529:, lies on the west bank opposite Gao, but at Koima, on the edge of the dune at a site 4 km north of Gao, surface deposits indicate a pre 9th century settlement. This could be the west bank Gao mentioned by 10th and 11th century authors, as the site has not been excavated. The chroniclers may also have been mistaken, and Wadi Gangaber could be the river they said divided the two towns. Archaeological digs have determined that Gao Ancien was the political center, containing the oldest royal palace discovered in the region.
222:(6 km to the east of the city) there are no surviving indigenous written records that date from before the middle of the 17th century. Our knowledge of the early history of the town relies on the writings of Arab geographers living in Morocco, Egypt and Andalusia, most of whom never visited the region. These authors referred to the town as Kawkaw or Kuku. The earliest mention of Gao is by
299:
485:
Gao was one of the earliest sites of significant trans-Saharan trade in the 8th century, much earlier than scholars used to believe. The most important trade items were gold, copper, slaves, and salt. Gao was also a major manufacturing center. Craftspeople fashioned carnelian into beads, which are
385:
Their king pretends before his subject to be a Muslim and most of them pretend to be
Muslims too. He has a town on the Nile , on the eastern bank, which is called Sarnāh, where there are markets and trading houses and to which there is continuous traffic from all parts. He has another town to the
325:
There is the kingdom of the Kawkaw, which is the greatest of the realms of the Sūdān, the most important and most powerful. All the kingdoms obey its king. Al-Kawkaw is the name of the town. Besides this there are a number of kingdoms of which the rulers pay allegiance to him and acknowledge his
245:
but they contain only vague indications on the time prior to its writing. The chronicles do not, in general, acknowledge their sources. Their accounts for the earlier periods are almost certainly based on oral tradition, and they sometimes provide conflicting information. Using the epitaphs as a
469:. What happened to the Zuwa rulers is not recorded. Archaeological evidence, however, shows that they likely took refuge downstream, as the architectural and epigraphic styles common in independent Gao up until the late 1200s continued to be used in Kukiya until the time of
456:
immigrants, and that their short-lived dynasty was soon absorbed by the Za. The Zaghe married women from the previous royal line, and the queens of the time held significant political power and may have even been the head of matrilineal kin groups.
537:
The people of the Gao Empire spoke Songay, a language belonging of the Saharo-Sahelian branch of the Nile-Saharan Family. The language was originally brought into the region along the great Bend of the Niger as early as the sixth millennium BCE.
432:
then has Gao converting to Islam (perhaps meaning a shift from ‘Ibāḍism to Sunni orthodoxy) in 1083. This period also roughly coincides with the appearance of funeral epitaphs in Gao-Saney. These chronicle three Muslim rulers belonging to the
797:
Kukiya is a town mentioned in the Tarikh al-sudan and the Tarikh al-fattash (as Koûkiya in the French translation). It is believed to have been near the modern village of
Bentiya on the east side of the Niger 134 km south east of
511:) but to the north of Gao Ancien. The imported pottery and glass recovered from Gao-Saney suggest that the site was occupied between the 8th and 12th centuries. It is likely that Gao-Saney corresponds to Sarnāh of al-Muhallabi.
376:
In the ninth century, al-Yaʿqūbī does not mention Islam in Gao, implying that the religion was not prominent there. Al-Muhallabī, who died in 990, wrote in a lost work quoted in the biographical dictionary compiled by
502:
The archaeological evidence suggests that there were two settlements on the eastern bank of the Niger: Old Gao situated within the modern town, to the east of the Tomb of Askia, and the archaeological site of
267:
empires, and that the Middle Niger region that it dominated was economically and politically interconnected with the Sahel, the
Savannah, and the Middle East in ways that made it an important part of the
386:
west of the Nile where he and his men and those who have his confidence live. There is a mosque there where he prays but the communal prayer ground is between the two towns.
364:(ruled 868-884) as some of the caravans were attacked by bandits while others were overwhelmed by the wind-blown sand. The more direct route was replaced by one that went to
246:
primary source, modern scholars increasingly question whether the chronicles, as biased political documents, are useful at all for describing the period of the Gao Empire.
1968:
1153:
Cissé, M.; et al. (2013). "Excavations at Gao Saney: New
Evidence for Settlement Growth, Trade, and Interaction on the Niger Bend in the First Millennium CE".
1661:
1638:
1255:
1963:
1712:
519:
writing in around 1154 does not. Both al-Muhallabi (see quote above) and al-Bakri situate Gao on the west (or right bank) of the Niger. The 17th century
440:
This dynasty's role in the history of Gao is a topic of debate among scholars. Dierk Lange has argued that, although these Zaghe monarchs appear in the
1670:
Moraes Farias, Paulo F. de (1990), "The oldest extant writing of West Africa: medieval epigraphs from Essuk, Saney, and Egef-n-Tawaqqast (Mali)",
1178:"Review of Arabic Medieval Inscriptions from the Republic of Mali: Epigraphy, Chronicles, and Songhay-Tuareg History, by P. F. de Moraes Farias"
507:(Sané in French) situated around 4 kilometres to the east. The bed of the Wadi Gangaber passes to the south of the Gao-Saney occupation mound (
1948:
754:
1953:
288:
was founded in the 7th century at the southern terminus of a trans-Saharan trade route powered by chariots. The route was dominated by
1958:
486:
dated as early as the third century, and which were greatly valued in the Sudan and West
African rainforest. Relative to its peers in
1359:
Tarikh el-fettach ou
Chronique du chercheur, pour servir à l'histoire des villes, des armées et des principaux personnages du Tekrour
1622:
1565:
1483:
1461:
1309:
1239:
1217:
448:, they were in fact a new royal clan either descended from resident Berbers influenced by the Almoravids or the royal family of
1705:
525:
also states that in the 10th century Gao was situated on the Gourma side (i.e. the west bank) of the river. A large sand dune,
420:
The 11th century was an important inflection point in the history of the Gao Empire. By the middle decades of the century, the
164:
1155:
1411:"La Chute De La Dynastie Des Sisse: Considerations Sur La Dislocation De L'Empire Du Ghana A Partir De L'Histoire De Gao"
1365:
259:
argued that that Gao was West Africa's first city-state, providing a key model for the Ghana Empire and subsequently the
1263:
Hunwick, John (1994), "Gao and the
Almoravids revisited: ethnicity, political change and the limits of interpretation",
78:
360:(writing c. 988) states that the old route from Egypt to the Sudan was abandoned in the reign of the Egyptian ruler
1698:
1827:
487:
1777:
452:, taking refuge from their own conflict with the Almoravids. John Hunwick has argued that the Zaghe were
1302:
Timbuktu and the
Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents
1097:
878:
295:
merchants, who settled there. The area was also an important center for the local fishing communities.
1575:
Lange, Dierk (1994), "From Mande to
Songhay: Towards a political and ethnic history of medieval Gao",
249:
Twentieth-century historians saw Gao as relatively unimportant compared with the roughly contemporary
194:
was a kingdom that ruled the Niger bend from approximately the 7th century CE until their fall to the
1802:
1782:
1737:
494:, Gao was not a major center of the slave trade, although slavery was widely practiced domestically.
391:
1973:
1767:
1511:"Discovery of the Earliest Royal Palace in Gao and Its Implications for the History of West Africa"
429:
1655:
1632:
1600:
1592:
1530:
1430:
1397:
1389:
1344:
1336:
1288:
1280:
1249:
1189:
508:
412:
and states that in 1009-1010 A.D. the 15th ruler, Zuwa Kusoy, was the first to convert to Islam.
223:
465:
Towards the end of the 13th century Gao lost its independence and became part of the expanding
390:
In Gomez's opinion, this suggests "a ruler who was only nominally Muslim (or may have embraced
1902:
1757:
1721:
1618:
1561:
1479:
1457:
1305:
1235:
1213:
869:
750:
521:
402:
that Gao's kings were Muslim but most of their subjects at that time were not. Al-Sadi in his
398:'s ruler-list has the ruler Kusuy-Muslim converting to Islam in 1009–10, and a 1068 report by
237:
98:
1922:
1887:
1857:
1772:
1679:
1584:
1522:
1471:
1449:
1422:
1381:
1328:
1272:
1164:
255:
64:
434:
309:
Gao grew between the eighth and tenth centuries, becoming a regional power surpassing even
1927:
1882:
1877:
404:
378:
361:
231:
473:(1464–1492). He greatly expanded the territory under Songhay control and established the
1687:. Link is to a scan on the Persée database that omits some photographs of the epigraphs.
1907:
1892:
1872:
1852:
1847:
1807:
749:. United States of America: University of Virginia Press. pp. 301, 302, 305, 308.
474:
264:
242:
207:
157:
1942:
1837:
1742:
1604:
1493:
1401:
1348:
1292:
408:
gives a slightly later date for the introduction of Islam. He lists 32 rulers of the
218:
Apart from some Arabic epitaphs on tombstones discovered in 1939 at the cemetery of
1917:
1812:
1792:
1762:
1526:
1227:
491:
449:
353:
349:
335:
310:
269:
250:
1230:(1980). "Gao and the Almoravids: a hypothesis". In Swartz, B.; Dumett, R. (eds.).
330:
The kings of the area belonged to a dynasty called the Qanda, and used the title '
1612:
1357:
424:
had become a significant power in West Africa, spreading their interpretation of
1842:
1832:
466:
425:
260:
195:
1588:
1385:
1332:
1276:
441:
421:
409:
357:
331:
314:
199:
17:
1168:
701:
516:
504:
470:
365:
298:
285:
219:
1683:
1362:(in French). Houdas, O., Delafosse, M. ed. and trans. Paris: Ernest Leroux.
1210:
African dominion: a new history of empire in early and medieval West Africa
512:
399:
338:
before moving to Gao by the early 10th century. Their power was based in
1534:
1319:
Insoll, Timothy (1997). "Iron age Gao: an archaeological contribution".
1193:
1510:
1434:
1410:
1177:
453:
343:
339:
292:
1596:
1393:
1340:
1284:
1897:
1867:
1817:
1732:
88:
1690:
1426:
1912:
1862:
1822:
1797:
1752:
297:
289:
74:
1558:
Islam, Archaeology and
History: Gao Region (Mali) ca. AD 900–1250
1747:
1372:
Lange, Dierk (1991). "Les rois de Gao-Sané et les Almoravides".
740:
738:
736:
303:
182:
1694:
900:
898:
203:
54:
515:
writing in 1068 also records the existence of two towns, but
661:
352:(writing c. 903) mentions a caravan route from Egypt to
326:
sovereignty, although they are kings in their own lands.
1182:
The International Journal of African Historical Studies
1648:
Arabic Medieval Inscriptions from the Republic of Mali
1356:
Kâti, Mahmoûd Kâti ben el-Hâdj el-Motaouakkel (1913).
723:
721:
437:
dynasty who died successively in 1100, 1110 and 1120.
241:, provide information on the town at the time of the
555:
Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century
334:'. They were likely originally based downstream in
178:
123:
108:
94:
84:
70:
60:
50:
32:
206:, the empire was an important predecessor of the
226:who wrote in the first half of the 9th century.
1081:
1069:
1057:
843:
831:
819:
769:
601:
589:
1666:(for the three kings see pp. 3, 7-8, 15).
1476:Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West Africa
1706:
1212:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
1137:
1125:
1000:
904:
807:
685:
673:
574:
229:The two 17th century Songhai chronicles, the
8:
1509:Takezawa, Shoichiro; Cisse, Mamadou (2012).
1713:
1699:
1691:
1660:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1637:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1254:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
29:
27:Country in west Africa, 8th–13th centuries
867:A similar list of rulers is given in the
1969:13th-century disestablishments in Africa
1496:(1950). "Les épitaphes royales de Gao".
976:
773:
566:
368:before heading south across the Sahara.
1614:Ancient Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa
1101:
988:
940:
625:
613:
570:
546:
198:in the late 14th century. Ruled by the
1653:
1630:
1247:
1113:
1045:
1024:
964:
637:
1478:. New York, NY: Marcus Weiner Press.
1012:
952:
928:
916:
889:
855:
785:
727:
696:
694:
649:
578:
122:
107:
103:
7:
1964:8th-century establishments in Africa
1093:
874:
1474:; Hopkins, John F.P., eds. (2000).
25:
557:, (UNESCO Publishing, 2000), 303.
1646:Moraes Farias, Paolo de (2003).
1617:. Dettelbach. pp. 495–544.
162:
1234:. The Hague. pp. 413–430.
416:Almoravids and a dynastic shift
1527:10.4000/etudesafricaines.17167
1156:Journal of African Archaeology
1:
1232:West African Culture Dynamics
114:
40:
1949:Countries in medieval Africa
1560:. Oxford: Tempus Reparatum.
79:African traditional religion
1515:Cahiers d'Études Africaines
1082:Levtzion & Hopkins 2000
1070:Levtzion & Hopkins 2000
1058:Levtzion & Hopkins 2000
844:Levtzion & Hopkins 2000
834:, pp. 45, 51, 382 n21.
832:Levtzion & Hopkins 2000
820:Levtzion & Hopkins 2000
770:Levtzion & Hopkins 2000
747:The Civilizations of Africa
745:Ehret, Christopher (2016).
602:Levtzion & Hopkins 2000
590:Levtzion & Hopkins 2000
1990:
1954:Former countries in Africa
1577:Journal of African History
1374:Journal of African History
1368:but requires subscription.
1321:Journal of African History
1265:Journal of African History
281:Founding and early history
1959:Political history of Mali
1728:
1589:10.1017/s0021853700026438
1386:10.1017/s002185370002572x
1333:10.1017/s0021853796006822
1277:10.1017/s0021853700026426
1138:Takezawa & Cisse 2012
1126:Takezawa & Cisse 2012
1001:Takezawa & Cisse 2012
905:Takezawa & Cisse 2012
808:Takezawa & Cisse 2012
686:Takezawa & Cisse 2012
674:Takezawa & Cisse 2012
137:
133:
104:
39:
1672:Journal des Africanistes
1556:Insoll, Timothy (1996).
1036:Cissé et al. 2013, p. 30
1300:—— (2003).
1208:Gomez, Michael (2018).
1169:10.3213/2191-5784-10233
706:Encyclopedia Britannica
1684:10.3406/jafr.1990.2452
1454:Ancient Ghana and Mali
1364:. Also available from
1176:Conrad, David (2005).
822:, pp. 27, 378 n4.
628:, pp. lxiii–lxiv.
388:
328:
306:
125:• Disestablished
1611:Lange, Dierk (2004).
1409:Lange, Dierk (1996).
461:Decline and aftermath
383:
323:
301:
253:, but the 2018 study
61:Common languages
202:from the capital of
1456:, London: Methuen,
788:, p. 269, 272.
110:• Established
1838:Mahdiyya caliphate
1498:Bulletin de l'IFAN
616:, p. xxxviii.
575:Moraes Farias 1990
553:Bethwell A. Ogot,
307:
118: 7th century
44: 7th century
1936:
1935:
1722:Sahelian kingdoms
1472:Levtzion, Nehemia
1450:Levtzion, Nehemia
1415:History in Africa
1304:. Leiden: Brill.
870:Tarikh al-Fattash
756:978-0-8139-2880-7
662:Cissé et al. 2013
522:Tarikh al-Fattash
444:kinglists of the
238:Tarikh al-Fattash
188:
187:
174:
173:
170:
169:
99:Postclassical Era
16:(Redirected from
1981:
1715:
1708:
1701:
1692:
1686:
1665:
1659:
1651:
1642:
1636:
1628:
1607:
1571:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1505:
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1445:
1443:
1441:
1405:
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1352:
1315:
1295:
1259:
1253:
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1223:
1204:
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1141:
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1123:
1117:
1111:
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1091:
1085:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1055:
1049:
1043:
1037:
1034:
1028:
1022:
1016:
1010:
1004:
998:
992:
991:, p. xxxvi.
986:
980:
974:
968:
962:
956:
950:
944:
938:
932:
926:
920:
914:
908:
902:
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887:
881:
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859:
853:
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742:
731:
725:
716:
715:
713:
712:
698:
689:
683:
677:
671:
665:
659:
653:
652:, p. 19-29.
647:
641:
635:
629:
623:
617:
611:
605:
599:
593:
587:
581:
564:
558:
551:
396:Ta’rīkh as-sūdān
372:Arrival of Islam
356:via Kawkaw. but
321:in around 872:
256:African Dominion
166:
165:
154:
153:
139:
138:
119:
116:
45:
42:
30:
21:
1989:
1988:
1984:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1979:
1978:
1939:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1724:
1719:
1669:
1652:
1645:
1629:
1625:
1610:
1574:
1568:
1555:
1552:
1550:Further reading
1539:
1537:
1521:(208): 813–44.
1508:
1492:
1486:
1470:
1464:
1448:
1439:
1437:
1427:10.2307/3171939
1408:
1371:
1355:
1318:
1312:
1299:
1262:
1246:
1242:
1226:
1220:
1207:
1198:
1196:
1175:
1152:
1149:
1144:
1136:
1132:
1124:
1120:
1116:, pp. 4–8.
1112:
1108:
1092:
1088:
1080:
1076:
1068:
1064:
1056:
1052:
1044:
1040:
1035:
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1019:
1011:
1007:
999:
995:
987:
983:
975:
971:
963:
959:
951:
947:
939:
935:
927:
923:
915:
911:
903:
896:
892:, p. 24-6.
888:
884:
866:
862:
854:
850:
842:
838:
830:
826:
818:
814:
806:
802:
796:
792:
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768:
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757:
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743:
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668:
660:
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632:
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620:
612:
608:
600:
596:
588:
584:
565:
561:
552:
548:
544:
535:
500:
483:
463:
418:
405:Tarikh al-Sudan
374:
283:
278:
232:Tarikh al-Sudan
216:
163:
126:
117:
111:
43:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1987:
1985:
1977:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1941:
1940:
1934:
1933:
1931:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1853:Mossi kingdoms
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1808:Hausa kingdoms
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1745:
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1729:
1726:
1725:
1720:
1718:
1717:
1710:
1703:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1667:
1643:
1623:
1608:
1583:(2): 275–301,
1572:
1566:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1546:
1506:
1494:Sauvaget, Jean
1490:
1484:
1468:
1462:
1446:
1406:
1380:(2): 251–275.
1369:
1353:
1316:
1310:
1297:
1271:(2): 251–273,
1260:
1240:
1224:
1218:
1205:
1188:(1): 105–112.
1173:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1142:
1140:, p. 835.
1130:
1128:, p. 832.
1118:
1106:
1086:
1074:
1072:, p. 113.
1062:
1050:
1038:
1029:
1017:
1005:
1003:, p. 824.
993:
981:
969:
967:, p. 108.
957:
955:, p. 262.
945:
933:
921:
919:, p. 272.
909:
907:, p. 839.
894:
882:
860:
848:
846:, p. 174.
836:
824:
812:
810:, p. 837.
800:
790:
778:
762:
755:
732:
717:
690:
688:, p. 826.
678:
676:, p. 813.
666:
654:
642:
640:, p. 107.
630:
618:
606:
594:
582:
559:
545:
543:
540:
534:
531:
499:
496:
482:
479:
475:Songhay Empire
462:
459:
417:
414:
373:
370:
282:
279:
277:
274:
243:Songhai Empire
215:
214:Historiography
212:
208:Songhai Empire
186:
185:
180:
176:
175:
172:
171:
168:
167:
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158:Songhai Empire
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148:
147:
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135:
134:
131:
130:
127:
124:
121:
120:
112:
109:
106:
105:
102:
101:
96:
95:Historical era
92:
91:
86:
82:
81:
72:
68:
67:
62:
58:
57:
52:
48:
47:
37:
36:
33:
26:
24:
18:Kingdom of Gao
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1986:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1929:
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1678:(2): 65–113,
1677:
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1624:9783897541153
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1463:0-8419-0431-6
1459:
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1417:(in French).
1416:
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1376:(in French).
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1103:
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1087:
1084:, p. 85.
1083:
1078:
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1060:, p. 87.
1059:
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1048:, p. 23.
1047:
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1039:
1033:
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1021:
1018:
1015:, p. 44.
1014:
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985:
982:
979:, p. 76.
978:
977:Levtzion 1973
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858:, p. 25.
857:
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782:
779:
775:
774:Levtzion 1973
772:, p. 7;
771:
766:
763:
758:
752:
748:
741:
739:
737:
733:
730:, p. 21.
729:
724:
722:
718:
707:
703:
697:
695:
691:
687:
682:
679:
675:
670:
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664:, p. 29.
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567:Sauvaget 1950
563:
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354:ancient Ghana
351:
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317:wrote in his
316:
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179:Today part of
177:
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38:
31:
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1787:
1675:
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1647:
1613:
1580:
1576:
1557:
1538:. Retrieved
1518:
1514:
1501:
1500:. series B.
1497:
1475:
1453:
1438:. Retrieved
1418:
1414:
1377:
1373:
1358:
1324:
1320:
1301:
1268:
1264:
1231:
1209:
1197:. Retrieved
1185:
1181:
1160:
1154:
1147:Bibliography
1133:
1121:
1109:
1102:Hunwick 1994
1089:
1077:
1065:
1053:
1041:
1032:
1020:
1008:
996:
989:Hunwick 2003
984:
972:
960:
948:
941:Hunwick 1980
936:
924:
912:
885:
868:
863:
851:
839:
827:
815:
803:
793:
781:
776:, p. 15
765:
746:
709:. Retrieved
705:
702:"Gao | Mali"
681:
669:
657:
645:
633:
626:Hunwick 2003
621:
614:Hunwick 2003
609:
604:, p. 7.
597:
592:, p. 1.
585:
571:Hunwick 1980
562:
554:
549:
536:
527:La Dune Rose
526:
520:
501:
484:
464:
445:
439:
419:
410:Zuwa dynasty
403:
395:
389:
384:
375:
350:Ibn al-Faqih
348:
329:
324:
318:
308:
284:
270:world system
254:
251:Ghana Empire
248:
236:
230:
228:
224:al-Khwārizmī
217:
191:
189:
145:Succeeded by
144:
1828:Kanem–Bornu
1778:Futa Jallon
1327:(1): 1–30.
1163:(1): 9–37.
1114:Insoll 1997
1046:Insoll 1997
1025:Insoll 1997
965:Conrad 2005
877:, pp.
638:Conrad 2005
467:Mali Empire
426:Sunni Islam
196:Mali Empire
1974:Gao Empire
1943:Categories
1903:Toucouleur
1803:Great Fulo
1504:: 418–440.
1421:: 155–78.
1096:, p.
1013:Gomez 2018
953:Lange 1991
929:Lange 1996
917:Lange 1991
890:Gomez 2018
856:Gomez 2018
786:Lange 1991
728:Gomez 2018
711:2019-11-30
650:Gomez 2018
579:Lange 1991
442:Za dynasty
422:Almoravids
358:Ibn Hawqal
315:Al-Yaʿqūbī
200:Za dynasty
192:Gao Empire
85:Government
1923:Wassoulou
1783:Futa Toro
1656:cite book
1650:. Oxford.
1633:cite book
1605:153657364
1402:162674956
1349:163151474
1293:153794361
1250:cite book
1094:Kâti 1913
875:Kâti 1913
517:al-Idrisi
505:Gao-Saney
471:Sonni Ali
366:Sijilmasa
362:Ibn Tulun
286:Gao-Saney
220:Gao-Saney
71:Religion
1540:24 March
1535:41708210
1452:(1973),
1440:22 March
1199:26 March
1194:40036465
533:Language
513:Al-Bakri
430:Al-Zuhrī
400:al-Bakrī
394:)". The
392:‘Ibāḍism
235:and the
1893:Songhai
1878:Shilluk
1848:Massina
1738:Bagirmi
1435:3171939
879:331–332
498:Capital
481:Economy
454:Sanhaja
381:that
344:camelry
340:cavalry
302:Map of
276:History
265:Songhay
65:Songhai
51:Capital
1908:Tunjur
1898:Takrur
1888:Sokoto
1873:Sennar
1868:Saloum
1818:Kaarta
1768:Darfur
1758:Dagbon
1743:Bamana
1733:Alodia
1621:
1603:
1597:183220
1595:
1564:
1533:
1482:
1460:
1433:
1400:
1394:182617
1392:
1347:
1341:182944
1339:
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1291:
1285:183219
1283:
1238:
1216:
1192:
753:
492:Wagadu
450:Wagadu
446:Tarikh
336:Kukiya
319:Tarikh
311:Wagadu
293:Berber
89:Empire
1918:Wadai
1913:Waalo
1863:Niumi
1858:Niani
1823:Kaabu
1813:Jolof
1798:Gobir
1793:Ghana
1773:Dendi
1753:Cayor
1601:S2CID
1593:JSTOR
1531:JSTOR
1431:JSTOR
1398:S2CID
1390:JSTOR
1366:Aluka
1345:S2CID
1337:JSTOR
1289:S2CID
1281:JSTOR
1190:JSTOR
542:Notes
488:Kanem
435:Zaghe
379:Yaqut
290:Ibadi
75:Islam
46:–1325
1928:Wuli
1883:Sine
1843:Mali
1833:Kong
1763:Daju
1748:Baol
1662:link
1639:link
1619:ISBN
1562:ISBN
1542:2024
1480:ISBN
1458:ISBN
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1306:ISBN
1256:link
1236:ISBN
1214:ISBN
1201:2024
798:Gao.
751:ISBN
509:tell
490:and
342:and
304:Mali
263:and
261:Mali
190:The
183:Mali
129:1325
1788:Gao
1680:doi
1585:doi
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