42:
50:
382:
agriculture output. Kolkhoz members had to perform a minimum number of labor days per year both on the kolkhoz and on other government work (such as road building). In one kolkhoz, the official requirements were a minimum of 130 labor days a year for each able-bodied adult and 50 days per boy aged between 12 and 16. This work requirement was unevenly distributed around the year according to the agricultural cycle, ranging from 30 required labor days between
January 1 and June 15, to 30 required labor days in a single month during harvest. If kolkhoz members did not complete the required minimum, the penalties could involve confiscation of the farmer's private plot and a trial in front of a People's Court that could result in three to eight months of hard labour on the kolkhoz or up to one year in a corrective
346:), received a share of the farm's product and profit according to the number of days worked, whereas a sovkhoz employed salaried workers. In practice, most kolkhozy did not pay their members in cash at all. In 1946, 30 percent of kolkhozy paid no cash for labour at all, 10.6 paid no grain, and 73.2 percent paid 500 grams of grain or less per day worked. In addition the kolkhoz was required to sell its grain crop and other products to the State at fixed prices. These were set by Soviet government very low, and the difference between what the State paid the farm and what the State charged consumers represented a major source of income for the Soviet government. This profit was used to fund the purchase of foreign machinery to accelerate the
394:
of individual laborers were often highly disproportionate. Completing one labor day of work (nominally 8 hours) would often require multiple twelve-hour days of work to complete. Because laborers were compensated based on the number of labor days they completed, not time spent working, the labor day ultimately functioned more as an abstract method by which state authorities predetermined labor costs and kolkhoz production requirements, rather than as a method for fairly compensating workers for their labor. As such, the official rates greatly underrepresent both the labor requirements of agricultural production on kolkhozes and the demand placed on kolkhoz workers for that labor.
41:
49:
31:
159:
259:. In the late 1960s, Khrushchev's administration authorized a guaranteed wage to kolkhoz members, similarly to sovkhoz employees; this reduced the already minor distinction between state and collective farms. Essentially, his administration recognised their status as hired hands rather than authentic cooperative members. The guaranteed wage provision was incorporated in the 1969 version of the Standard Charter.
637:
279:
authorities gradually became in favour of the fixed, combined brigade – that is, the brigade with its personnel, land, equipment and draught horses fixed to it for the whole period of agricultural operations, and taking responsibility for all relevant tasks during that period. The brigade was headed by a brigade leader (
916:, a presidential decree of October 1995 initiated a process of conversion of kolkhozes into share-based farms operating on leased land, agricultural production cooperatives, and dehkan (peasant) farms. However, contrary to the practice in all other CIS countries, one-third of the 30,000 peasant farms in Tajikistan are organized as
247:
unite for the main purpose of joint agricultural production based on collective labor". It asserts that "the kolkhoz is managed according to the principles of socialist self-management, democracy, and openness, with active participation of the members in decisions concerning all aspects of internal life".
393:
Specific tasks on kolkhozes were assigned a particular number of labor days, with the rates determined in advance by state authorities. For example, thinning a tenth of a hectare of sugar beets was typically equivalent to two and a half labor days. However, the official rates and the actual ability
254:
They imposed detailed work programs and nominated their preferred managerial candidates. Since the mid-1930s, the kolkhozes had been in effect an offshoot of the state sector (although notionally they continued to be owned by their members). Nevertheless, in locations with particularly good land or
246:
was legally organized as a production cooperative. The
Standard Charter of a kolkhoz, which since the early 1930s had the force of law in the USSR, is a model of cooperative principles in print. It speaks of the kolkhoz as a "form of agricultural production cooperative of peasants that voluntarily
712:
countries in the 1990s generally indicated that, in the opinion of the members and the managers, many of the new corporate farms behaved and functioned for all practical reasons like the old kolkhozes. Formal re-registration did not produce radical internal restructuring of the traditional Soviet
389:
However, the number of labor days completed by laborers was often much higher than the minimum. For that same kolkhoz mentioned above, the average number of labor days completed by each able-bodied member was 275, more than twice the official minimum. In essence, the requirement was the amount of
250:
In practice, the collective farm that emerged after Stalin’s collectivization campaign did not have many characteristics of a true cooperative, except for nominal joint ownership of non-land assets by the members (the land in the Soviet Union was nationalized in 1917). Even the basic principle of
381:
a peasant with less than 13.5 acres (5.5 ha) was considered too poor to maintain a family. However, the productivity of such plots is reflected in the fact that in 1938 3.9 percent of total sown land was in the form of private plots, but in 1937 those plots produced 21.5 percent of gross
278:
The most basic measure was to divide the workforce into a number of groups, generally known as brigades, for working purposes. By July 1929 it was already normal practice for the large kolkhoz of 200–400 households to be divided into temporary or permanent work units of 15–30 households.' The
920:
and not family farms. These collective dehkan farms are often referred to as "kolkhozy" in the vernacular, although legally they are a different organizational form and the number of "true" kolkhozes in
Tajikistan today is less than 50. Similarly in
251:
voluntary membership was violated by the process of forced collectivization; members did not retain a right of free exit, and those who managed to leave could not take their share of assets with them (neither in kind nor in cash-equivalent form).
390:
labor days below which kolkhoz members would become subject to punitive state measures, but fulfilling this minimum would not then release the laborers from obligations to perform additional work demanded by the kolkhoz or state authorities.
900:, the disappearance of the kolkhoz was part of an overall individualization of agriculture, with family farms displacing corporate farms in general. In Central Asian countries, some corporate farms persist, but no kolkhozes remain. Thus, in
255:
if it happened to have capable management, some kolkhozes accumulated substantial sums of money in their bank accounts. Subsequently, numerous kolkhozes were formally nationalized by changing their status to
376:
Members of kolkhozes had the right to hold a small area of private land and some animals. The size of the private plot varied over the Soviet period, but was usually about 1 acre (0.40 ha). Before the
1362:
86:
57:
146:(TOZ), and finally the kolkhoz. This gradual shift to collective farming in the first 15 years after the October Revolution was turned into a "violent stampede" during the
1324:, Policy Brief 3, European Commission "Support for the Development, Implementation and Evaluation of Agricultural Policy in Tajikistan" Project, Dushanbe (October 2007).
933:
for agricultural cooperatives) and just five years later, in
October 2003, the government's new strategy for land reform prescribed a sweeping reorientation from
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1382:
143:
1318:
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hardly changed at all between 1929 and 1953, meaning that the State came to pay less than one half or even one third of the cost of production.
347:
147:
351:
1367:
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was announced. The number of kolkhozes and sovkhozes declined rapidly after 1992, while other corporate forms gained in prominence.
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292:
273:
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believed was necessary to modernise the USSR and its population to avoid military disasters like those suffered in WW1 and the
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370:
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1931 propaganda poster: "Kolkhoznik, read the book! The book will help fulfill the plan of the second
Bolshevik spring!"
369:, but paid the kolkhoz roughly 8 rubles. Nor did such prices change much to keep up with inflation. Prices paid by the
1377:
1372:
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Brigades could be subdivided into smaller units called zvenos (links) for carrying out some or all of their tasks.
647:
1060:
922:
913:
868:
698:
403:
Kolkhozes and sovkhozes in the Soviet Union: number of farms, average size, and share in agricultural production
30:
654:
1065:
1006:
904:, a presidential decree of June 1995 summarily "reorganized" all kolkhozes into "peasant associations" (
897:
187:
946:
694:
355:
234:. The Russian terms for members of a kolkhoz is "kolkhoznik" (male) and "kolkhoznitsa" (female).
108:
158:
1307:
Agriculture in
Transition: Land Policies and Evolving Farm Structures in Post-Soviet Countries
893:
1079:
905:
339:
327:
79:
92:
930:
881:
702:
167:
876:
For
Moldova, land balance tables, State Land Cadastre Agency, Chisinau, various years.
103:. These were the two components of the socialized farm sector that began to emerge in
1356:
1030:
983:
717:
Number of kolkhozes and all corporate farms in Russia, Ukraine, and
Moldova 1990–2005
202:, 'collective farm'. This Russian term was adopted into other languages as a
130:
Initially, a collective farm resembled an updated version of the traditional
Russian
901:
885:
362:
96:
1213:
Karl Marx
Collective: Economy, society and religion in a Siberian collective farm
937:
to peasant farms, which since then have virtually replaced all corporate farms.
636:
383:
124:
120:
1180:
1197:
Exile and Discipline: The June 1948 campaign against Collective Farm shirkers
131:
112:
864:, statistical yearbook, State Statistical Committee, Moscow, various years.
317:
203:
17:
1054:
1339:
Kolkhozs: How collectivization changed the Latvian countryside, utterly
958:
889:
661: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
116:
100:
1239:
Collective Farming in Russia: A Political Study of the Soviet Kolkhozy
1241:, University of Kansas Publications, Lawrence, Kansas (1958), p. 120.
207:
53:
35:
623:, various years, State Statistical Committee of the USSR, Moscow.
157:
137:
48:
40:
29:
1187:(Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1980), p.59.
630:
366:
1093:
Bilynsky, Andrii; Holubnychy, Vsevolod; Shumelda, Yakiv.
925:
the 1998 Land Code renamed all kolkhozes and sovkhozes
229:
217:
56:
growers at the "Zarya Vostoka" (Eastern Dawn) kolkhoz,
1215:, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1983), p. 96.
361:
In 1948 the Soviet government charged wholesalers 335
955:– working subunit of the brigade in a collective farm
197:
181:
1363:
Agricultural organizations based in the Soviet Union
283:). This was usually a local man (a few were women).
27:
Type of agricultural cooperative in the Soviet Union
1053:
949:– similar type or organization in other countries
210:equivalents from native roots, such as Ukrainian
1309:, Lexington Books, Lanham, MD (2004), Chapter 4.
880:Kolkhozes have disappeared almost completely in
223:
211:
134:"commune", the generic "farming association" (
99:. Kolkhozes existed along with state farms or
1017:яйство, soviet ownership or state ownership,
1000:
313:for general discussion of Soviet agriculture.
191:
175:
69:
8:
1207:
1205:
1301:
1299:
1120:, Agropromizdat, Moscow (1989), pp. 4,37 (
870:Rethinking Agricultural Reform in Ukraine
677:Learn how and when to remove this message
144:Association for Joint Cultivation of Land
720:
693:in December 1991, the general policy of
406:
1321:How many farms are there in Tajikistan?
1291:The History of a Soviet Collective Farm
1278:The History of a Soviet Collective Farm
1252:The History of a Soviet Collective Farm
1135:The History of a Soviet Collective Farm
1045:
971:
627:Disappearance of the kolkhoz after 1991
301:Kolkhoz conditions in the Stalin period
111:of 1917, as an antithesis both to the
398:Basic statistics for the Soviet Union
348:industrialisation of the Soviet Union
78:
7:
1337:Mārtiņš Ķibilds (November 9, 2018).
1185:The Soviet Collective Farm 1929–1930
1165:Agricultural Cooperation in the USSR
1080:participating institution membership
659:adding citations to reliable sources
1305:Z. Lerman, C. Csaki, and G. Feder,
1228:, Macmillan, London (1939), p. 233.
1226:The Economics of Soviet Agriculture
1293:, Praeger, New York (1955), p. 86.
1280:, Praeger, New York (1955), p. 88.
1254:, Praeger, New York (1955), p. 87.
1137:, Praeger, New York (1955), p. 82.
708:Still, field surveys conducted in
25:
953:Zveno (Soviet collective farming)
322:In a kolkhoz, a member, called a
293:Zveno (Soviet collective farming)
1383:Cooperatives in the Soviet Union
1167:, Agropromizdat, Moscow (1991) (
1099:Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine
635:
621:Statistical Yearbook of the USSR
274:Brigade (Soviet collective farm)
206:; however, some other languages
691:dissolution of the Soviet Union
646:needs additional citations for
311:agriculture in the Soviet Union
123:landlords and to individual or
1349:. Retrieved November 19, 2018.
1150:, Naukova Dumka, Kiev (1991) (
1:
1347:Public Broadcasting of Latvia
150:campaign that began in 1928.
307:collectivisation in the USSR
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115:structure of impoverished
1368:Agricultural cooperatives
1061:Oxford English Dictionary
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699:centrally planned economy
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238:Organization of kolkhozes
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199:kollektívnoye khozyáystvo
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1118:Standard Kolkhoz Charter
1025:aystvo. Russian plural:
242:As a collective farm, a
148:forced collectivization
1199:by Jean Levesque, p. 13
1148:Cooperation and the Law
1066:Oxford University Press
918:collective dehkan farms
873:, IAMO, Halle, Germany.
350:, which Stalin and the
231:kolektývne hospodárstvo
225:колективне господарство
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193:коллективное хозяйство
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162:Map of the kolkhozes (
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34:A former kolkhoz near
862:Agriculture in Russia
365:for 100 kilograms of
291:Further information:
272:Further information:
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52:
44:
33:
1224:Leonard E. Hubbard,
755:All corporate farms
655:improve this article
431:Share of households
58:Checheno-Ingush ASSR
1211:Caroline Humphrey,
1064:(Online ed.).
752:Number of kolkhozes
749:All corporate farms
746:Number of kolkhozes
743:All corporate farms
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416:Number of sovkhozes
413:Number of kolkhozes
1378:Collective farming
1373:Agricultural labor
947:Collective farming
428:Share of sovkhozes
425:Share of kolkhozes
356:Russo-Japanese War
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136:zemledel’cheskaya
109:October Revolution
105:Soviet agriculture
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1319:Murat Aminjanov,
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910:daikhan berleshik
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974:
934:
926:
917:
902:Turkmenistan
879:
869:
861:
860:For Russia,
853:
852:
716:
715:
707:
688:
673:
664:
653:Please help
648:verification
645:
620:
618:
402:
401:
392:
388:
375:
360:
336:kolkhoznitsa
335:
323:
321:
296:
280:
277:
256:
253:
249:
243:
241:
173:
163:
135:
129:
121:aristocratic
97:Soviet Union
65:
63:
1007:contraction
961:, in Israel
888:states. In
384:labour camp
344:колхо́зница
188:contraction
1357:Categories
1181:R W Davies
1104:2021-01-25
1082:required.)
1071:2021-01-25
1031:anglicized
984:anglicized
966:References
923:Uzbekistan
914:Tajikistan
898:Azerbaijan
695:transition
332:колхо́зник
324:kolkhoznik
316:See also:
107:after the
1035:sovkhozes
988:kolkhozes
689:With the
257:sovkhozes
166:) of the
132:obshchina
18:Kolkhozes
1343:Atslēgas
1265:op. cit.
1033:plural:
1027:sovkhozy
1021:etskoye
986:plural:
980:kolkhozy
941:See also
935:shirkats
927:shirkats
732:Moldova
619:Source:
318:Trudoden
281:brigadir
204:loanword
1169:Russian
1152:Russian
1122:Russian
1013:етское
1002:совхо́з
959:Kibbutz
906:Turkmen
894:Georgia
890:Armenia
854:Sources
729:Ukraine
340:Russian
328:Russian
268:Brigade
244:kolkhoz
222:, from
219:kolhósp
213:колгосп
208:calqued
183:kolkhóz
164:kolūkis
142:), the
117:serfdom
101:sovkhoz
95:in the
71:колхо́з
66:kolkhoz
912:). In
896:, and
847:1,846
841:17,671
835:22,135
824:1,386
818:14,308
812:27,645
801:1,232
795:10,914
789:26,874
778:1,891
772:10,792
766:29,400
763:12,800
726:Russia
713:farm.
604:15,300
598:23,500
595:29,100
578:16,100
572:22,700
569:26,200
552:17,200
546:21,100
543:25,900
526:18,900
520:18,100
517:28,500
500:20,800
494:15,000
491:33,000
474:24,600
468:11,700
465:36,300
448:26,200
439:44,000
363:rubles
177:колхоз
113:feudal
60:, 1938
54:Cotton
36:Jermuk
1076:
931:Uzbek
832:2,000
809:3,000
786:5,522
769:8,354
701:to a
601:5,900
575:6,500
549:6,600
523:6,400
497:6,100
471:6,100
445:6,600
442:7,400
287:Zveno
186:is a
138:artel
1023:khoz
1005:, a
884:and
829:2005
806:2000
783:1995
760:1990
737:Year
613:26%
592:1990
587:28%
566:1985
561:29%
540:1980
535:32%
514:1975
509:32%
488:1970
483:35%
462:1965
457:38%
436:1960
410:Year
352:AUCP
309:and
305:See
154:Name
119:and
76:IPA:
1019:sov
1015:хоз
1011:сов
1009:of
856::
798:490
792:450
775:531
710:CIS
657:by
610:38%
607:36%
584:36%
581:36%
558:36%
555:35%
532:31%
529:37%
506:28%
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480:24%
477:41%
454:18%
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367:rye
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