122:
1021:, who was sent to the camps in February 1945, apparently for refusing to write a song about Stalin. Although he was initially freed in 1950 and could return to his singing career, he was soon framed by his enemies on charges of homosexuality and sent back to the camps. Though released once again several years later, he was never officially rehabilitated and remained in exile in Magadan where he died in 1994. Speaking to journalists in 1982, he explained how he had been forced to tour the camps: "The Polit bureau formed brigades which would, under surveillance, go on tours of the concentration camps and perform for the prisoners and the guards, including those of the highest rank." In 1993, while being interviewed by
724:
611:(Krawtschuk), a Ukrainian mathematician who by the early 1930s had received considerable acclaim in the West. After a summary trial, apparently for reluctance to take part in the accusations of some of his colleagues, he was sent to Kolyma where he died in 1942. Hard work in the labor camp, harsh climate and meager food, poor health as well as accusations and abandonment by most of his colleagues, took their toll. Kravchuk perished in Magadan in Eastern Siberia, about 4,000 miles (6,000 km) from the place where he was born. Kravchuk's last article had appeared soon after his arrest in 1938. However, after this publication, Kravchuk's name was stricken from books and journals.
879:. Young men and women were lured to the frontier land of Kolyma with the promise of high earnings and better living. But many decided to leave. The region's prosperity suffered under Soviet liberal policies in the end of the 1980s and 1990s with a considerable reduction in population, apparently by 40% in Magadan. A U.S. report from the late 1990s gives details of the region's economic shortfall citing outdated equipment, bankruptcies of local companies and lack of central support. It does however report substantial investments from the United States and the governor's optimism for future prosperity based on revival of the mining industries.
996:, Ayyub Baghirov, an Azerbaijani accountant who was finally rehabilitated, provides details of his arrest, torture and sentencing to eight (finally to become 18) years imprisonment in a labour camp for refusing to incriminate a fellow official for financial irregularities. Describing the train journey to Siberia, he writes: "The terrible heat, the lack of fresh air, the unbearable overcrowded conditions all exhausted us. We were all half starved. Some of the elderly prisoners, who had become so weak and emaciated, died along the way. Their corpses were left abandoned alongside the railroad tracks."
374:
1135:, Martin Bollinger undertakes a careful analysis of the number of prisoners who could have been transported by ship to Magadan between 1932 and 1953 (some 900,000) and the probable number of deaths each year (averaging 27%). This produces figures significantly below earlier estimates but, as the author emphasizes, his calculations are by no means definitive. In addition to the number of deaths, the dreadful conditions of the camps and the hardships experienced by the prisoners over the years need to be taken into account. In his review of Bollinger's book,
623:
678:
615:
827:
3671:
1087:
reveal them. It is essential to do so. Some have expressed fear on seeing some of my paintings that I might end up in Kolyma again—this time for good. But the people must be reminded... of one of the harshest acts of political repression in the Soviet Union. My paintings may help achieve this." The
Jamestown Foundation provides access to all 50 of Getman's paintings together with explanations of their significance.
488:
1238:
43:
985:
382:
107:
545:
584:
134:
1250:
630:
The prisoner population of Kolyma increased substantially in 1946 with the arrival of thousands of former Soviet POWs liberated by
Western Allied forces or the Red Army at the close of World War II. Those judged guilty of collaboration with the enemy frequently received ten or twenty-five year prison
1061:
details her persecution, arrest, trial, imprisonment, and exile to Kolyma. The book starts with a 4 a.m. phone call on the first of
December 1934 calling for her to attend the regional committee office at 6 a.m. and follows the chain of events that ultimately lead to her exile to Kolyma, arriving in
887:
Dalstroy and the camps did not close down completely. The Kolyma authority, which was reorganised in 1958/59 (31 December 1958), finally closed in 1968. However the mining activities did not stop. Indeed, government structures still exist today under the
Ministry of Natural Resources. In some cases,
1086:
who spent the years 1945–1953 in Kolyma, records his testimony in pictures rather than words. But he does have a plea: "Some may say that the Gulag is a forgotten part of history and that we do not need to be reminded. But I have witnessed monstrous crimes. It is not too late to talk about them and
1073:
To begin with, salvation from death in the Elgen forests came to me from cranberries, sour, bitter northern berries, not ripening at the end of summer as they would do in a normal climate, but remaining from the previous year, to be coaxed out of their hiding place by the timid Kolyma spring, after
313:
During archaeological investigations of
Paleolithic sites on the Angara, in 1936 the unique Stone Age site of Buret’ was discovered which yielded an anthropomorphic sculpture, skulls of rhinoceroses, and surface and semisubterranean dwellings. The houses were analogous, on one hand, to Paleolithic
599:
as establishing the new law of the
Archipelago: "We have to squeeze everything out of a prisoner in the first three months—after that we don't need him anymore." But there is no documentary evidence of this beyond Solzhenitsyn's speculation. The system of hard labor and minimal or no food reduced
874:
Industrial gold-mining started in 1958 leading to the development of mining settlements, industrial enterprises, power plants, hydro-electric dams, power transmission lines and improved roads. By the 1960s, the region's population exceeded 100,000. With the dissolution of
Dalstroy, the Soviets
1550:
Secret police authorities in Kolyma today say there are records—sometimes a complete file, sometime just a name on a list—of two million men and women who were shipped to the territory between 1930 and the mid-1950s. But no one knows, even approximately, how many of these prisoners died. Even
1004:
A vivid account of the conditions in Kolyma is that of
Brother Gene Thompson of Kiev's Faith Mission. He recounts how he met Vyacheslav Palman, a prisoner who survived because he knew how to grow cabbages. Palman spoke of how guards read out the names of those to be shot every evening. On one
939:
he writes: "Each time they brought in the soup... it made us all want to cry. We were ready to cry for fear that the soup would be thin. And when a miracle occurred and the soup was thick we couldn’t believe it and ate it as slowly as possible. But even with thick soup in a warm stomach there
536:
was caught in the autumn ice in 1933 while trying to get to the mouth of the Kolyma River. When it reached port the following spring, it carried only crew and guards. All 12,000 prisoners were missing, left dead on the ice." It turns out that this incident, widely reported since it was first
1107:
explains how Stalin, while systematically destroying his comrades-in-arms "at once obliterated every trace of them in history. He personally directed the constant and relentless purging of the archives." That practice continued to exist after the death of the dictator.
1115:
in 1999, there is a reference to the efforts of
Alexander Biryukov, a Magadan lawyer to document the terror. He is said to have compiled a book listing every one of the 11,000 people documented to have been shot in Kolyma camps by the state security organ, the
948:
During and after the Second World War the region saw major influxes of
Ukrainian, Polish, German, Japanese, and Korean prisoners. There is a particularly memorable account written by a Jewish Romanian survivor, Michael M. Solomon, in his book
239:
cover a large part of the region. Average winter temperatures range from −19 to −38 °C (−2 to −36 °F) (even lower in the interior), and average summer temperatures, from 3 to 16 °C (37 to 61 °F). There are rich reserves of
940:
remained a sucking pain; we’d been hungry for too long. All human emotions—love, friendship, envy, concern for one's fellow man, compassion, longing for fame, honesty—had left us with the flesh that had melted from our bodies...."
1139:
refers to 130,000 victims who died at Kolyma. As Bollinger reports in his book, the 3,000,000 estimate originated with the CIA in the 1950s and appears to be a flawed estimate. This number is also estimated by the last survivors.
875:
adopted new labor policies. While the prison labor was still important, it mainly consisted of common criminals. New manpower was recruited from all Soviet nationalities on a voluntary basis, to make up for the sudden lack of
805:
1154:, carried out an extensive investigation of the gulags. In a lecture in 2003, she explained that it's extremely difficult not only to document the facts given the extent of the cover-up but to bring the truth home.
476:) was formed to organize the exploitation of the area. Prisoners were being drawn into the Soviet penal system in large numbers during the initial period of Kolyma's development, most notably from the so-called
1066:
in the winter of 1939. Part 2 chapters 5 to 9 cover her time in Kolyma, first working on land improvements, and then being sent to the "state farm" of Elgen, sometimes El'gen, Russian Эльген, to fell trees.
695:—economic, administrative, physical and political—was in the hands of one person who was invested with many rights and privileges." The officials in charge of Dalstroy, i.e., the Kolyma Gulag camps were:
121:
1551:
historians who have spent years studying Kolyma come up with radically different numbers. I asked four such researchers, who between them have written or edited more than half a dozen books on the
1120:. Biryukov, whose father was in the Gulag at the time he was born, has begun researching the location of graves. He believed some of the bodies were still partially preserved in the permafrost.
532:, which created an island psychology and the term Gulag archipelago. Within the crowded prison ships thousands died during transportation. One survivor's memoir recounts that the prison ship
912:. As a result, he was arrested for "defaming the Soviet state" in November 1970 and sentenced to hard labour, apparently in Kolyma, for what turned out to be a total of almost five years.
204:, and by the Sea of Okhotsk to the south. Kolyma Krai was never formally defined and over time it was split among various administrative units. As of 2023, it consists roughly of the
459:, 1928–1932) the need for capital to finance economic development was great. The abundant gold resources of the area seemed tailor-made to provide this capital. A government agency
1310:
853:
1957: Dalstroy liquidated. Many of the former prisoners continued to work in the mines with a modified status and a few new prisoners arrived, at least until the early 1970s.
669:
ordered a general amnesty that freed many prisoners. Various estimates have put the Kolyma death-toll from 1930 to the mid-1950s between 250,000 and over a million people.
847:
September 1953: Dalstroy camp units taken over by the newly established management board of the North-Eastern Corrective Labour Camps. Harsh camp regime gradually relaxed.
303:. There are many public and private farming enterprises. Gold mines, pasta and sausage factories, fishing companies, and a distillery form the city's industrial base.
2161:
844:
March 1953: After Stalin's death, Dalstroy transferred to the Ministry of Metallurgy, camp units come under the jurisdiction of the Soviet Ministry of Justice.
866:(or region) was established. Dalstroy was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Metallurgy and later to the Ministry of Non-Ferrous Metallurgy.
1486:
Krawtchouk story : How a scientist received a job offer from the American Mathematical Society, was accused of being a foreign spy, and sent to GULAG
3435:
3294:
650:
in Moscow; he later came to work in the Kolyma gold mines. Although rumors of his execution circulated widely, Theremin was, in fact, put to work in a
723:
1095:
The amount of hard evidence in regard to Kolyma is extremely limited. Unfortunately, no reliable archives exist about the total number of victims of
3708:
2086:
Italian-American artist Thomas Sgovio (1916–1997) created a series of drawings and paintings, based on his life as a prisoner in the Soviet Gulag
3428:
3314:
1389:
3703:
3423:
3357:
1813:
3418:
3382:
3321:
1892:
1764:. Translated by Stevenson, Paul; Hayward, Max (First Harvest edition 1975 ed.). United States of America: Harcourt Inc. p. 411.
1555:, what was the total Kolyma death toll. One estimated it at 250,000, another at 300,000, one at 800,000, and one at 'more than 1,000,000.'
385:
Construction of the bridge through the Kolyma by the workers Of the Dalstroy (part of the 'Road of Bones' from Magadan to Jakutsk), 1930s.
953:(see Bibliography below) which gives us a vivid picture of both the transit camps leading to the Kolyma and the region itself. Hungarian
3411:
3406:
3352:
1070:"During the 18 years of our ordeal, many times I found myself face to face with death, but it was an experience I never got used to....
284:
shelf. Total reserves are estimated at 3.5 billion tons of equivalent fuel, including 1.2 billion tons of oil and 1.5 billion m of gas.
1362:
3280:
2154:
1603:
1414:
1324:
Dikov, N.N.; Clark, Gerald H. (1965). "The Stone Age of Kamchatka and the Chukchi Peninsula in the Light of New Archaeological Data".
1578:
3621:
3362:
2044:
2025:
1769:
1741:
1536:
1509:
1350:
1296:
3377:
3367:
3309:
3287:
3270:
3265:
3184:
1566:
1005:
occasion a group of 169 men were shot and thrown into a pit. Their fully clothed bodies were found after the ice melted in 1998.
423:
522:
to the natural harbor chosen for Magadan's construction. Conditions aboard the ships were harsh. According to a 1987 article in
3387:
3216:
3082:
2996:
2946:
1910:
1736:. Translated by Stevenson, Paul; Hayward, Max (First Harvest edition 1975 ed.). United States: Harcourt Inc. p. 394.
984:
841:
May 1952: According to commandant Mitrakov, Sevvoslag is dissolved, Dalstroy transformed into the General Board of Labour Camps
1697:
1652:
1485:
1447:"Review of: Kees Boterbloem Life in Stalin's Soviet Union. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2019. 247 pp. £20.69 (pbk), £63 (hbk)"
3331:
1785:
1123:
It is therefore impossible to provide final figures on the number of victims who died in Kolyma. Robert Conquest, author of
556:, which was to become known as the Road of Bones. Eventually, about 80 different camps dotted the region of the uninhabited
3641:
3626:
2147:
1713:
1940:
Boeskorov, G.G. (2009). "Preliminary study of a mummified woolly rhinoceros from the lower reaches of the Kolyma River".
3674:
3326:
2956:
2683:
2388:
1039:, unaware of Kozin's forced exile, had asked Stalin for the famous singer Vadim Kozin to perform, during a break in the
973:
862:
The Chukot Autonomous Okrug site provides details of developments after the official closure of the camps. In 1953, the
481:
373:
3713:
2813:
2066:
1855:
503:
2991:
2976:
2274:
2259:
1053:
826:
3372:
3304:
3275:
3260:
3001:
2926:
1278:
688:
was the agency created to manage exploitation of the Kolyma area, based principally on the use of forced labour.
404:, road building, lumbering, and construction camps between 1932 and 1954. It was Kolyma's reputation that caused
217:
2060:
896:'s far reaching reforms in the 1990s that the very last prisoners were released from Kolyma. The Russian author
888:
the same individuals seem to have stayed on over the years under new management. There are indications that the
2961:
2878:
2461:
2174:
1850:
622:
1676:
3608:
3299:
3206:
2883:
2593:
2588:
552:
In 1932 expeditions pushed their way into the interior of the Kolyma, embarking on the construction of the
515:
31:
677:
3585:
3392:
2986:
2789:
850:
1953–1956: Period of mass amnesties and the release of most political prisoners. Some camp closures begin.
654:(a secret research-laboratory), together with other scientists and engineers, including aircraft designer
614:
592:
507:
405:
141:
52:
3678:
3542:
3462:
3105:
3006:
2615:
2110:
2082:
from the Stalin's Gulag section of the Online Gulag Museum with a short description and images of Kolyma
1431:
835:
October 1945: Camp for the Japanese prisoners of war is established in Magadan, to provide extra labour.
732:
410:
750:
1928–1929: Gold mines established in the Kolyma River region. Commencement of regular mining operations
106:
2075:
714:
I.L. Mitrakov, from 1950 until Dalstroy was taken over by the Ministry of Metallurgy on 18 March 1953.
3552:
2528:
2246:
2072:
498:
The initial efforts to develop the region began in 1932, with the building of the town of Magadan by
456:
800:
62:, because the Kolyma Gulag is different from the Kolyma region and deserves an article for itself. (
3201:
2866:
2803:
2779:
2610:
2471:
2417:
2358:
2329:
2269:
2264:
393:'s rule, The Kolyma Gulag (Колыма гулаг, колымский гулаг) became the most notorious region for the
213:
2139:
1127:, now admits that his original estimate of three million victims was far too high. In his article
3489:
3110:
3073:
2951:
2397:
2319:
2279:
2254:
1965:
1872:
1810:
1635:
1468:
1333:
1022:
954:
901:
889:
876:
772:
June 1937: Stalin reprimands the Kolyma commandants for their undue leniency towards the inmates.
471:
1889:
976:, is almost entirely a description of the author's life in Magadan and the Kolyma gold fields.
775:
December 1937: Berzin is charged with espionage and subsequently tried and shot in August 1938.
3570:
3189:
3016:
2981:
2842:
2837:
2818:
2627:
2454:
2214:
2040:
2021:
1957:
1765:
1757:
1737:
1729:
1532:
1505:
1410:
1304:
1058:
1036:
666:
638:, an inventor, in the United States and forced him to return to the Soviet Union; he actually
257:
228:
197:
177:
2491:
737:
3651:
3646:
3636:
3565:
3242:
3196:
3139:
3068:
2931:
2825:
2774:
2752:
2605:
2552:
1949:
1864:
1627:
1458:
1254:
1203:
1104:
1040:
931:
821:
639:
635:
608:
193:
181:
162:
3537:
3038:
3026:
3011:
2966:
2916:
2856:
2798:
2759:
2747:
2740:
2649:
2466:
2449:
2424:
2090:
2079:
2013:
1896:
1817:
1717:
1680:
1522:
1171:
1167:
926:
786:
659:
596:
524:
400:. Tens of thousands or more people died en route to the area or in the Kolyma's series of
838:
1952: 199,726 inmates, the highest ever in the history of the Kolyma camps and Dalstroy.
3682:
3631:
3530:
3494:
3474:
3457:
3397:
3161:
3053:
3031:
3021:
2873:
2851:
2735:
2730:
2715:
2710:
2637:
2583:
2535:
2506:
2412:
2402:
2101:
2067:
Kolyma – Stalin's Notorious Prison Camps in Siberia, Personal Account by Ayyub Baghirov
1684:
1618:
1375:
1147:
1143:
1083:
897:
863:
691:
In the words of Azerbaijani prisoner Ayyub Baghirov, "The entire administration of the
655:
553:
519:
415:
358:
319:
281:
209:
205:
189:
125:
817:
1941: Headcount of inmates reaches 190,000. Also some 3,700 Dalstroy contract workers.
3697:
3656:
3525:
3517:
3484:
3221:
3171:
3063:
3058:
3048:
2898:
2861:
2769:
2764:
2666:
2571:
1846:
1472:
1242:
1199:
1179:
1136:
893:
830:
Colonel Stepan Garanin, (1898 — 1950) chief of Kolyma camps in 1937—1938 as prisoner.
760:
699:
643:
564:
452:
419:
390:
377:
Lithuanian political prisoners at the Christmas Eve table in the Kolyma region, 1955.
300:
280:. Twenty-nine zones of possible oil and gas accumulation have been identified in the
224:
1918:
1876:
3560:
3499:
3479:
3469:
3179:
3151:
2906:
2644:
2578:
2547:
2496:
2368:
2297:
2234:
2224:
1969:
1657:
1175:
824:
arrives for a NKVD-hosted 25-day tour of Magadan, Kolyma, and the Russian Far East.
499:
362:
201:
185:
111:
58:
1851:"Stalin's Slave Ships: Kolyma, the Gulag Fleet, and the Role of the West (review)"
769:
1937: The number of inmates increases to over 70,000; 51,500 kg of gold mined
1789:
1526:
1299:. Kommersant Moscow. 8 March 2004. Archived from the original on 25 October 2007.
3616:
3575:
3211:
3100:
3043:
2971:
2921:
2808:
2784:
2673:
2511:
2429:
2407:
2383:
2229:
2219:
1191:
1014:
634:
There were, however, some exceptions. Rumor suggested that Soviet agents seized
572:
447:
were discovered in the region in the early 20th century. During the time of the
414:, to characterize it as the "pole of cold and cruelty" in the Gulag system. The
401:
63:
2095:
1984:
1709:
665:
The Kolyma camps switched to using (mostly) free labor after 1954, and in 1956
607:
Many of the prisoners in Kolyma were academics or intellectuals. They included
502:. (Many projects in the USSR were already using forced labor, most notably the
484:
on the USSR's peasantry. These prisoners formed a readily available workforce.
3146:
3115:
2941:
2936:
2600:
2561:
2523:
2441:
2314:
2199:
2194:
1953:
1868:
1210:
1029:
811:
728:
583:
533:
529:
491:
487:
435:
397:
296:
232:
133:
2125:
2112:
1830:
314:
European houses and, on the other, to ethnographically studied houses of the
3593:
3252:
3226:
3156:
3134:
3127:
2911:
2688:
2622:
2518:
2341:
2324:
2209:
2204:
2178:
1273:
1227:
1163:
1096:
651:
17:
1961:
571:
officer. Berzin was later removed (1937) and shot during the period of the
537:
mentioned in a book published in 1947, could not have happened as the ship
528:
magazine: "During the 1930s the only way to reach Magadan was by ship from
381:
3120:
2725:
2661:
2632:
2542:
2501:
2309:
2289:
1195:
1112:
961:, also recounts the horrors of Kolyma. His story has also led to a film.
892:
were gradually phased out over the years but it was only as a result of
796:
754:
692:
685:
662:(also a Kolyma inmate). The Soviet Union rehabilitated Theremin in 1956.
511:
460:
444:
354:
342:
265:
253:
1590:
1337:
1031:, he recalled how he was released from exile temporarily and flown into
604:, in Russian). Conditions varied depending on the state of the country.
291:
has nearly 100,000 inhabitants and is the largest port in north-eastern
3092:
2830:
2720:
2678:
2566:
2378:
2373:
2302:
1463:
1446:
1407:
Stalin's Slave Ships: Kolyma, the Gulag Fleet, and the Role of the West
1063:
647:
544:
350:
334:
323:
292:
288:
1639:
1131:, Matthew White estimates the number of those who died at 500,000. In
510:, prisoners were disembarked at one of several transit camps (such as
295:. It has a large fishing fleet and remains open year-round because of
3598:
2702:
2656:
2363:
2350:
2069:
in Azerbaijan International, Vol. 14:1 (Spring 2006), pp. 58–71.
1606:, U.S. & Foreign Commercial Service and U.S. Department of State.
789:, an eminent Russian poet, dies in a transit camp en route to Kolyma.
346:
338:
315:
261:
245:
236:
1496:
1494:
1376:"Alaska Notes: communist morality, stalinism, gulag, Kolyma,Magadan"
1631:
1531:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt (published 2003). p. 237.
1178:
and Yana rivers by the spurs of the Polousnyy Kryazh Range and the
3506:
3449:
3344:
2888:
2186:
2170:
1670:
1222:
1032:
1018:
983:
825:
722:
676:
621:
613:
582:
568:
557:
543:
486:
477:
418:
monument in Magadan commemorates all those who died in the Kolyma
394:
380:
372:
330:
137:
132:
988:
Vytautas Mačiuika, Lithuanian political prisoner in Kolyma, 1955.
925:
A detailed description of conditions in the camps is provided by
2483:
2098:
Private site of a former Polish prisoner, Stanislaw J. Kowalski.
1712:
from the Little Russia in US site. Retrieved 13 February 2007.
1117:
779:
731:-issued identity card of Polish prisoner (journalist and writer
448:
440:
277:
269:
241:
2143:
548:
The trademark for industrial goods produced by the Gulag system
426:
remembers the victims in its icons and Stations of the Camps.
273:
249:
196:(the watershed of the two). It is bounded to the north by the
36:
231:
with very cold winters lasting up to six months of the year.
1129:
Death Tolls for the Man-made Megadeaths of the 20th Century
763:, Manager of Dalstroy, arrives with the first 10 prisoners.
506:.) After a gruelling train ride in unheated boxcars on the
1899:. Heritage.org (16 October 2003). Retrieved on 2016-12-14.
2085:
2063:
Photographs, several of Kolyma, collected by James Duncan
1013:
One of the most famous political prisoners in Kolyma was
1198:
was quite different from modern times, with the extinct
778:
4 March 1938: Dalstroy is put under the jurisdiction of
904:
to be sent to Kolyma. In 1970, he published two books:
618:
A Lithuanian deportee house in the Kolyma region, 1958.
2102:
Russian map of the Gulag camps across the Soviet Union
814:) sacked from their posts. Garanin subsequently shot.
1710:
Vadim Kozin, One Way Trip from Petersburg to Magadan
1166:
encompasses the drainages of Arctic rivers from the
480:
campaign and the government's internal war to force
3607:
3584:
3551:
3515:
3448:
3342:
3250:
3241:
3170:
3091:
2897:
2701:
2482:
2440:
2349:
2340:
2288:
2245:
2185:
1890:
Gulag: Understanding the Magnitude of What Happened
1591:
Yakutia ASSR and the Sakha Republic from Cosmic Elk
87:
50:It has been suggested that this article should be
1170:eastward to Chaunskaya Guba Bay. In the west, the
900:appears to have been one of the last high-profile
329:The indigenous peoples of this region include the
357:, who traditionally lived from fishing along the
1616:Keep, John (1971). "Andrei Amalrik and '1984'".
1309:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
1291:
1289:
766:1934: The headcount increases to 30,000 inmates.
742:) released from a Kolyma Gulag camp, spring 1942
626:Deportee camp in the upper Kolyma region, 1956.
563:The original director of the Kolyma camps was
2155:
972:, the first autobiographical book written by
464:
171:
152:
8:
681:Deportee barrack in the Kolyma region, 1957.
2061:The Soviet Gulag Era in Pictures, 1927–1953
1528:The Unquiet Ghost: Russians Remember Stalin
3247:
2346:
2162:
2148:
2140:
1099:; all numbers are estimates. In his book,
1017:, possibly Russia's most popular romantic
631:sentences to the gulag, including Kolyma.
591:At the height of the Purges, around 1937,
494:Tin Mine – A Gulag camp in the Kolyma area
84:
1462:
1074:their ten months' sleep under the snow."
906:Will the Soviet Union Survive Until 1984?
1579:Chukotka as a Part of the Magadan region
541:was not in Soviet hands until mid 1935.
120:
1282:(in Russian) (3rd ed.). 1969–1978.
1265:
1111:In an account of a visit to Magadan by
103:
1302:
705:Karp Aleksandrovich Pavlov, 1937–1939.
361:coast or from reindeer herding in the
223:The area, part of which is within the
1831:"Worst Massacres of the 20th Century"
795:11 October 1939: Commandants Pavlov (
711:Ivan Grigorevich Petrenko, 1948–1950.
600:most prisoners to helpless "goners" (
451:'s industrialization (beginning with
161:
7:
1917:. Nature Conservancy. Archived from
1835:Historical Atlas of the 20th Century
1811:Nikolai Getman: The Gulag collection
1525:(1994). "17: Beyond the Pole Star".
792:1939: Number of inmates now 138,200.
708:Ivan Fedorovich Nikishev, 1940–1948.
753:13 November 1931: Establishment of
595:'s account imagines camp commander
1985:"The evolution of the polar bear,
1915:Freshwater Ecoregions of the World
1388:Jackson, James O. (20 April 1987)
916:Accounts of the Kolyma Gulag camps
299:. Magadan is served by the nearby
25:
2096:Kolyma the Land of Gold and Death
870:Industrial and economic evolution
422:camps and the recently dedicated
3670:
3669:
3002:West South Central United States
1248:
1236:
1091:Estimating the number of victims
1051:In her autobiographical account
105:
41:
3709:History of the Russian Far East
3217:Latin America and the Caribbean
3083:Latin America and the Caribbean
1174:drainage is separated from the
820:23 May 1944: US Vice President
646:had Theremin imprisoned at the
587:Prisoners at a Kolyma gold mine
188:and the northern shores of the
2018:Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps
1502:Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps
910:Involuntary Journey to Siberia
27:Region of the Russian Far East
1:
1820:. Retrieved 13 February 2007.
1602:Kuzmichenko, Svetlana (1998)
1405:Bollinger, Martin J. (2008).
719:Calendar of historical events
518:) and transported across the
3704:Historical regions in Russia
2684:Middle East and North Africa
2389:Middle East and North Africa
1687:. Retrieved 17 January 2007.
1593:. Retrieved 23 January 2007.
1363:Icons by Svetlana Rjanitcyna
1276:[Kolyma Highlands].
1194:the ecology of this part of
1082:Finally, Ukrainian prisoner
1043:, held February 4–11, 1945.
974:Vladimir Nikolayevich Petrov
965:Vladimir Nikolayevich Petrov
430:Emergence of the Gulag camps
2039:. Oxford University Press.
1942:Doklady Biological Sciences
1856:Journal of Cold War Studies
1653:George Bien, Gulag Survivor
184:that includes the basin of
3730:
2977:Northeastern United States
1762:Journey into the Whirlwind
1734:Journey into the Whirlwind
1698:Kolyma – The Road of Death
1213:most likely evolved here.
1054:Journey into the Whirlwind
858:Post-Dalstroy developments
433:
208:, north-eastern areas of
56:into a new article titled
29:
3665:
1954:10.1134/S0012496609010165
1869:10.1162/jcws.2007.9.3.180
1409:. Naval Institute Press.
1279:Great Soviet Encyclopedia
1035:for a few hours, because
465:
218:Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
172:
153:
104:
97:
3458:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
2462:Transantarctic Mountains
2035:MacCannon, John (1998).
1816:30 December 2011 at the
1679:28 November 2006 at the
1673:Walk on Gulagland Kolyma
1504:, Viking Press, (1978),
883:Last political prisoners
3207:Caribbean South America
2104:at the Memorial website
1716:17 October 2006 at the
1451:Nations and Nationalism
1025:for the TV documentary
700:Eduard Petrovich Berzin
32:Kolyma (disambiguation)
2987:Southern United States
2790:Scandinavian Peninsula
1993:Acta Zoologica Fennica
1829:White, Matthew (1998)
1696:Thompson, Gene (2002)
1027:Gold – Lost in Siberia
989:
831:
743:
682:
627:
619:
593:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
588:
549:
508:Trans-Siberian Railway
504:White Sea–Baltic Canal
495:
424:Church of the Nativity
406:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
386:
378:
145:
142:Upper Kolyma Highlands
128:
3463:Antarctic Convergence
3007:Western United States
2078:30 April 2018 at the
1700:. missionreporter.org
1604:Magadan Region Update
1445:Kriza, Elisa (2021).
1432:The Gulag Archipelago
1365:. magadancatholic.org
1353:. magadancatholic.org
1150:winner for her book
1000:Brother Gene Thompson
994:Bitter Days of Kolyma
987:
829:
726:
680:
658:and rocket scientist
625:
617:
586:
547:
490:
411:The Gulag Archipelago
384:
376:
136:
124:
2529:Greater Central Asia
2091:Shalamv Kolyma Tales
1895:2 March 2010 at the
1255:Geography portal
1133:Stalin's Slave Ships
746:Calendar of events:
640:returned voluntarily
457:first five-year plan
30:For other uses, see
3675:Continents of Earth
3202:Brazilian Highlands
2611:Indian subcontinent
2472:Antarctic Peninsula
2270:Southern Hemisphere
2265:Northern Hemisphere
2122: /
1983:Kurtén, B. (1964).
1326:Arctic Anthropology
1274:"Колымское нагорье"
902:political prisoners
890:political prisoners
877:political prisoners
287:The principal town
214:Bilibinsky District
3714:Geography of Gulag
3490:Great Barrier Reef
3111:Mainland Australia
2819:Apennine Peninsula
2280:Western Hemisphere
2255:Eastern Hemisphere
2126:65.000°N 152.000°E
1758:Ginzburg, Yevgenia
1730:Ginzburg, Yevgenia
1500:Conquest, Robert,
1464:10.1111/nana.12775
1023:Theo Uittenbogaard
990:
944:Michael M. Solomon
832:
744:
733:Anatol Krakowiecki
683:
673:Dalstroy officials
628:
620:
589:
550:
496:
474:Construction Trust
387:
379:
192:, as well as the
146:
129:
3691:
3690:
3571:Mediterranean Rim
3444:
3443:
3383:Mediterranean Sea
3237:
3236:
3190:Amazon Rainforest
3017:Canadian Prairies
2982:Pacific Northwest
2843:Iberian Peninsula
2628:Arabian Peninsula
2455:Antarctic Plateau
2215:Three/Four Worlds
2073:Work in the Gulag
1671:Documentary film
1567:История Дальстроя
1429:Solzhenitsyn, A.
1243:Russia portal
1059:Yevgenia Ginzburg
1047:Yevgenia Ginzburg
1037:Winston Churchill
759:4 February 1932:
667:Nikita Khrushchev
229:subarctic climate
198:East Siberian Sea
178:historical region
163:[kəɫɨˈma]
119:
118:
80:
79:
16:(Redirected from
3721:
3673:
3672:
3652:Global Southwest
3647:Global Southeast
3637:Global Northwest
3632:Global Northeast
3622:Global Heartland
3566:Indian Ocean Rim
3248:
3140:Island Melanesia
2831:Balkan Peninsula
2606:Himalayan states
2553:Russian Far East
2347:
2275:Water Hemisphere
2164:
2157:
2150:
2141:
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2136:
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2132:
2127:
2123:
2120:
2119:
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2115:
2050:
2031:
2020:. Viking Press.
2014:Conquest, Robert
2001:
2000:
1980:
1974:
1973:
1937:
1931:
1930:
1928:
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1900:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1843:
1837:
1827:
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1808:
1802:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1788:. Archived from
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1701:
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1523:Hochschild, Adam
1519:
1513:
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1442:
1436:
1435:, vol. 2, p. 49.
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1300:
1297:"Magadan Region"
1293:
1284:
1283:
1270:
1253:
1252:
1251:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1204:wooly rhinoceros
1152:Gulag: A History
1125:The Great Terror
1105:Edvard Radzinsky
1041:Yalta Conference
957:, author of the
822:Henry A. Wallace
809:
741:
609:Mikhail Kravchuk
579:The Arctic camps
482:collectivization
468:
467:
194:Kolyma Mountains
182:Russian Far East
175:
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85:
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3580:
3547:
3511:
3440:
3429:South China Sea
3338:
3281:Central America
3233:
3166:
3087:
3039:Northern Mexico
3027:Northern Canada
3012:Atlantic Canada
2967:Mountain states
2893:
2748:European Russia
2741:Southern Russia
2697:
2650:Iranian Plateau
2478:
2467:West Antarctica
2450:East Antarctica
2436:
2336:
2284:
2260:Land Hemisphere
2241:
2181:
2168:
2131:65.000; 152.000
2130:
2128:
2124:
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2113:
2111:
2109:
2108:
2080:Wayback Machine
2057:
2047:
2034:
2028:
2012:
2009:
2007:Further reading
2004:
1987:Ursus maritimus
1982:
1981:
1977:
1939:
1938:
1934:
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1907:
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1897:Wayback Machine
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1818:Wayback Machine
1809:
1805:
1795:
1793:
1792:on 22 July 2009
1784:
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1206:being present.
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1168:Indigirka River
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927:Varlam Shalamov
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787:Osip Mandelstam
785:December 1938:
735:
721:
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660:Sergei Korolyov
597:Naftaly Frenkel
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3683:Physical Earth
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3162:Remote Oceania
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2731:North Caucasus
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2298:Africa-Eurasia
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2055:External links
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2008:
2005:
2003:
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1975:
1932:
1921:on 25 May 2015
1901:
1882:
1863:(3): 180–182.
1847:Polmar, Norman
1838:
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1803:
1786:"Arts Gallery"
1777:
1770:
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1742:
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1689:
1685:Zoltan Szalkai
1663:
1661:, 22 June 2005
1645:
1632:10.2307/127788
1626:(4): 335–345.
1619:Russian Review
1608:
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1581:. chukotka.org
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1148:Pulitzer Prize
1144:Anne Applebaum
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1084:Nikolai Getman
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1078:Nikolai Getman
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520:Sea of Okhotsk
469:, acronym for
434:Main article:
431:
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416:Mask of Sorrow
370:
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359:Sea of Okhotsk
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282:Sea of Okhotsk
206:Magadan Oblast
190:Sea of Okhotsk
173:Колымский край
140:forest in the
126:Magadan Oblast
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3485:Pacific Ocean
3483:
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3419:Pacific Ocean
3417:
3413:
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3409:
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3405:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
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3376:
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3373:Caribbean Sea
3371:
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3360:
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3350:
3348:
3346:
3341:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3324:
3323:
3320:
3316:
3315:by population
3313:
3311:
3308:
3307:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3289:
3288:South America
3286:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3271:North America
3269:
3268:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3258:
3256:
3254:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3240:
3228:
3225:
3224:
3223:
3222:Southern Cone
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3197:Andean States
3195:
3191:
3188:
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3183:
3182:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3173:
3172:South America
3169:
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3141:
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2902:
2900:
2899:North America
2896:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2862:Low Countries
2860:
2858:
2855:
2854:
2853:
2850:
2844:
2841:
2840:
2839:
2838:South-western
2836:
2832:
2829:
2828:
2827:
2826:South-eastern
2824:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2815:
2814:South-central
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2804:Mediterranean
2802:
2801:
2800:
2797:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
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2773:
2771:
2770:British Isles
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2667:Levantine Sea
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2359:Mediterranean
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2065:
2062:
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2058:
2054:
2048:
2046:0-19-511436-1
2042:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2027:0-670-41499-9
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2010:
2006:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1988:
1979:
1976:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1936:
1933:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1911:"609: Kolyma"
1905:
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1778:
1773:
1771:9781903155967
1767:
1763:
1759:
1753:
1750:
1745:
1743:9781903155967
1739:
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1556:
1554:
1540:
1538:0-547-52497-8
1534:
1530:
1529:
1524:
1518:
1515:
1512:, pp. 228–229
1511:
1510:0-670-41499-9
1507:
1503:
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1224:
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1220:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1200:Wooly mammoth
1197:
1193:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1180:Chersky Range
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1138:
1137:Norman Polmar
1134:
1130:
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1119:
1114:
1109:
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979:
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962:
960:
956:
952:
943:
941:
938:
934:
933:
928:
920:
915:
913:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
894:Boris Yeltsin
891:
882:
880:
878:
869:
867:
865:
857:
852:
849:
846:
843:
840:
837:
834:
828:
823:
819:
816:
813:
807:
802:
798:
794:
791:
788:
784:
781:
777:
774:
771:
768:
765:
762:
761:Eduard Berzin
758:
756:
752:
749:
748:
747:
739:
734:
730:
725:
718:
713:
710:
707:
704:
701:
698:
697:
696:
694:
689:
687:
679:
672:
670:
668:
663:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
644:Joseph Stalin
641:
637:
636:Léon Theremin
632:
624:
616:
612:
610:
605:
603:
598:
594:
585:
578:
576:
575:in the USSR.
574:
570:
566:
565:Eduard Berzin
561:
559:
555:
546:
542:
540:
535:
531:
527:
526:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
493:
489:
485:
483:
479:
475:
473:
462:
458:
454:
453:Joseph Stalin
450:
446:
442:
437:
429:
427:
425:
421:
420:forced-labour
417:
413:
412:
407:
403:
399:
396:
392:
391:Joseph Stalin
383:
375:
368:
366:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
327:
325:
321:
317:
308:
306:
304:
302:
301:Sokol Airport
298:
294:
290:
285:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
238:
234:
230:
226:
225:Arctic Circle
221:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
169:
164:
150:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
113:
108:
96:
86:
74:
65:
61:
60:
55:
54:
48:
39:
38:
33:
19:
3681: /
3679:List of seas
3677: /
3642:Global South
3627:Global North
3561:Atlantic Rim
3500:Ring of Fire
3480:Indian Ocean
3470:Arctic Ocean
3412:Persian Gulf
3407:Indian Ocean
3388:Adriatic Sea
3353:Arctic Ocean
3185:Amazon Basin
3180:Amazon Plain
3152:Near Oceania
2957:Mid-Atlantic
2907:Aridoamerica
2867:Northwestern
2780:Northwestern
2753:Southeastern
2645:Greater Iran
2584:Southeastern
2579:Pacific Asia
2548:Pacific Asia
2536:Northeastern
2492:Asia–Pacific
2235:Fourth World
2225:Second World
2107:
2036:
2017:
1996:
1992:
1986:
1978:
1948:(1): 53–56.
1945:
1941:
1935:
1923:. Retrieved
1919:the original
1914:
1904:
1885:
1860:
1854:
1841:
1834:
1825:
1806:
1794:. Retrieved
1790:the original
1780:
1761:
1752:
1733:
1724:
1705:
1692:
1672:
1666:
1658:Boston Globe
1656:
1648:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1598:
1586:
1574:
1562:
1552:
1549:
1542:. Retrieved
1527:
1517:
1501:
1481:
1454:
1450:
1440:
1430:
1425:
1406:
1400:
1393:
1390:Soviet Union
1384:
1370:
1358:
1346:
1332:(1): 10–25.
1329:
1325:
1319:
1277:
1268:
1232:Soviet Union
1208:
1189:
1186:Paleoecology
1176:Khroma River
1161:
1151:
1142:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1122:
1110:
1100:
1094:
1081:
1072:
1069:
1052:
1050:
1026:
1012:
1003:
993:
991:
969:
968:
958:
950:
947:
936:
932:Kolyma Tales
930:
924:
909:
905:
886:
873:
861:
745:
690:
684:
664:
633:
629:
606:
601:
590:
573:Great Purges
562:
551:
538:
523:
500:forced labor
497:
470:
439:
409:
408:, author of
388:
363:River Kolyma
328:
312:
305:
286:
222:
202:Arctic Ocean
186:Kolyma River
167:
148:
147:
130:
112:Kolyma River
68:
59:Kolyma Gulag
57:
51:
18:Kolyma camps
3657:Global West
3617:Global East
3576:Pacific Rim
3518:waterbodies
3507:World Ocean
3332:New Zealand
3212:The Guianas
3101:Australasia
3044:West Indies
2972:New England
2952:Great Lakes
2922:Mesoamerica
2809:Middle East
2785:Scandinavia
2674:Middle East
2512:Caspian Sea
2418:Great Lakes
2398:Sub-Saharan
2384:Middle East
2247:Hemispheres
2230:Third World
2220:First World
2173:'s primary
2129: /
1569:. kolyma.ru
1457:(4): 1308.
1192:Pleistocene
1190:During the
1057:, academic
1015:Vadim Kozin
1009:Vadim Kozin
970:Soviet Gold
955:George Bien
937:Dry Rations
804: [
736: [
702:, 1932–1937
402:gold mining
398:labor camps
297:icebreakers
168:Kolyma Krai
3698:Categories
3398:Ionian Sea
3393:Aegean Sea
3363:Baltic Sea
3295:Antarctica
3147:Micronesia
3116:New Guinea
3074:Portuguese
2997:West Coast
2947:East Coast
2942:Bible Belt
2937:Appalachia
2616:Subregions
2524:Inner Asia
2442:Antarctica
2342:Continents
2315:Antarctica
2290:Landmasses
2200:Down Under
2195:Arab World
2179:subregions
2037:Red Arctic
1261:References
1211:polar bear
959:Lost Years
812:Sevvostlag
729:Sevvostlag
602:dokhodyaga
534:SS Dzhurma
530:Khabarovsk
514:and later
492:Butugychag
478:anti-Kulak
436:Sevvostlag
309:Prehistory
233:Permafrost
212:, and the
3594:Antarctic
3378:Irish Sea
3368:Black Sea
3327:Australia
3276:Caribbean
3253:continent
3227:Patagonia
3157:Polynesia
3135:Melanesia
3128:Zealandia
3106:Australia
2992:Southwest
2912:Caribbean
2689:Near East
2330:submerged
2325:Zealandia
2320:Australia
2210:Old World
2205:New World
1989:(Phipps)"
1488:. gmu.edu
1473:244626613
1228:Vorkutlag
1164:ecoregion
1097:Stalinism
652:sharashka
472:Far North
466:Дальстрой
3121:Tasmania
3069:Hispanic
2932:Northern
2879:Germanic
2857:Atlantic
2799:Southern
2760:Northern
2726:Caucasus
2662:Dead Sea
2633:Caucasus
2601:Southern
2594:Maritime
2589:Mainland
2562:Northern
2543:Far East
2502:Aral Sea
2425:Southern
2369:Northern
2076:Archived
2016:(1978).
1962:19341085
1893:Archived
1877:57563119
1849:(2007).
1814:Archived
1760:(1967).
1732:(1967).
1714:Archived
1677:Archived
1338:40315601
1305:cite web
1217:See also
1202:and the
1196:Beringia
1113:Harry Wu
1103:(1996),
797:Dalstroy
755:Dalstroy
693:Dalstroy
686:Dalstroy
512:Nakhodka
461:Dalstroy
445:platinum
365:valley.
355:Itelmens
343:Chukchis
266:antimony
254:tungsten
227:, has a
200:and the
71:May 2023
3322:Oceania
3310:by area
3266:America
3243:Islands
3093:Oceania
2962:Midwest
2917:Central
2884:Romance
2852:Western
2721:Balkans
2716:Eastern
2711:Central
2679:Mashriq
2623:Western
2567:Siberia
2519:Eastern
2497:Central
2430:Western
2403:Central
2379:Mashriq
2374:Maghreb
2364:Saharan
2310:America
2303:Eurasia
2175:regions
2117:152°0′E
1999:: 1–26.
1970:2674199
1796:16 July
1655:in the
1544:14 June
1158:Ecology
1146:, 2004
1064:Magadan
951:Magadan
929:in his
782:, USSR.
648:Butyrka
539:Dzhurma
369:History
351:Chuvans
335:Koryaks
324:Koryaks
320:Chukchi
316:Eskimos
293:Siberia
289:Magadan
258:mercury
210:Yakutia
180:in the
176:) is a
154:Колыма́
64:discuss
3609:Global
3599:Arctic
3538:Rivers
3516:Other
3450:Oceans
3305:Europe
3261:Africa
3054:French
2927:Middle
2889:Slavic
2874:Celtic
2775:Nordic
2765:Baltic
2703:Europe
2657:Levant
2351:Africa
2187:Worlds
2114:65°0′N
2043:
2024:
1968:
1960:
1925:25 May
1909:FEOW.
1875:
1768:
1740:
1640:127788
1638:
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