250:β-Hydroxybutyrate is also synthesized within liver cells; this is accomplished through the metabolism of fatty acids. Through a series of reactions, acetoacetate is first produced; and it is this acetoacetate that is reduced into β-hydroxybutyrate, catalyzed by the β-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase enzyme. Although, β-hydroxybutyrate is technically not a ketone due to the structure of the molecule (OH- attached to carbonyl group makes this an acid), β-HB acts like a ketone, providing the body with energy in the absence of glucose. In fact, β-Hydroxybutyrate is the most abundant ketone-like molecule in the blood during ketosis.
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Ketone salts are usually a synthetic compound of Beta-hydroxybutyric acid, also known as βHB. It is then bonded to sodium, potassium, magnesium, and/or calcium to offset the acidic nature of βHB alone. Most ketone salts are racemic which means only half of it is bioavailable, resulting in double the
202:
Most supplements rely on β-hydroxybutyrate as the source of exogenous ketone bodies. It is the most common exogenous ketone body because of its efficient energy conversion and ease of synthesis. In the body, β-HB can be converted to acetoacetic acid. It is this acetoacetic acid that will enter the
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This monoester links the same beta-hydroxybutyric acid found in ketone salts but bonded with D 1,3-butanediol (also called R 1,3 butanediol) instead of bases (salts). The first part of the metabolism of this monoester takes place in the digestive system (fast release), followed by the remaining
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secretion. Following exposure to exogenous ketones, small amounts of secreted insulin have been reported in animals. However, because insulin has also been shown to increase in subjects who took an exogenous ketone supplement and dextrose drink, in addition to those who only took the exogenous
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The most researched ketone ester, or ketone monoester, is called D-Beta
Hydroxybutyrate/ D 1,3-butanediol monoester, which is a naturally derived compound through a fermentation process. It was created by Dr. Richard Veech and Todd King at the NIH, and then commercialized by companies including
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of regular β-HB. In terms of efficacy, the blood D-βHB concentrations are higher when using ketone esters instead of ketone salts (KE = 2.8±0.2 mM; KS = 1.0±mM). This is due to the fact that the KE supplement contains >99% of the D-βHB-isoform while the KS supplement contains ~50% of the
199:. However, with the introduction of exogenous ketone supplements, it is possible to provide a user with an instant supply of ketones even if the body is not within a state of ketosis before ingestion. However, drinking exogenous ketones will not trigger fat burning like a ketogenic diet.
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in skeletal muscle. In addition to this, ketone bodies serve as signaling molecules that regulate gene expression and adaptive responses. When exogenous ketone bodies are ingested, acute and nutritional exogenous ketosis is produced.
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portion taking place in the liver (slow release). The metabolic structure of D-Beta
Hydroxybutyrate/ D 1,3-butanediol monoester is similar to that of MCT C8 oil, but many times stronger and without GI issues.
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Another ketone ester is also referred to as a ketone di-ester which is a bond of C6 and R 1,3 butanediol. It is recommended to be consumed with food and is commercialized by
Juvenescence Labs.
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Technically there are other ketone esters such as acetoacetate/ D/L 1,3-butanediol (racemic). This diester has been tested more with deep sea divers. It is not commercially available.
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The consumption of ketone bodies results in several effects, ranging from reduced glucose utilization in peripheral tissues, anti-lipolytic effects on adipose tissue, and reduced
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action of βHB (βHB-) which fully dissociates within the blood; this mildly raises the blood and urine pH which is further increased as the kidneys to excrete the excess
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with the formula (CH3)2CO and is one of the simplest and smallest ketones. It is synthesized from the breakdown of acetoacetate in ketotic individuals within the liver.
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and increase peripheral glucose intake. They have also been known to reduce hunger and the desire to eat. This is shown by the decreased levels of the hunger hormone,
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L-βHB-isoform, which is metabolized much slower than the D-βHB-isoform. Also, ketone salt supplements slightly raise the blood pH level. This is mainly due to the
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of liver cells by the addition of an acetyl group from acetyl CoA. This creates 3-hydroxy-3-methylgluteryl CoA which loses an acetyl group, becoming acetoacetate.
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in order to generate ATP. The remaining β-HB molecules that aren't synthesized into acetoacetic acid are then converted to acetone through the
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597:"Effects of exogenous ketone supplementation on blood ketone, glucose, triglyceride, and lipoprotein levels in Sprague-Dawley rats"
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In human blood, ketone ester and ketone salt consumption deliver a >50% higher plasma concentration of D-β-Hydroxybutyrate, an
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Stubbs BJ, Cox PJ, Evans RD, Santer P, Miller JJ, Faull OK, Magor-Elliott S, Hiyama S, Stirling M, Clarke K (2017).
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786:"Metabolism of ketone bodies during exercise and training: physiological basis for exogenous supplementation"
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Kesl SL, Poff AM, Ward NP, Fiorelli TN, Ari C, Van Putten AJ, Sherwood JW, Arnold P, D'Agostino DP (2016).
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171:). These ketone bodies are produced by interactions between macronutrient availability such as low
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supplement, more research remains to be seen on the effects of ketone supplements on insulin.
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KetoneAid and TDeltaS, and previously by HVMN, a
Silicon Valley–based technology company.
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724:"Utility of Ketone Supplementation to Enhance Physical Performance: A Systematic Review"
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proves β-HB with butanediol. These two undergo hepatic metabolism, forming a keto-acid.
191:. Under physiological conditions, ketone concentrations can increase due to starvation,
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Stubbs BJ, Cox PJ, Evans RD, Cyranka M, Clarke K, de Wet H (February 2018).
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380:. In addition, it has been surmised that exogenous ketones may stimulate
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stores are plentiful, ketones lower the blood glucose because they limit
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or foods. This class of ketone bodies refers to the three water-soluble
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454:"Exogenous Ketones: What They Are, Benefits of Use and How They Work"
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Exogenous ketones lower blood glucose concentrations. Although
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There are multiple molecules that qualify as a "Ketone Ester."
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356:(Na+, Ca+, K+). Ketone esters reduce the blood pH because KE
838:"A Ketone Ester Drink Lowers Human Ghrelin and Appetite"
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salt load per D-bhb, and even less bioavailability.
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molecules. The Acetyl CoA is then able to enter the
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may be too technical for most readers to understand
647:"The Ultimate Guide to Beta Hydroxybutyrate (BHB)"
556:
501:"On the Metabolism of Exogenous Ketones in Humans"
722:Margolis, Lee M; O'Fallon, Kevin S (2020-03-01).
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698:"What Are Ketone Esters - ORGANIC HEALTH FACTS"
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672:"The Perks of Fasting, With None of the Work"
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132:Learn how and when to remove this message
73:Learn how and when to remove this message
57:, without removing the technical details.
563:(2nd ed.). W. H. Freeman. p.
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784:Evans M, Cogan KE, Egan B (May 2017).
55:make it understandable to non-experts
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195:, or prolonged exercise, leading to
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700:. September 2021. Archived from
235:Acetoacetate is produced in the
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114:check for citation inaccuracies
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175:and high free fatty acids or
27:Class of chemical compounds
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601:Nutrition & Metabolism
217:acetoacetate decarboxylase
790:The Journal of Physiology
614:10.1186/s12986-016-0069-y
518:10.3389/fphys.2017.00848
151:that are ingested using
740:10.1093/advances/nmz104
505:Frontiers in Physiology
374:hepatic gluconeogenesis
321:β-Hydroxybutryate ester
153:nutritional supplements
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179:signaling such as low
728:Advances in Nutrition
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246:Beta-Hydroxybutyrate
897:Dietary supplements
653:. 19 September 2018
307:Other ketone esters
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165:β-hydroxybutyrate
854:10.1002/oby.22051
555:Stryer L (1981).
420:β-hydroxybutyrate
219:waste mechanism.
205:beta-ketothialase
145:Exogenous ketones
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706:. Retrieved
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680:. Retrieved
678:. 2017-11-07
676:The Atlantic
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655:. Retrieved
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559:Biochemistry
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462:. Retrieved
460:. 2016-03-19
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395:Acetoacetate
370:carbohydrate
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274:Ketone salts
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237:mitochondria
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161:acetoacetate
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104:that do not
100:may contain
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63:October 2021
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18:Ketone ester
682:17 November
332:proteolysis
213:Krebs cycle
886:Categories
708:2021-09-21
657:2018-09-28
464:2018-04-08
458:Ketosource
427:References
358:hydrolysis
209:Acetyl-CoA
122:March 2023
748:2161-8313
651:Keto Vale
223:Structure
183:and high
102:citations
872:29105987
820:27861911
766:31586177
633:26855664
537:29163194
389:See also
364:Hormones
189:cortisol
185:glucagon
108:the text
892:Ketones
863:5813183
842:Obesity
811:5407977
757:7442417
624:4743170
528:5670148
511:: 848.
415:Ketosis
400:Acetone
382:insulin
378:ghrelin
354:cations
345:isoform
326:Effects
257:Acetone
197:ketosis
181:insulin
177:hormone
173:glucose
169:acetone
157:ketones
112:Please
49:Please
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422:(β-HB)
405:Ketone
167:, and
106:verify
607:: 9.
339:Blood
269:Types
868:PMID
816:PMID
762:PMID
744:ISSN
684:2017
629:PMID
569:ISBN
533:PMID
858:PMC
850:doi
806:PMC
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736:doi
619:PMC
609:doi
565:393
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513:doi
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