460:, said Kettlewell's experiments had appeared to be "the slam-dunk of natural selection", but argued that the cause of the dark forms appearing was still an "irreducible mystery". Although not a creationist herself, Hooper argued that the peppered moth experiments failed to represent evolution. She claimed that Kettlewell's field notes could not be found and suggested that his experiment was fraudulent, on the basis of Sargent's criticisms alleging that the photographs of the moths were taken of dead moths placed on a log. She said that E. B. Ford was a "Darwinian zealot", and claimed that he exploited the scientifically naive Kettlewell to obtain the desired experimental results. She then alleged that scientists in general showed "credulous and biased" acceptance of evolution. The book's reception led to claims that the peppered moth evolution story ought to be deleted from textbooks.
440:, 14 March 1999, claiming that "the rise and fall of the peppered moth, is based on a series of scientific blunders. Experiments using the moth in the Fifties and long believed to prove the truth of natural selection are now thought to be worthless, having been designed to come up with the 'right' answer." Majerus regarded this view as surprising, and not one that would be shared by those involved in the field. He noted numerous scientific inaccuracies, misquotations and misrepresentations in the article, but thought this was common in press reports. He stated that he had spoken to Matthews for over half an hour and had to explain many details as Matthews hadn't read the book, but "Even then, he got nearly everything wrong."
411:, he stated that the most serious problem was that only two peppered moths had been found on tree trunks. He also wrote that the white moths had increased in numbers before the lichen had returned and that Kettlewell's findings of moths choosing matching backgrounds had not been replicated in later experiments. Coyne compared his reaction to "the dismay attending my discovery, at the age of 6, that it was my father and not Santa who brought the presents on Christmas Eve". He concluded that "for the time being we must discard
173:
20:
473:
420:
on tree trunks was incorrect, as the book gives the resting positions of 47 peppered moths
Majerus had found in the wild between 1964 and 1996; twelve were on tree trunks (six exposed, six unexposed), twenty were at the trunk/branch joint, and fifteen resting on branches. Majerus found that the review did not reflect the factual content of the book or his own views, and cited an assessment by the
249:) to prey upon. He found that the initial procedure failed, as the birds actively looked for any moth, regardless of their colour or background. He succeeded only by using freshly captured moths consisting of 9 black and 8 white types, which he released separately. He found that the birds preferentially caught the moths according to the background colour on which the moths were present.
152:. He estimated that for the peppered moth having reproductive cycle in a year, it would take 48 generations to produce the dominant (melanic or black) forms, and the melanic population could dominate the entire moth population after 13 generations. He concluded that "the only probable explanation is the not very intense degree of natural selection". University of Oxford zoologist
385:, published a critique of Kettlewell's work. Based on his experiments between 1965 and 1969, he concluded that it was not possible to reproduce Kettlewell's results, and said that birds showed no preference on moth on either black or white tree trunks. He suggested that Kettlewell had trained the birds to pick moths on tree trunks to obtain desired results.
524:, in which he claims, "What the textbooks don't explain, however, is that biologists have known since the 1980s that the classical story has some serious flaws. The most serious is that peppered moths in the wild don't even rest on tree trunks. The textbook photographs, it turns out, have been staged." The arguments were dismissed by Majerus, Cook and
533:
are unstaged pictures of live moths in the wild, and the photographs of moths on tree-trunks, apart from some slight blurring, look little different from the "staged" photographs. While an experiment did involve the gluing of dead moths to trees, this practice was just one of many different ways used
81:
The experiment found that birds selectively prey on peppered moths depending on their body colour in relation to their environmental background. Thus, the evolution of a dark-coloured body provided a survival advantage in a polluted locality. The study concluded that "industrial melanism in moths is
419:
Contrary to this review, Majerus had stressed that the basic findings from that work were correct, and that differential bird predation of polluted environment "is the primary influence of the evolution of melanism in the peppered moth". Coyne's statement that only two peppered moths had been found
220:
Kettlewell first devised a standard procedure for scoring the moths. It was necessary to determine how far apart the moths should be placed so they were indistinguishable from their backgrounds. Correct separation would result in effective and selective predation by birds, because if the moths were
324:
type. After several days, he found that out the total 190 moths eaten by birds in the wild, 86% were the black type while only 14% were the white type. In his release-and-recapture experiment for 11 days, he used 799 moths, and his recapture rate was 13.7% for the white type, but only 4.7% for the
290:
17%. (The total capture after release was 770, but 621 of them were non-experimental moths, i.e. not bearing the paint marks.) Thus their survival values were 5.72%, 1.48%, and 4.32% respectively. This shows that black moths had the best survival advantage in a darkened and polluted environment.
528:
who describes Wells as distorting the picture by selectively omitting or scrambling references in a way that is dishonest. Professional photography to illustrate textbooks uses dead insects because of the considerable difficulty in getting good images of both forms of moth in the same shot. The
463:
Scientists have examined the allegations made by Hooper, and found them to be without merit. Majerus described the book as "littered with errors, misrepresentations, misinterpretations and falsehoods". David W. Rudge, after critical analyses of
Kettlewell' works, declared that "none of Hooper's
464:
arguments is found to withstand careful scrutiny", and that all "these charges are baseless and stem from a fundamental misunderstanding of the nature of science as a process." He concluded "that Hooper does not provide one shred of evidence to support this serious allegation."
534:
to study different individual elements of the overall hypothesis. This particular experiment was not meant to exactly reproduce natural conditions but instead was used to assess how the numbers of moths available (their density) affected the foraging practices of birds.
514:
of 24 May 1999, claiming that "In 25 years of fieldwork, C.A. Clarke and his colleagues found only one peppered moth on a tree trunk", and concluding that "The fact that peppered moths do not normally rest on tree trunks invalidates
Kettlewell's experiments".
265:
paint, so that he would be able to identify them later from non-experimental individuals after recapture. He started capturing the moths on the night of 26 June 1953, and lasted till 5 July. Out of his total capture, he selected 630 (447
415:
as a well-understood example of natural selection in action, although it is clearly a case of evolution. There are many studies more appropriate for use in the classroom" and that further studies of the animal's habits were needed.
503:
said that the moths "do not sit on tree trunks", "moths had to be glued to the trunks" for pictures and that the experiments were "fraudulent" and a "scam." This led Frack to exchange with intelligent design proponent
508:, who conceded that Majerus listed six moths on exposed tree trunks (out of 47), but argued that this was "an insignificant proportion". Wells wrote an essay on the subject, a shortened version of which appeared in
299:
To compare the conditions of predation in different environments
Kettlewell planned to perform similar experiment in both polluted and clean environments. In 1954 he surveyed several woodlands including
221:
all too close then birds would be able to differentiate even well camouflaged individuals. He tested his scoring method in the woodlands near
Birmingham by releasing 651 peppered moths (consisting of
114:
were covered with black soot. R.S. Edleston was the first to identify the unusual black peppered moth in 1848 in
Manchester. By the end of the century, it was recorded that the black moth, the
148:
261:, Birmingham, because it was heavily polluted, but still inhabited by a number of bird species. He caught all three types of peppered moth and marked them underneath their wings with
1197:
Sargent, T.D.; Millar, C.D.; Lambert, D.M. (1988). "Ch. 9: The 'classical' explanation of industrial melanism: Assessing the evidence". In Hecht, Max K.; Wallace, Bruce (eds.).
335:. Tinbergen was responsible for filming the experiment, particularly to verify whether or not birds were the main predators. Out of 227 moths they released, 154 were
138:
was the first to come up with natural selection as an explanation, and stated in 1894 that the phenomenon was due to selective predation by birds. With the rise of
1226:
2142:
547:
designed by Wells and other ID scholars. (In the book Wells accused
Kettlewell's experiment as "fraudulent" and "staged".) Coyne and Grant wrote a letter to
505:
372:
In clean and lichened area, dark moths remained scarce and were rapidly eliminated because of their conspicuousness even when experimentally introduced.
82:
the most striking evolutionary phenomenon ever actually witnessed in any organism, animal or plant." It is now regarded as the classic demonstration of
212:
The main experiment, called mark-release-recapture, started in the summer of 1953 and lasted for three years. It consists of two continuous phases.
2068:
366:
Moth were eaten by birds selectively in both polluted and clean forests, indicating camouflage efficiency of the different varieties of moths.
1972:
1731:
1477:
1406:
1181:
967:
369:
The more conspicuous form of moth was always less in number after recapture; i.e. the white type in
Birmingham, and the black type in Dorset.
382:
1348:
1206:
188:, is whitish-grey in colour with dark speckles on the wings. The colour was a perfect camouflage on light-coloured trees covered with
1866:
1836:
1435:
1368:
635:
1751:
139:
347:. The recapture rate within two days was 82%, 16%, and 2% respectively. It was another success, with Tinbergen capturing live
529:
scientific studies actually consisted of observational data rather than using such photographs. The photographs in
Majerus's
427:
that there was essentially no resemblance between the book and Coyne's review, which appeared to be a summary of the
Sargent
1127:
Sargent, T. D. (1969). "Background Selections of the Pale and Melanic Forms of the Cryptic Moth, Phigalia titea (Cramer)".
2239:
2171:
1338:
393:
1519:
2234:
729:
Hagen, Joel B. (1999). "Retelling experiments: H.B.D. Kettlewell's studies of industrial melanism in peppered moths".
491:
When serious criticism and controversy arose, the story was picked up by creationists. Coyne's review was taken up by
2061:
1233:
2164:
1546:
399:
204:
in that it was not whitish. The moths were active at night, and rested on tree trunks and boughs during the day.
184:
By the time of Kettlewell, it was known in England that there were three varieties of peppered moth. The normal,
714:
697:
510:
1076:
Sargent, T. D. (1968). "Cryptic moths: effects on background selections of painting the circumocular scales".
541:
continued efforts to favor intelligent design teaching by requiring the use of alternative resources, such as
1897:"Second Thoughts about Peppered Moths; This classical story of evolution by natural selection needs revising"
1494:
2132:
2096:
1942:
525:
172:
19:
2229:
1571:
146:
estimated in 1924 the rate of evolution by natural selection in the peppered moth in his first series of
2054:
1946:
278:) male moths and released them into the woods. Within two days, 149 moths were recaptured, out of which
67:
39:
320:
form, indicating clean environment. In mid-June 1955 he started the experiment. He brought along 3,000
842:
70:
in England in the 19th century. He conducted his first experiment in 1953 in the polluted woodland of
1136:
1085:
995:
838:
543:
538:
63:
1968:
1314:
161:
47:
1410:
434:
The review was subsequently picked up by the journalist Robert Matthews, who wrote an article for
424:
2178:
2117:
1919:
1782:
1698:
1663:
1311:
Jonathan Wells's book Icons of Evolution and why most of what it teaches about evolution is wrong
1152:
1109:
1040:
1019:
983:
916:
873:
789:
746:
520:
500:
492:
157:
59:
891:
403:, which discussed criticisms of Kettlewell's original experimental methods. When the biologist
2203:
1817:
1774:
1727:
1655:
1473:
1344:
1202:
1177:
1101:
1011:
986:(1955). "Recognition of appropriate backgrounds by the pale and black phases of Lepidoptera".
963:
865:
781:
631:
603:
549:
156:
supported the bird-predation hypothesis. To experimentally investigate the issue he recruited
87:
2208:
2185:
2008:
1809:
1766:
1690:
1647:
1618:
1610:
1275:
1144:
1093:
1056:
1003:
936:
857:
820:
773:
738:
709:
669:
593:
585:
484:
452:
436:
328:
Immediately after completion, he headed back to Birmingham, now accompanied by the renowned
143:
764:
Cook, Laurence M. (2003). "The rise and fall of the Carbonaria form of the peppered moth".
2122:
2031:
Evolution and the Nature of Science Institutes for High School Biology Teachers: Resources
1993:
1715:
1402:
1334:
1222:
553:
in which they defended the moth experiments and revealed the misrepresentations by Wells.
388:
1874:
1844:
1443:
1376:
257:
For his first experimental site, Kettlewell chose Christopher Cadbury Bird Reserve, near
1140:
1089:
999:
574:"The peppered moth and industrial melanism: evolution of a natural selection case study"
2026:
1623:
1598:
824:
598:
573:
496:
332:
122:. There were conflicting ideas as to the biological basis of this industrial melanism.
83:
2223:
2147:
2091:
2077:
1925:
1702:
1638:
Cook, L. M. (2003). "The rise and fall of the Carbonaria form of the peppered moth".
1466:
877:
457:
99:
51:
1896:
1813:
1786:
1667:
1523:
1306:
1113:
793:
750:
698:"The Beauty of Kettlewell's Classic Experimental Demonstration of Natural Selection"
2127:
1156:
1023:
74:, and his second experiment in 1955 in Birmingham as well as in the clean woods of
1719:
1171:
1097:
957:
625:
316:, which was well covered with lichens. He found only the white type, including 1
1302:
476:
404:
472:
312:
forms, which indicated unclean environment. Finally he went to Deanend Wood in
66:. He was investigating the cause of the appearance of dark-coloured moth since
2137:
1614:
742:
421:
329:
153:
135:
131:
111:
107:
71:
1770:
90:
in action and one of the most beautiful experiments in evolutionary biology.
1694:
262:
242:
238:
103:
43:
1821:
1778:
1659:
1015:
785:
607:
1105:
869:
1045:"Further selection experiments on industrial melanism in the Lepidoptera"
305:
127:
123:
1061:
1044:
674:
657:
589:
359:
The conclusion of Kettlewell's experiment can be summarised as follows:
941:
920:
861:
241:
in Cambridge. In the aviary he released 69 moths, which he allowed two
189:
627:
Darwin, Then and Now: The Most Amazing Story in the History of Science
118:
type, outnumbered (90% in some regions) the natural white ones, named
1922:: Science or Myth? Why Much of What We Teach About Evolution is Wrong
1148:
1007:
843:"A mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection. Part – I"
313:
258:
234:
75:
2012:
1929:
1800:
Rudge, David W. (2006). "Myths about Moths: a Study in Contrasts".
1651:
777:
1280:
1259:
301:
200:, which was light-coloured with speckled wings, but distinct from
171:
18:
1468:
Of Moths and Men : Intrigue, Tragedy & the Peppered Moth
658:"Selection experiments on industrial melanism in the Lepidoptera"
2046:
348:
2050:
196:, was completely black. There was an intermediate form, called
1547:"Of Moths and Men: Intrigue, Tragedy & the Peppered Moth"
807:
Berry, R.J. (1990). "Industrial melanism and peppered moths (
62:, working as a research fellow in the Department of Zoology,
479:
have disputed the occurrence or significance of the melanic
715:
10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[0369:TBOKCE]2.0.CO;2
1722:. In Fellowes, Mark; Holloway, Graham; Rolf, Jens (eds.).
149:
A Mathematical Theory of Natural and Artificial Selection
1752:"Did Kettlewell commit fraud? Re-examining the evidence"
1726:. Wallingford, Oxon: CABI Publishing. pp. 375–377.
308:, but found them unsuitable because of presence of some
1436:"RE: Peppered Moths – in black and white (part 1 of 2)"
1227:"The Peppered Moth: The Proof of Darwinian Evolution"
892:"Biographical Data on Henry Bernard Davis Kettlewell"
1720:"The peppered moth: decline of a Darwinian disciple"
1407:"The Peppered moth: decline of a Darwinian disciple"
630:. Bloomington, US: IUniverse Inc. pp. 285–286.
381:
Theodore David Sargent, professor of zoology at the
2195:
2156:
2110:
2084:
1369:"Peppered Moths – in black and white (part 2 of 2)"
925:(L.) (Lep.) and its melanic forms in Great Britain"
499:on 13 March 1999, creationist and professor of law
142:, the theoretical background was set. For example,
1465:
1928:, Washington, D.C., p. 138 (book available from
130:, disease, temperature and protection (such as
495:creationists, and at a seminar presenting the
2062:
1681:Grant, B. S. (2002), "Sour grapes of wrath",
8:
1969:"Intelligent Design in Pratt County, Kansas"
1745:
1743:
1522:. W. W. Norton & Company. Archived from
2033:. Department of Biology, Indiana University
2069:
2055:
2047:
651:
649:
647:
16:Biological experiment on the peppered moth
1992:Padian, Kevin; Gishlick, Alan D. (2002).
1622:
1279:
1060:
1035:
1033:
962:. New York: Academic Press. p. 173.
940:
911:
909:
813:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
713:
691:
689:
687:
685:
673:
597:
537:On 27 November 2000, the school board of
1362:
1360:
1176:. New York: Facts On File. p. 308.
619:
617:
567:
565:
471:
561:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1291:
383:University of Massachusetts at Amherst
363:Birds were the main predators of moth.
1973:National Center for Science Education
1397:
1395:
1393:
180:on the bark of a lichen-covered birch
7:
956:Caspari, E.W.; Thoday, J.M. (1961).
431:. paper rather than Majerus's book.
1493:Kenney, Michael (22 October 2002).
1495:"Of Dark Moths, Men and Evolution"
825:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1990.tb00518.x
14:
1837:"Peppered Moths and Creationists"
572:Cook, L M; Saccheri, I J (2012).
397:is an adaptation of Kettlewell's
351:clips of birds eating the moths.
1260:"Not Black and White. Review of
921:"A survey of the frequencies of
850:Bulletin of Mathematical Biology
134:) were the factors put forward.
106:, and industrial cities such as
2092:Overview, ecology, and genetics
2001:The Quarterly Review of Biology
1814:10.1016/j.endeavour.2006.01.005
1759:Public Understanding of Science
1640:The Quarterly Review of Biology
1545:Smith, Peter D. (11 May 2002).
766:The Quarterly Review of Biology
1201:. Vol. 23. Plenum Press.
959:Advances in Genetics Volume 10
42:in the mid-1950s to study the
1:
2172:Melanism: Evolution in Action
1947:"Charges of Fraud Misleading"
1340:Melanism: Evolution in Action
1262:Melanism: Evolution in Action
531:Melanism: Evolution in Action
394:Melanism: Evolution in Action
98:The Industrial Revolution in
1865:Frack, Donald (April 1999).
1835:Frack, Donald (April 1999).
1434:Frack, Donald (March 1999).
1367:Frack, Donald (March 1999).
1098:10.1126/science.159.3810.100
168:Biology of the peppered moth
1724:Insect Evolutionary Ecology
1343:. Oxford University Press.
624:Nelson, Richard W. (2009).
237:at the Research Station in
160:in 1952 under a grant from
2258:
656:Kettlewell, H B D (1955).
2165:The Evolution of Melanism
1895:Wells, J. (24 May 1999).
1615:10.1038/sj.embor.embor778
1173:Encyclopedia of Evolution
1170:Rice, Stanley A. (2007).
400:The Evolution of Melanism
1994:"The Talented Mr. Wells"
1949:. Pratt Tribune (Kansas)
1771:10.1177/0963662505052890
1264:by Michael E.N. Majerus"
1258:Coyne, Jerry A. (1998).
696:Rudge, David W. (2005).
2111:Writers and researchers
1695:10.1126/science.1073593
1464:Hooper, Judith (2002).
743:10.1023/A:1006576518561
140:evolutionary statistics
36:Kettlewell's experiment
1716:Majerus, Michael E. N.
1223:Majerus, Michael E. N.
731:Biology and Philosophy
488:
407:reviewed this book in
181:
58:). It was executed by
32:
27:type on the left, and
1750:Rudge, D. W. (2005).
1597:Dover, Gabby (2003).
1307:"Icon of Obfuscation"
475:
468:Religious controversy
175:
68:Industrial Revolution
40:biological experiment
22:
2240:Evolution of insects
2027:"Icons of Evolution"
1945:(13 December 2000).
1930:Iconsofevolution.com
1472:. New York: Norton.
1199:Evolutionary Biology
544:Of Pandas and People
539:Pratt County, Kansas
518:In 2000 Wells wrote
483:morph increasing in
456:, by the journalist
437:The Sunday Telegraph
64:University of Oxford
2235:Biology experiments
1967:Molleen Matsumura.
1526:on 10 December 2014
1315:TalkOrigins Archive
1141:1969Natur.222..585S
1090:1968Sci...159..100S
1062:10.1038/hdy.1956.28
1041:Kettlewell, Bernard
1000:1955Natur.175..943K
984:Kettlewell, Bernard
917:Kettlewell, Bernard
675:10.1038/hdy.1955.36
590:10.1038/hdy.2012.92
162:Nuffield Foundation
48:industrial melanism
2179:Icons of Evolution
2118:Bernard Kettlewell
1920:Icons of Evolution
1867:"RE: My last word"
1578:. 4 September 2003
1572:"Of moths and men"
1520:"Of Moths and Men"
942:10.1038/hdy.1958.4
862:10.1007/BF02459574
521:Icons of Evolution
501:Phillip E. Johnson
493:intelligent design
489:
233:), and then at an
182:
158:Bernard Kettlewell
60:Bernard Kettlewell
33:
2217:
2216:
2204:The Peppered Moth
1917:Wells J. (2000).
1733:978-1-84593-140-7
1689:(5583): 940–941,
1479:978-0-393-32525-6
1335:Majerus, M. E. N.
1183:978-1-4381-1005-9
1135:(5193): 585–586.
1084:(3810): 100–101.
994:(4465): 943–944.
969:978-0-0805-6797-6
894:. Wolfson College
550:The Pratt Tribune
102:caused extensive
88:natural selection
2247:
2209:Margaret Drabble
2186:Of Moths and Men
2071:
2064:
2057:
2048:
2042:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2023:
2017:
2016:
1998:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1979:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1955:
1954:
1939:
1933:
1915:
1909:
1908:
1892:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1882:
1873:. Archived from
1862:
1856:
1855:
1853:
1852:
1843:. Archived from
1832:
1826:
1825:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1756:
1747:
1738:
1737:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1678:
1672:
1671:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1626:
1594:
1588:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1568:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1542:
1536:
1535:
1533:
1531:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1490:
1484:
1483:
1471:
1461:
1455:
1454:
1452:
1451:
1442:. Archived from
1431:
1425:
1424:
1422:
1421:
1415:
1409:. Archived from
1403:Majerus, Michael
1399:
1388:
1387:
1385:
1384:
1375:. Archived from
1364:
1355:
1354:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1322:
1321:
1299:
1286:
1285:
1283:
1255:
1249:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1238:
1232:. Archived from
1231:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1194:
1188:
1187:
1167:
1161:
1160:
1149:10.1038/222585b0
1124:
1118:
1117:
1073:
1067:
1066:
1064:
1037:
1028:
1027:
1008:10.1038/175943a0
980:
974:
973:
953:
947:
946:
944:
923:Biston betularia
913:
904:
903:
901:
899:
888:
882:
881:
856:(1–2): 209–240.
847:
835:
829:
828:
809:Biston betularia
804:
798:
797:
761:
755:
754:
726:
720:
719:
717:
693:
680:
679:
677:
653:
642:
641:
621:
612:
611:
601:
569:
453:Of Moths and Men
445:Of Moths and Men
192:. The new form,
56:Biston betularia
2257:
2256:
2250:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2245:
2244:
2220:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2191:
2152:
2106:
2080:
2075:
2045:
2036:
2034:
2025:
2024:
2020:
1996:
1991:
1990:
1986:
1977:
1975:
1966:
1965:
1961:
1952:
1950:
1941:
1940:
1936:
1916:
1912:
1894:
1893:
1889:
1880:
1878:
1864:
1863:
1859:
1850:
1848:
1834:
1833:
1829:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1754:
1749:
1748:
1741:
1734:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1680:
1679:
1675:
1637:
1636:
1632:
1596:
1595:
1591:
1581:
1579:
1576:The Independent
1570:
1569:
1565:
1555:
1553:
1544:
1543:
1539:
1529:
1527:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1503:
1501:
1499:Chicago Tribune
1492:
1491:
1487:
1480:
1463:
1462:
1458:
1449:
1447:
1433:
1432:
1428:
1419:
1417:
1413:
1401:
1400:
1391:
1382:
1380:
1366:
1365:
1358:
1351:
1333:
1332:
1328:
1319:
1317:
1301:
1300:
1289:
1274:(6706): 35–36.
1257:
1256:
1252:
1242:
1240:
1239:on 15 June 2011
1236:
1229:
1225:(August 2007).
1221:
1220:
1216:
1209:
1196:
1195:
1191:
1184:
1169:
1168:
1164:
1126:
1125:
1121:
1075:
1074:
1070:
1039:
1038:
1031:
982:
981:
977:
970:
955:
954:
950:
915:
914:
907:
897:
895:
890:
889:
885:
845:
839:Haldane, J.B.S.
837:
836:
832:
806:
805:
801:
763:
762:
758:
728:
727:
723:
695:
694:
683:
655:
654:
645:
638:
623:
622:
615:
571:
570:
563:
559:
470:
448:
389:Michael Majerus
379:
357:
297:
255:
218:
210:
170:
126:, environment,
96:
23:Peppered moth,
17:
12:
11:
5:
2255:
2254:
2251:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2222:
2221:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2211:
2199:
2197:
2196:Creative works
2193:
2192:
2190:
2189:
2182:
2175:
2168:
2160:
2158:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2150:
2145:
2143:Jonathan Wells
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2114:
2112:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2104:
2102:Experiments on
2099:
2094:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2081:
2076:
2074:
2073:
2066:
2059:
2051:
2044:
2043:
2018:
2013:10.1086/339201
1984:
1959:
1934:
1910:
1887:
1857:
1827:
1792:
1765:(3): 249–268.
1739:
1732:
1707:
1673:
1652:10.1086/378925
1646:(4): 399–417.
1630:
1589:
1563:
1537:
1511:
1485:
1478:
1456:
1426:
1389:
1356:
1350:978-0198549833
1349:
1326:
1287:
1250:
1214:
1208:978-0306429774
1207:
1189:
1182:
1162:
1119:
1068:
1055:(3): 287–301.
1029:
975:
968:
948:
905:
883:
830:
819:(4): 301–322.
799:
778:10.1086/378925
772:(4): 399–417.
756:
721:
708:(4): 369–375.
681:
668:(3): 323–342.
643:
636:
613:
584:(3): 207–212.
560:
558:
555:
506:Jonathan Wells
497:wedge strategy
469:
466:
450:The 2002 book
447:
442:
378:
375:
374:
373:
370:
367:
364:
356:
353:
333:Niko Tinbergen
296:
293:
254:
251:
217:
214:
209:
208:The experiment
206:
176:Peppered moth
169:
166:
144:J.B.S. Haldane
95:
92:
84:Charles Darwin
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2253:
2252:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2230:Peppered moth
2228:
2227:
2225:
2210:
2206:
2205:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2194:
2188:
2187:
2183:
2181:
2180:
2176:
2174:
2173:
2169:
2167:
2166:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2149:
2148:Judith Hooper
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2109:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2078:Peppered moth
2072:
2067:
2065:
2060:
2058:
2053:
2052:
2049:
2032:
2028:
2022:
2019:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1995:
1988:
1985:
1974:
1970:
1963:
1960:
1948:
1944:
1938:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1926:Regnery Press
1923:
1921:
1914:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1901:The Scientist
1898:
1891:
1888:
1877:on 2007-09-27
1876:
1872:
1868:
1861:
1858:
1847:on 2007-08-26
1846:
1842:
1838:
1831:
1828:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1796:
1793:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1753:
1746:
1744:
1740:
1735:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1711:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1677:
1674:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1634:
1631:
1625:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1599:"Mothbusters"
1593:
1590:
1577:
1573:
1567:
1564:
1552:
1548:
1541:
1538:
1525:
1521:
1515:
1512:
1500:
1496:
1489:
1486:
1481:
1475:
1470:
1469:
1460:
1457:
1446:on 2007-09-27
1445:
1441:
1437:
1430:
1427:
1416:on 2007-09-26
1412:
1408:
1404:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1390:
1379:on 2007-09-30
1378:
1374:
1370:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1352:
1346:
1342:
1341:
1336:
1330:
1327:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1305:(2002–2004).
1304:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1282:
1281:10.1038/23856
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1263:
1254:
1251:
1235:
1228:
1224:
1218:
1215:
1210:
1204:
1200:
1193:
1190:
1185:
1179:
1175:
1174:
1166:
1163:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1123:
1120:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1072:
1069:
1063:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
979:
976:
971:
965:
961:
960:
952:
949:
943:
938:
934:
930:
926:
924:
918:
912:
910:
906:
893:
887:
884:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
844:
840:
834:
831:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
803:
800:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
760:
757:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
725:
722:
716:
711:
707:
703:
699:
692:
690:
688:
686:
682:
676:
671:
667:
663:
659:
652:
650:
648:
644:
639:
637:9780595515752
633:
629:
628:
620:
618:
614:
609:
605:
600:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
568:
566:
562:
556:
554:
552:
551:
546:
545:
540:
535:
532:
527:
523:
522:
516:
513:
512:
511:The Scientist
507:
502:
498:
494:
486:
482:
478:
474:
467:
465:
461:
459:
458:Judith Hooper
455:
454:
446:
443:
441:
439:
438:
432:
430:
426:
423:
417:
414:
410:
406:
402:
401:
396:
395:
391:'s 1998 book
390:
386:
384:
376:
371:
368:
365:
362:
361:
360:
354:
352:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
331:
326:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
294:
292:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
264:
260:
252:
250:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
215:
213:
207:
205:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
179:
174:
167:
165:
163:
159:
155:
151:
150:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
100:Great Britain
93:
91:
89:
85:
79:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
52:peppered moth
49:
46:mechanism of
45:
41:
37:
30:
26:
21:
2202:
2184:
2177:
2170:
2163:
2128:Cyril Clarke
2123:Mike Majerus
2101:
2097:Evolution of
2035:. Retrieved
2030:
2021:
2007:(1): 33–37.
2004:
2000:
1987:
1976:. Retrieved
1962:
1951:. Retrieved
1943:Grant, Bruce
1937:
1918:
1913:
1904:
1900:
1890:
1879:. Retrieved
1875:the original
1870:
1860:
1849:. Retrieved
1845:the original
1840:
1830:
1808:(1): 19–23.
1805:
1801:
1795:
1762:
1758:
1723:
1710:
1686:
1682:
1676:
1643:
1639:
1633:
1606:
1603:EMBO Reports
1602:
1592:
1580:. Retrieved
1575:
1566:
1554:. Retrieved
1551:The Guardian
1550:
1540:
1528:. Retrieved
1524:the original
1514:
1502:. Retrieved
1498:
1488:
1467:
1459:
1448:. Retrieved
1444:the original
1439:
1429:
1418:. Retrieved
1411:the original
1381:. Retrieved
1377:the original
1372:
1339:
1329:
1318:. Retrieved
1310:
1303:Matzke, Nick
1271:
1267:
1261:
1253:
1241:. Retrieved
1234:the original
1217:
1198:
1192:
1172:
1165:
1132:
1128:
1122:
1081:
1077:
1071:
1052:
1048:
991:
987:
978:
958:
951:
935:(1): 51–72.
932:
928:
922:
896:. Retrieved
886:
853:
849:
833:
816:
812:
808:
802:
769:
765:
759:
737:(1): 39–54.
734:
730:
724:
705:
701:
665:
661:
626:
581:
577:
548:
542:
536:
530:
519:
517:
509:
490:
480:
477:Creationists
462:
451:
449:
444:
435:
433:
428:
425:Donald Frack
422:entomologist
418:
412:
408:
398:
392:
387:
380:
358:
344:
340:
336:
327:
325:black type.
321:
317:
309:
298:
295:Second phase
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
256:
246:
230:
226:
222:
219:
211:
201:
197:
193:
185:
183:
177:
147:
119:
115:
97:
80:
55:
44:evolutionary
35:
34:
31:on the right
28:
24:
2133:Bruce Grant
1582:10 December
1556:10 December
1530:10 December
1504:10 December
1243:9 September
898:12 December
526:Bruce Grant
405:Jerry Coyne
282:was 27.5%,
253:First phase
247:Parus major
216:Preparation
2224:Categories
2138:E. B. Ford
2037:2007-08-28
1978:2007-08-28
1953:2008-02-18
1881:2007-08-26
1851:2007-08-26
1609:(3): 235.
1450:2007-08-26
1420:2007-09-10
1383:2007-08-26
1320:2007-08-25
702:BioScience
557:References
481:carbonaria
377:Criticisms
355:Conclusion
337:carbonaria
330:ethologist
322:carbonaria
310:carbonaria
280:carbonaria
268:carbonaria
243:great tits
227:carbonaria
194:carbonaria
154:E. B. Ford
136:J. W. Tutt
132:camouflage
116:carbonaria
112:Birmingham
108:Manchester
94:Background
72:Birmingham
25:carbonaria
1907:(11): 13.
1871:Evolution
1841:Evolution
1802:Endeavour
1703:161367302
1440:Evolution
1373:Evolution
878:189884360
841:(1990) .
485:frequency
345:insularia
318:insularia
288:insularia
286:13%, and
276:insularia
274:, and 46
263:cellulose
239:Madingley
231:insularia
198:insularia
178:insularia
104:pollution
1822:16549216
1787:25525719
1779:16240545
1718:(2005).
1668:26831926
1660:14737825
1405:(2004).
1337:(1998).
1114:32124765
1049:Heredity
1043:(1956).
1016:14383775
929:Heredity
919:(1958).
811:(L.))".
794:26831926
786:14737825
751:81591392
662:Heredity
608:23211788
578:Heredity
343:, and 9
306:Cornwall
128:heredity
124:Humidity
2085:Biology
1683:Science
1624:1315906
1157:4202131
1137:Bibcode
1106:5634373
1086:Bibcode
1078:Science
1024:4169783
996:Bibcode
870:2185859
599:3668657
190:lichens
50:in the
1820:
1785:
1777:
1730:
1701:
1666:
1658:
1621:
1476:
1414:(.doc)
1347:
1268:Nature
1205:
1180:
1155:
1129:Nature
1112:
1104:
1022:
1014:
988:Nature
966:
876:
868:
792:
784:
749:
634:
606:
596:
413:Biston
409:Nature
341:typica
314:Dorset
284:typica
272:typica
270:, 137
259:Rubery
235:aviary
223:typica
202:typica
186:typica
120:typica
76:Dorset
38:was a
29:typica
2157:Works
1997:(PDF)
1783:S2CID
1755:(PDF)
1699:S2CID
1664:S2CID
1237:(PDF)
1230:(PDF)
1153:S2CID
1110:S2CID
1020:S2CID
874:S2CID
846:(PDF)
790:S2CID
747:S2CID
429:et al
349:movie
339:, 64
302:Devon
1818:PMID
1775:PMID
1728:ISBN
1656:PMID
1584:2014
1558:2014
1532:2014
1506:2014
1474:ISBN
1345:ISBN
1245:2007
1203:ISBN
1178:ISBN
1102:PMID
1012:PMID
964:ISBN
900:2014
866:PMID
782:PMID
632:ISBN
604:PMID
304:and
229:and
110:and
2207:by
2009:doi
1810:doi
1767:doi
1691:doi
1687:297
1648:doi
1619:PMC
1611:doi
1276:doi
1272:396
1145:doi
1133:222
1094:doi
1082:159
1057:doi
1004:doi
992:175
937:doi
858:doi
821:doi
774:doi
739:doi
710:doi
670:doi
594:PMC
586:doi
582:110
86:'s
2226::
2029:.
2005:77
2003:.
1999:.
1971:.
1924:.
1905:13
1903:.
1899:.
1869:.
1839:.
1816:.
1806:30
1804:.
1781:.
1773:.
1763:14
1761:.
1757:.
1742:^
1697:,
1685:,
1662:.
1654:.
1644:78
1642:.
1617:.
1605:.
1601:.
1574:.
1549:.
1497:.
1438:.
1392:^
1371:.
1359:^
1313:.
1309:.
1290:^
1270:.
1266:.
1151:.
1143:.
1131:.
1108:.
1100:.
1092:.
1080:.
1053:10
1051:.
1047:.
1032:^
1018:.
1010:.
1002:.
990:.
933:12
931:.
927:.
908:^
872:.
864:.
854:52
852:.
848:.
817:39
815:.
788:.
780:.
770:78
768:.
745:.
735:14
733:.
706:55
704:.
700:.
684:^
664:.
660:.
646:^
616:^
602:.
592:.
580:.
576:.
564:^
225:,
164:.
78:.
2070:e
2063:t
2056:v
2040:.
2015:.
2011::
1981:.
1956:.
1932:)
1884:.
1854:.
1824:.
1812::
1789:.
1769::
1736:.
1693::
1670:.
1650::
1627:.
1613::
1607:4
1586:.
1560:.
1534:.
1508:.
1482:.
1453:.
1423:.
1386:.
1353:.
1323:.
1284:.
1278::
1247:.
1211:.
1186:.
1159:.
1147::
1139::
1116:.
1096::
1088::
1065:.
1059::
1026:.
1006::
998::
972:.
945:.
939::
902:.
880:.
860::
827:.
823::
796:.
776::
753:.
741::
718:.
712::
678:.
672::
666:9
640:.
610:.
588::
487:.
245:(
54:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
