrome
1103:. CNN. 9 August 2024
889:on 1 September 2000.
622:Space sustainability
405:geosynchronous orbit
129:two-line element set
121:Space Object Catalog
36:geosynchronous orbit
1920:Kessler, D (2009).
1862:. Darmstadt Germany
1828:1991AdSpR..11l..63K
1784:1981JSpRo..18..357K
1740:1978JGR....83.2637K
1711:1971NASSP.267..595K
1678:2004JGCD...27..174H
1604:"Neal Stephenson's
1532:Scientific American
1412:2016CeMDA.124..335D
1357:2018Natur.561...24W
942:. Springer-Praxis.
740:1978JGR....83.2637K
421:atmospheric reentry
135:re-published them.
2069:The New York Times
2024:The New York Times
2010:2019-02-28 at the
1992:2019-07-14 at the
568:Spaceflight portal
489:Potential triggers
438:a spacecraft from
401:medium Earth orbit
384:
278:debris orbits the
181:
177:Baker–Nunn cameras
106:
44:
1953:, pp. 50–52.
1951:Popular Mechanics
1942:Popular Mechanics
1478:Aerospace America
816:. pp. 57–72.
734:(A6): 2637–2646.
592:Project West Ford
582:Technology portal
325:Every satellite,
168:Follow-up studies
68:Donald J. Kessler
50:(also called the
16:(Redirected from
2136:
2085:
2072:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2039:
2027:
1996:at stuffin.space
1936:
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1933:
1924:. Archived from
1907:
1891:
1889:
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1869:
1867:
1857:
1846:
1845:on 14 July 2010.
1844:
1838:. Archived from
1813:
1802:
1801:on 14 July 2010.
1800:
1794:. Archived from
1769:
1758:
1756:
1750:. Archived from
1725:
1714:
1689:
1659:
1647:
1628:
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1625:
1623:
1614:. Archived from
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1312:
1307:. Archived from
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1262:physics.ucsc.edu
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952:. Archived from
933:
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851:on 17 July 2012.
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665:. Archived from
651:
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579:
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570:
565:
564:
563:
458:
457:
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392:feedback runaway
360:atmospheric drag
346:
345:
341:
156:Kessler syndrome
151:upper atmosphere
60:ablation cascade
48:Kessler syndrome
21:
2144:
2143:
2139:
2138:
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2135:
2134:
2133:
2129:1978 neologisms
2099:
2098:
2093:Financial Times
2080:
2062:
2053:
2051:
2042:
2030:
2017:
2012:Wayback Machine
1994:Wayback Machine
1977:
1931:
1929:
1919:
1916:
1914:Further reading
1911:
1903:Popular Science
1895:
1885:
1883:
1875:
1865:
1863:
1855:
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1842:
1811:
1806:
1798:
1792:10.2514/3.57828
1767:
1762:
1757:on 15 May 2011.
1754:
1734:(A6): 2637–46.
1723:
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1656:
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1618:on 13 July 2015
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1351:(7721): 24–26.
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797:on 27 May 2010.
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573:
566:
561:
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537:Neal Stephenson
524:
515:
491:
455:
451:
450:
425:graveyard orbit
413:
376:
343:
339:
338:
323:
317:
308:
263:
257:
218:
170:
161:Popular Science
98:
93:
76:space pollution
72:low Earth orbit
62:), proposed by
40:low Earth orbit
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2142:
2140:
2132:
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2095:. 8 June 2022.
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2015:
2002:
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1984:
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1975:External links
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1396:(4): 335–366.
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539:'s 2015 novel
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527:The 2013 film
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331:crewed mission
319:Main article:
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956:on 2011-05-12
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900:Schefter 1982
896:
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885:
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864:
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859:
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845:CelesTrak BBS
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669:on 2012-09-30
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356:Orbital decay
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1962:Blu-ray Disc
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1950:
1940:
1930:. Retrieved
1926:the original
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1616:the original
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1586:. Retrieved
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1560:. Retrieved
1558:. 2019-07-02
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1477:
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1105:. Retrieved
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1003:, p. 4.
996:
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974:Kessler 1991
969:
958:. Retrieved
954:the original
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924:Kessler 1981
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694:The Atlantic
692:
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671:. Retrieved
667:the original
659:
649:
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492:
473:
469:eccentricity
448:
433:
414:
385:
374:Implications
364:perturbation
354:
335:space debris
324:
321:Space debris
309:
302:(Tiangong).
284:
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248:
244:
236:
231:
226:
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212:
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1886:January 21,
1866:January 21,
1085:19 November
1063:19 November
1041:19 November
461:laser broom
327:space probe
292:polar orbit
287:Kosmos 1408
66:scientists
2103:Categories
1932:2010-05-26
1588:2013-09-05
1562:2021-02-13
1537:2020-08-19
1512:2012-05-09
1451:2011-03-17
1403:1507.06170
1210:2022-12-04
1186:2016-05-16
1132:2014-08-28
960:2019-12-21
700:2020-06-18
673:2011-03-17
522:In fiction
479:ClearSpace
436:deorbiting
368:solar wind
85:satellites
2114:Pollution
1983:at uwo.ca
1606:Seveneves
1584:. Reuters
1556:SpaceNews
1428:119183742
1304:Space.com
642:Citations
542:Seveneves
444:resonance
403:(MEO) or
113:Sputnik 1
109:Willy Ley
2008:Archived
1990:Archived
1622:4 August
1375:30185967
1180:Archived
1107:9 August
628:Starlink
554:See also
506:Starlink
362:, lunar
298:and the
233:created.
198:and the
2054:14 June
1967:Gravity
1824:Bibcode
1780:Bibcode
1736:Bibcode
1707:Bibcode
1674:Bibcode
1580:Gravity
1483:18 June
1408:Bibcode
1353:Bibcode
736:Bibcode
634:USA-193
530:Gravity
495:Envisat
483:PROBA-1
454:⁄
342:⁄
91:History
1652:
1426:
1373:
1345:Nature
946:
502:SpaceX
465:ablate
366:, and
329:, and
196:Skylab
42:(LEO).
2049:Wired
2036:Wired
1856:(PDF)
1843:(PDF)
1812:(PDF)
1799:(PDF)
1768:(PDF)
1755:(PDF)
1724:(PDF)
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1424:S2CID
1398:arXiv
1326:(PDF)
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396:spall
280:Earth
275:FY-1C
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2056:2010
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1868:2023
1650:ISBN
1624:2015
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1371:PMID
1109:2024
1087:2021
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663:.com
547:Moon
493:The
390:and
185:NASA
125:NASA
64:NASA
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1832:doi
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