465:
445:
288:
604:) have been obliterated by erosional processes. The age of the Orientale basin has not been directly determined, though it must be older than 3.72 Ga (based on Upper Imbrian ages of mare basalts) and could be as old as 3.84 Ga based on the size-frequency distributions of craters superposed on Orientale ejecta. About two-thirds of the Moon's mare basalts erupted within the Upper Imbrian Series, with many of these lavas filling the depressions associated with older impact basins.
2233:
635:. This definition, however, has recently been subjected to some criticism as some crater rays are bright for compositional reasons that are unrelated to the amount of space weathering they have incurred. In particular, if the ejecta from a crater formed in the highlands (which is composed of bright anorthositic materials) is deposited on the low albedo mare, it will remain bright even after being space weathered.
666:, it is important to realize that the boundaries do not imply any fundamental change of geological processes. Furthermore, as the oldest geological periods of the Moon are based exclusively on the times of individual impact events (in particular, Nectaris, Imbrium, and Orientale), these punctual events will most likely not correspond to any specific geological event on the other terrestrial planets, such as
1098:
725:
558:
mission was to date material excavated by the
Nectaris impact basin. Nevertheless, the age of the Nectaris basin is somewhat contentious, with the most frequently cited numbers being 3.92 Ga, and less frequently 3.85 Ga. Recently, it has been suggested that the Nectaris basin could be, in fact, much
406:
might represent a single stratigraphic unit with a unique age, but it is now recognized that mare volcanism was an ongoing process, beginning as early as 4.2 Ga (1 Ga = 1 billion years ago) and continuing to perhaps as late as 1.2 Ga. Impact events are by far the most useful for defining a lunar
626:
have been almost obliterated by erosional processes. The principal erosional agent on the Moon is impact cratering itself, though seismic modification could play a minor role as well. The absolute age of this boundary is not well defined, but is commonly quoted as being near 3.2 Ga. The younger
410:
The lunar geological time scale has been divided into five periods (Pre-Nectarian, Nectarian, Imbrian, Eratosthenian, and
Copernican) with one of these (the Imbrian) being subdivided into two epochs. These divisions of geological time are based on the recognition of convenient geomorphological
653:
is the youngest geological period of the Moon. Originally, the presence of a bright ray system surrounding an impact crater was used to define
Copernican units, but as mentioned above, this is complicated by the presence of compositional ray systems. The base of the Copernican period does not
407:
stratigraphy as they are numerous and form in a geological instant. The continued effects of impact cratering over long periods of time modify the morphology of lunar landforms in a quantitative way, and the state of erosion of a landform can also be used to assign a relative age.
2209:
709:. This notation is not entirely consistent with the above lunar geologic time scale in that the Cryptic and Basin Groups 1–9 (both of which are only informal terms that are not used in geologic maps) comprise the
654:
correspond to the formation of the impact crater
Copernicus. The age of the base of the Copernican is not well constrained, but a commonly quoted number is 1.1 Ga. The Copernican extends until the present day.
2156:
627:
boundary of this period is defined based on the recognition that freshly excavated materials on the lunar surface are generally bright and that they become darker over time as a result of
2114:
419:
to known geological units, it has been possible to assign absolute ages to some of these geological periods. Some of the lunar time scale ages are uncertain or disputed. In many
415:
in that it is the only body (other than the Earth) for which we possess rock samples with a known geological context. By correlating the ages of samples obtained from the
411:
markers, and as such, they should not be taken to imply that any fundamental changes in geological processes have occurred at these boundaries. The Moon is unique in the
2149:
662:
The divisions of the lunar geologic time scale are based on the recognition of a few convenient geomorphological markers. While these divisions are extremely useful for
865:
354:
formation through time, and the size-frequency distribution of craters superposed on geological units. The absolute ages for these periods have been constrained by
378:
879:
D. Stöffler and G. Ryder, D.; Ryder, G. (2001). "Stratigraphy and isotope ages of lunar geological units: chronological standards for the inner solar system".
2142:
1789:
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samples with geological units on the Moon is difficult, and most lunar radiometric ages have been highly affected by an intense history of bombardment.
358:
of samples obtained from the lunar surface. However, there is still much debate concerning the ages of certain key events, because correlating lunar
1723:
464:
455:
444:
2121:
508:, and its ejecta blanket serves as a useful stratigraphic marker. 30 impact basins from this period are recognized, the oldest of which is the
423:
regions, it is not possible to distinguish between
Nectarian and Pre-Nectarian materials, and these deposits are sometimes labeled as just
600:
The Late
Imbrian is defined as the time between the formation of the Orientale basin, and the time at which craters of a certain size (D
2128:
991:
593:
impact basins. The
Imbrium basin is believed to have formed at 3.85 Ga, though a minority opinion places this event at 3.77 Ga. The
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2172:
376:
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1594:
1746:
1739:
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1407:
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is the only other multi-ring basin that is Lower
Imbrian in age, and no large multi-ring basins formed after this epoch.
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Nevertheless, at least one notable scientific work has advocated using the lunar geological time scale to subdivide the
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1423:
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371:
375:
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processes. Operationally, this period was originally defined as the time at which impact craters lost their bright
372:
1398:
287:
1812:
818:"Ages and stratigraphy of mare basalts in Oceanus Procellarum, Mare Numbium, Mare Cognitum, and Mare Insularum"
2135:
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1070:
1047:
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period is defined from the point at which the lunar crust formed, to the time of the
Nectaris impact event.
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434:
2013:
1865:
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impact basins. 12 multi-ring impact basins are recognized in the
Nectarian period, including the
355:
402:) it is possible to order these geological events in time. At one time, it was thought that the
2195:
1654:
1612:
1106:
1097:
977:
922:
R. Korotev; J. Gillis; L. Haskin & B. Jolliff (2002). "On the age of the Nectaris basin".
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17:
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period is defined by the time at which craters on a geological unit of a certain size D
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693:. In particular, it is sometimes found that the Hadean is subdivided into the
632:
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epochs. The Early Imbrian is defined as the time between the formation of the
403:
1999:
1985:
1971:
1955:
1948:
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Periods on the Lunar Geologic Timescale. Axis scale: Millions of years ago.
386:
The primary geological processes that have modified the lunar surface are
2006:
1964:
1941:
1819:
1184:
842:
817:
816:
H. Hiesinger, J. W. Head, U. Wolf, R. Jaumann, and G. Neukum, H. (2003).
797:
James Papike; Grahm Ryder & Charles Shearer (1998). "Lunar Samples".
538:
period encompasses all events that occurred between the formation of the
359:
1444:
1198:
937:
W. Harland; R. Armstrong; A. Cox; L. Craig; A. Smith; D. Smith (1990).
216:
203:
168:
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1513:
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512:. This geological period has been informally subdivided into the
1904:
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1000:
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315:
973:
781:
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1–9, but these divisions are not used on any geological maps.
370:
39:
342:. The boundaries of this time scale are related to large
963:
Planetary science research discoveries (psrd.hawaii.edu)
969:
2055:
2023:
1928:
1845:
1765:
1604:
1307:
1105:
1016:
959:"Lunar Crater Rays Point to a New Lunar Time Scale"
277:
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262:
32:
786:. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1348.
554:basins. One of the scientific objectives of the
454:– rectangular structure (visible – topography –
664:ordering geological events in a relative manner
985:
8:
864:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
577:The Imbrian period has been subdivided into
318:into five generally recognized periods: the
658:Relationship to Earth's geologic time scale
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978:
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841:
769:
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799:Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry
29:
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7:
957:Martel, L.M.V. (28 September 2004).
27:Geological dating system of the Moon
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25:
2210:Lilith (hypothetical second moon)
2232:
2231:
2173:Moon landing conspiracy theories
1096:
723:
463:
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382:Millions of years before present
298:(high resolution, click to zoom)
1595:Selenographic coordinate system
2122:Artificial objects on the Moon
1:
1213:Total penumbral lunar eclipse
941:. Cambridge University Press.
2188:Moon is made of green cheese
1482:Permanently shadowed craters
783:Geologic History of the Moon
474:– closeup (artist's concept)
749:Geologic time scale (Earth)
2280:
2115:Craters named after people
1588:Transient lunar phenomenon
1236:Solar eclipses on the Moon
939:A Geologic time scale 1989
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611:
566:
527:
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304:lunar geological timescale
2226:
1094:
1007:
310:) divides the history of
249:
37:
18:Lunar geologic time scale
398:principles (such as the
394:, and by using standard
281:Lunar Geologic Timescale
115:−1000 —
105:−1500 —
95:−2000 —
85:−2500 —
75:−3000 —
65:−3500 —
55:−4000 —
45:−4500 —
2136:Moon in science fiction
1641:Giant-impact hypothesis
1489:South Pole–Aitken basin
924:Workshop on Moon Beyond
901:10.1023/A:1011937020193
510:South Pole–Aitken basin
502:multi-ring impact basin
456:GRAIL gravity gradients
346:that have modified the
308:selenological timescale
125:−500 —
2259:Lunar geologic periods
2157:futuristic exploration
1680:Late Heavy Bombardment
759:Late Heavy Bombardment
299:
2217:Splitting of the Moon
2129:Memorials on the Moon
1733:Lunar sample displays
1415:Peak of eternal light
780:Don Wilhelms (1987).
506:near side of the Moon
296:near side of the Moon
290:
843:10.1029/2002JE001985
400:law of superposition
1717:Lunar laser ranging
893:2001SSRv...96....9S
834:2003JGRE..108.5065H
744:Geology of the Moon
731:Solar System portal
691:geologic time scale
504:that formed on the
458:) (October 1, 2014)
437:("Ocean of Storms")
435:Oceanus Procellarum
1866:Lunisolar calendar
1535:Lunar basalt 70017
1282:Tidal acceleration
1137:Perigee and apogee
1027:Internal structure
949:General references
559:older at ~4.1 Ga.
366:Lunar stratigraphy
356:radiometric dating
300:
278:Time scale(s) used
2264:Geology timelines
2246:
2245:
2196:Natural satellite
1655:Lunar magma ocean
1431:Volcanic features
651:Copernican period
645:Copernican period
595:Schrödinger basin
383:
285:
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263:Usage information
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16:(Redirected from
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926:: abstract 3029.
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1013:
1008:
1005:
1004:
999:
997:
996:
989:
982:
974:
968:
967:
953:
952:
950:
945:
944:
929:
914:
881:Space Sci. Rev
871:
808:
789:
768:
766:
763:
762:
761:
756:
751:
746:
741:
735:
734:
718:
715:
659:
656:
643:Main article:
640:
637:
623:
612:Main article:
609:
606:
601:
564:
561:
528:Main article:
525:
522:
486:Main article:
483:
480:
469:
462:
461:
449:
442:
441:
440:
432:
431:
430:
429:
421:lunar highland
380:
369:
367:
364:
283:
282:
279:
275:
274:
269:
268:Celestial body
265:
264:
260:
259:
255:
254:
250:
247:
246:
241:
240:
239:
234:
233:
232:
227:
226:
225:
214:
213:
212:
201:
200:
199:
190:
189:
188:
179:
178:
177:
166:
165:
164:
153:
152:
151:
142:
141:
140:
138:
135:0 —
133:
128:
123:
118:
113:
108:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
43:
38:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2276:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2256:
2254:
2238:
2229:
2228:
2225:
2218:
2214:
2211:
2207:
2204:
2203:Double planet
2200:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2184:
2181:
2177:
2174:
2170:
2165:
2161:
2158:
2154:
2151:
2147:
2144:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2133:
2130:
2126:
2123:
2119:
2116:
2112:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2096:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2086:
2085:Moon illusion
2082:
2079:
2075:
2072:
2068:
2065:
2064:Lunar deities
2061:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2047:
2043:
2040:
2036:
2033:
2029:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2015:
2011:
2008:
2004:
2001:
1997:
1994:
1990:
1987:
1983:
1980:
1976:
1973:
1969:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1953:
1952:
1950:
1946:
1943:
1939:
1938:
1936:
1931:
1927:
1920:
1916:
1913:
1912:Lunar station
1909:
1906:
1902:
1899:
1895:
1888:
1884:
1883:
1881:
1877:
1876:
1874:
1870:
1867:
1863:
1860:
1856:
1855:
1853:
1851:
1846:Time-telling
1844:
1837:
1833:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1816:
1814:
1810:
1807:
1803:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1787:
1784:
1780:
1779:
1777:
1773:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1764:
1757:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1741:
1737:
1736:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1721:
1718:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1704:
1700:
1697:
1693:
1690:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1676:
1674:
1670:
1669:
1667:
1663:
1656:
1652:
1649:
1645:
1644:
1642:
1638:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1628:
1624:
1621:
1617:
1614:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1596:
1592:
1589:
1585:
1582:
1578:
1573:
1569:
1566:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1555:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1539:
1536:
1532:
1531:
1529:
1525:
1522:
1518:
1515:
1511:
1506:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1486:
1483:
1479:
1476:
1472:
1469:
1465:
1464:
1462:
1458:
1453:
1449:
1446:
1442:
1439:
1435:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1425:
1421:
1416:
1412:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1400:
1396:
1395:
1393:
1389:
1382:
1378:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1368:
1364:
1363:
1359:
1354:
1350:
1347:
1343:
1342:
1338:
1335:
1331:
1328:
1324:
1321:
1317:
1316:
1314:
1312:
1306:
1299:
1298:Lunar station
1295:
1290:
1286:
1283:
1279:
1276:
1275:Tidal locking
1272:
1269:
1265:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1253:
1249:
1244:
1243:Eclipse cycle
1240:
1237:
1233:
1230:
1229:Solar eclipse
1226:
1221:
1217:
1214:
1210:
1209:
1207:
1206:Lunar eclipse
1203:
1202:
1200:
1196:
1193:
1189:
1186:
1182:
1181:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1150:
1147:
1143:
1138:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1127:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1117:
1113:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1104:
1099:
1086:
1082:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1072:
1068:
1065:
1061:
1056:
1052:
1051:
1049:
1048:Gravity field
1045:
1042:
1038:
1035:
1031:
1028:
1024:
1023:
1021:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1002:
995:
990:
988:
983:
981:
976:
975:
972:
964:
960:
955:
954:
951:
948:
947:
940:
933:
930:
925:
918:
915:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
875:
872:
867:
861:
853:
849:
844:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
812:
809:
804:
800:
793:
790:
785:
784:
776:
774:
770:
764:
760:
757:
755:
754:Impact crater
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
736:
732:
721:
716:
714:
712:
711:Pre-Nectarian
708:
707:Early Imbrian
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
683:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
655:
652:
646:
638:
636:
634:
630:
621:
620:Eratosthenian
615:
614:Eratosthenian
608:Eratosthenian
607:
605:
598:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
574:
573:Early Imbrian
570:
562:
560:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
531:
523:
521:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
494:Pre-Nectarian
489:
488:Pre-Nectarian
482:Pre-Nectarian
481:
473:
466:
457:
453:
446:
436:
428:
426:
422:
418:
414:
408:
405:
401:
397:
396:stratigraphic
393:
389:
365:
363:
361:
357:
353:
350:, changes in
349:
348:lunar surface
345:
344:impact events
341:
340:Pre-Nectarian
337:
333:
329:
325:
324:Eratosthenian
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
297:
293:
289:
280:
276:
273:
270:
266:
261:
248:
221:
220:
208:
207:
195:
194:
184:
183:
182:Eratosthenian
173:
172:
160:
159:
147:
146:
145:Pre-Nectarian
139:
42:
41:
36:
31:
19:
2071:Lunar effect
1887:Nodal period
1813:Colonization
1672:
1627:Lunar theory
1320:Selenography
1160:Nodal period
962:
938:
932:
923:
917:
884:
880:
874:
860:cite journal
828:(E7): 5065.
825:
821:
811:
805:: 5.1–5.234.
802:
798:
792:
782:
699:Basin Groups
684:
661:
648:
617:
599:
576:
569:Late Imbrian
533:
518:Basin Groups
491:
472:rift valleys
452:rift valleys
424:
413:Solar System
409:
404:mare basalts
385:
307:
303:
301:
292:Geologic map
272:Earth's Moon
271:
215:
202:
191:
180:
167:
154:
143:
2180:Moon Treaty
2164:Hollow Moon
2106:Moon rabbit
2078:Earth phase
1880:Lunar month
1767:Exploration
1711:Experiments
1613:Observation
1475:Ray systems
1340:Hemispheres
1308:Surface and
1289:Tidal range
1268:Tidal force
1071:Sodium tail
1055:Hill sphere
633:ray systems
548:Serenitatis
425:Pre-Imbrian
326:, Imbrian (
2253:Categories
2150:Apollo era
2092:Pareidolia
1850:navigation
1572:Sputtering
1452:Lava tubes
1374:South pole
1367:North pole
1327:Terminator
1169:Precession
1085:Earthshine
1041:Atmosphere
1034:Topography
1019:properties
765:References
639:Copernican
320:Copernican
193:Copernican
33:Chronology
1898:Fortnight
1790:Explorers
1747:Apollo 17
1740:Apollo 11
1703:Volcanism
1673:Timescale
1620:Libration
1408:Mountains
1346:Near side
1252:Supermoon
1192:Full moon
1146:Libration
1078:Moonlight
909:117660264
703:Nectarian
591:Orientale
556:Apollo 16
536:Nectarian
530:Nectarian
524:Nectarian
392:volcanism
336:Nectarian
334:epochs),
157:Nectarian
2237:Category
2032:Moonrise
1965:Crescent
1905:Sennight
1820:Moonbase
1776:Missions
1445:Calderas
1353:Far side
1311:features
1199:Eclipses
1185:New moon
1130:Distance
1017:Physical
887:: 9–54.
717:See also
713:period.
540:Nectaris
498:Nectaris
470:Ancient
450:Ancient
360:regolith
2056:Related
2046:Moonset
1829:Tourism
1806:Landing
1666:Geology
1605:Science
1461:Craters
1424:Valleys
1010:Outline
889:Bibcode
852:9570915
830:Bibcode
695:Cryptic
668:Mercury
587:Imbrium
563:Imbrian
552:Crisium
544:Imbrium
514:Cryptic
433:Moon –
294:of the
170:Imbrian
130:–
120:–
110:–
100:–
90:–
80:–
70:–
60:–
50:–
2014:Tetrad
1930:Phases
1799:Probes
1634:Origin
1581:Quakes
1514:Rilles
1505:swirls
1220:Tetrad
1178:Syzygy
907:
850:
705:, and
687:Hadean
352:crater
338:, and
242:
235:
228:
1993:Black
1979:Blood
1956:Names
1934:names
1873:Month
1724:ALSEP
1696:KREEP
1648:Theia
1551:Water
1528:Rocks
1438:Domes
1392:Maria
1361:Poles
1153:Nodes
1107:Orbit
905:S2CID
848:S2CID
701:1–9,
678:, or
676:Earth
672:Venus
583:Early
500:is a
332:Early
312:Earth
218:Early
2143:list
2000:Dark
1986:Blue
1949:Full
1848:and
1498:Soil
1468:List
1399:List
1381:Face
1334:Limb
1261:Tide
1001:Moon
866:link
680:Mars
649:The
589:and
581:and
579:Late
571:and
550:and
542:and
534:The
516:and
492:The
390:and
330:and
328:Late
316:Moon
306:(or
302:The
205:Late
2007:Wet
1942:New
1932:and
897:doi
838:doi
826:108
314:'s
2255::
961:.
903:.
895:.
885:96
883:.
862:}}
858:{{
846:.
836:.
824:.
820:.
803:36
801:.
772:^
697:,
682:.
674:,
670:,
427:.
322:,
2190:"
2186:"
993:e
986:t
979:v
965:.
911:.
899::
891::
868:)
854:.
840::
832::
624:L
602:L
20:)
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