Geology of the Moon - Knowledge (XXG)

1705: 776: 760: 740: 1912: 1923: 504: 31: 156: 1076: 1564: 489: 1103: 1302: 1088: 4682: 4506: 1167:, which is the largest expanse of mare volcanism on the Moon, does not correspond to any known impact basin. It is commonly suggested that the reason the mare only erupted on the nearside is that the nearside crust is thinner than the farside. Although variations in the crustal thickness might act to modulate the amount of magma that ultimately reaches the surface, this hypothesis does not explain why the farside 858: 1134: 138: 3371: 180: 2001: 1362: 1119: 1064:(each area only a few hundred meters or a few kilometers across) have been found in the maria that crater counting suggests were sites of volcanic activity in the geologically much more recent past (less than 50 million years). Volumetrically, most of the mare formed between about 3 and 3.5 Ga before present. The youngest lavas erupted within 1985:

Alternatively, it is possible that transient magnetic fields could be generated during impact processes on airless bodies such as the Moon. In support of this, it has been noted that the largest crustal magnetizations appear to be located near the antipodes of the largest impact basins. Although the Moon does not have a dipolar

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in its core), and the magnetizations that are present are almost entirely crustal in origin. One hypothesis holds that the crustal magnetizations were acquired early in lunar history when a geodynamo was still operating. However, the lunar core's small size is a potential obstacle to this hypothesis.

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with a diameter of nearly 2,500 km and a depth of 13 km. In a very general sense, the lunar history of impact cratering follows a trend of decreasing crater size with time. In particular, the largest impact basins were formed during the early periods, and these were successively overlaid by

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eruptions occurred between about 3 and 3.5 Ga ago, though some mare samples have ages as old as 4.2 Ga. The youngest (based on the method of crater counting) was long thought to date to 1 billion years ago, but research in the 2010s has found evidence of eruptions from less than 50 million years

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The drill was deployed and penetrated to a depth of 35 cm before encountering hard rock or large fragments of rock. The column of regolith in the drill tube was then transferred to the soil sample container... the hermetically sealed soil sample container, lifted off from the Moon carrying 101 grams

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constraints indicate that the Moon likely has an iron core that is less than about 450 km in radius. Studies of the Moon's physical librations (small perturbations to its rotation) furthermore indicate that the core is still molten. Most planetary bodies and moons have iron cores that are about

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The ejecta from large impacts can include large blocks of material that reimpact the surface to form secondary impact craters. These craters are sometimes formed in clearly discernible radial patterns, and generally have shallower depths than primary craters of the same size. In some cases an entire

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gradually decreases the albedo of this material such that the rays fade with time. Gradually the crater and its ejecta undergo impact erosion from micrometeorites and smaller impacts. This erosional process softens and rounds the features of the crater. The crater can also be covered in ejecta from

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A large portion of maria erupted within, or flowed into, the low-lying impact basins on the lunar nearside. However, it is unlikely that a causal relationship exists between the impact event and mare volcanism because the impact basins are much older (by about 500 million years) than the mare fill.

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At the top of the Moon’s stratigraphy is the Copernican unit consisting of craters with a ray system. Below this is the Eratosthenian unit, defined by craters with established impact crater morphology, but lacking the ray system of the Copernican. These two units are present in smaller spots on the

627:-rich magmas, which are highly enriched in incompatible and heat-producing elements, could have remained partially molten for several hundred million (or perhaps 1 billion) years. It appears that the final KREEP-rich magmas of the magma ocean eventually became concentrated within the region of 1660:

As crystallization of the lunar magma ocean proceeded, minerals such as olivine and pyroxene would have precipitated and sank to form the lunar mantle. After crystallization was about three-quarters complete, anorthositic plagioclase would have begun to crystallize, and because of its low density,

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varies between 2 meters (6.6 ft) beneath the younger maria, to up to 20 meters (66 ft) beneath the oldest surfaces of the lunar highlands. The regolith is predominantly composed of materials found in the region, but also contains traces of materials ejected by distant impact craters. The

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are features created by compressive tectonic forces within the maria. These features represent buckling of the surface and form long ridges across parts of the maria. Some of these ridges may outline buried craters or other features beneath the maria. A prime example of such an outlined feature is

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potential has long been suggested and discussed in literature and thesis. Any intact lava tube on the Moon could serve as a shelter from the severe environment of the lunar surface, with its frequent meteorite impacts, high-energy ultraviolet radiation and energetic particles, and extreme diurnal

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glasses are of green, yellow, and red tints. The difference in color indicates the concentration of titanium that the rock has, with the green particles having the lowest concentrations (about 1%), and red particles having the highest concentrations (up to 14%, much more than the basalts with the

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associated with young craters to darken until it matches the albedo of the surrounding surface. However, if the composition of the ray is different from the underlying crustal materials (as might occur when a "highland" ray is emplaced on the mare), the ray could be visible for much longer times.

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have demonstrated that even very low-angle impacts tend to produce circular craters, and that elliptical craters start forming at impact angles below five degrees. However, a low angle impact can produce a central peak that is offset from the midpoint of the crater. Additionally, the ejecta from

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lunar surface. Further down the stratigraphy are the Mare units (previously known as the Procellarian unit), and the Imbrian unit which is related to ejecta and tectonics from the Imbrium basin. The bottom of the lunar stratigraphy is the pre-Nectarian unit, which consists of old crater plains.

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Another type of deposit associated with the maria, although it also covers the highland areas, are the "dark mantle" deposits. These deposits cannot be seen with the naked eye, but they can be seen in images taken from telescopes or orbiting spacecraft. Before the Apollo missions, scientists

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The regolith contains rocks, fragments of minerals from the original bedrock, and glassy particles formed during the impacts. In most of the lunar regolith, half of the particles are made of mineral fragments fused by the glassy particles; these objects are called agglutinates. The chemical

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The most recent impacts are distinguished by well-defined features, including a sharp-edged rim. Small craters tend to form a bowl shape, whereas larger impacts can have a central peak with flat floors. Larger craters generally display slumping features along the inner walls that can form

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is that the materials that re-accreted to form the Moon must have been hot. Current models predict that a large portion of the Moon would have been molten shortly after the Moon formed, with estimates for the depth of this magma ocean ranging from about 500 km to complete melting.

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was largely confined to the region of the Procellarum KREEP Terrane, and that these magmas are genetically related to KREEP in some manner, though their origin is still highly debated in the scientific community. The oldest of the Mg-suite rocks have crystallization ages of about 3.85

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The crust of the Moon is on average about 50 km thick (though this is uncertain by about ±15 km). It is estimated that the far-side crust is on average thicker than the near side by about 15 km. Seismology has constrained the thickness of the crust only near the

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surfaces covering nearly a third of the near side. Only a few percent of the farside has been affected by mare volcanism. Even before the Apollo missions confirmed it, most scientists already thought that the maria are lava-filled plains, because they have

1665:-rich magma that initially should have been sandwiched between the crust and mantle. Evidence for this scenario comes from the highly anorthositic composition of the lunar highland crust, as well as the existence of KREEP-rich materials. Additionally, 1338:, collides with the surface at a high velocity (mean impact velocities for the Moon are about 17 km per second). The kinetic energy of the impact creates a compression shock wave that radiates away from the point of entry. This is succeeded by a 1741:

returned 326 grams (11.5 oz) of lunar material. These rocks have proved to be invaluable in deciphering the geologic evolution of the Moon. Lunar rocks are in large part made of the same common rock forming minerals as found on Earth, such as

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are wide, rounded, circular features with a gentle slope rising in elevation a few hundred meters to the midpoint. They are typically 8–12 km in diameter, but can be up to 20 km across. Some of the domes contain a small pit at their peak.

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float, forming an anorthositic crust. Importantly, elements that are incompatible (i.e., those that partition preferentially into the liquid phase) would have been progressively concentrated into the magma as crystallization progressed, forming a

1060:. The oldest radiometric ages are about 4.2 Ga (billion years), and ages of most of the youngest maria lavas have been determined from crater counting to be about 1 Ga. Due to better resolution of more recent imagery, about 70 small areas called 569: 1217:. These generally fall into three categories, consisting of sinuous, arcuate, or linear shapes. By following these meandering rilles back to their source, they often lead to an old volcanic vent. One of the most notable sinuous rilles is the 1369:

displays the characteristic features of a large impact formation, with a raised rim, slumped edges, terraced inner walls, a relatively flat floor with some hills, and a central ridge. The Y-shaped central ridge is unusually complex in

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The mass of the Moon is sufficient to eliminate any voids within the interior, so it is estimated to be composed of solid rock throughout. Its low bulk density (~3346 kg m) indicates a low metal abundance. Mass and

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of the near global magma ocean. It is not known with certainty what its depth was, but several studies imply a depth of about 500 km or greater. The first minerals to form in this ocean were the iron and magnesium

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oblique impacts show distinctive patterns at different impact angles: asymmetry starting around 60˚ and a wedge-shaped "zone of avoidance" free of ejecta in the direction the projectile came from starting around 45˚.

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The origin of the Moon's craters as impact features became widely accepted only in the 1960s. This realization allowed the impact history of the Moon to be gradually worked out by means of the geologic principle of

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Analysis of the samples from the Moon seems to show that a lot of the Moon's impact basins formed in a short amount of time between about 4 and 3.85 Ga ago. This hypothesis is referred to as the lunar cataclysm or

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crystallized and floated, forming an anorthositic crust about 50 km in thickness. The majority of the magma ocean crystallized quickly (within about 100 million years or less), though the final remaining

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The largest impacts produced melt sheets of molten rock that covered portions of the surface that could be as thick as a kilometer. Examples of such impact melt can be seen in the northeastern part of the

568: 566: 4429: 1183:, reinforcing the idea of pyroclasts. The existence of pyroclastic eruptions was later confirmed by the discovery of glass spherules similar to those found in pyroclastic eruptions here on Earth. 670:) also occurred at 3.85 Ga before present. Thus, it seems probable that Mg-suite plutonic activity continued for a much longer time, and that younger plutonic rocks exist deep below the surface. 820:

might have been sampled. The study of these rocks seem to indicate that this crater could have formed 100 million years ago, though this is debatable as well. The surface has also experienced

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Compared with Earth, the Moon has a weak external magnetic field. Other significant differences are that the Moon does not currently have a dipolar magnetic field (as would be generated by a

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represent ancient flood basaltic eruptions. In comparison to terrestrial lavas, these contain higher iron abundances, have low viscosities, and some contain highly elevated abundances of the

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like Earth's, some returned rocks have strong magnetizations. Furthermore, measurements from orbit show that some portions of the lunar surface are associated with strong magnetic fields.

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Crystallization of this magma ocean would have given rise to a differentiated body with a compositionally distinct crust and mantle and accounts for the major suites of lunar rocks.

1190:, which were formed by gas bubbles exsolving from the magma at the vacuum conditions encountered at the surface. It is not known with certainty which gases escaped these rocks, but 1966:-era analyses suggested a crustal thickness of about 60 km at this site, recent reanalyses of this data suggest that it is thinner, somewhere between about 30 and 45 km. 1417:

are formed when an impact excavates lower albedo material from beneath the surface, then deposits this darker ejecta around the main crater. This can occur when an area of darker

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composition, it is possible to determine if the activity of the Sun has changed with time. The gases of the solar wind could be useful for future lunar bases, because oxygen,

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wave, which is responsible for propelling most of the ejecta out of the crater. Finally there is a hydrodynamic rebound of the floor that can create a central peak.

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space probe returned data showing that the mare basalts have a continuum in titanium concentrations, with the highest concentration rocks being the least abundant.

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The most distinctive aspect of the Moon is the contrast between its bright and dark zones. Lighter surfaces are the lunar highlands, which receive the name of

1878:. Because the first sampling of rocks contained a high content of ilmenite and other related minerals, they received the name of "high titanium" basalts. The 4543: 536: 2945:, B. L. Jolliff, M. A. Wieczorek, C. K. Shearer and C. R. Neal (editors), Rev. Mineral. Geochem., 60, Min. Soc. Amer., Chantilly, Virginia, 721 pp., 2006. 1882:

mission returned to Earth with basalts of lower titanium concentrations, and these were dubbed "low titanium" basalts. Subsequent missions, including the

4415: 4062: 565: 812:, which has a depth of 3.76 km and a radius of 93 km, is estimated to have formed about 900 million years ago (though this is debatable). The 3221: 3996: 775: 759: 750: 1358:

with increasing number of craters with decreasing crater size. The vertical position of this curve can be used to estimate the age of the surface.

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on the Moon are unknown. A substantial portion of the lunar surface has not been explored, and a number of geological questions remain unanswered.

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composition, have a higher proportion of iron and magnesium than typical upper crust anorthositic rocks, as well as higher abundances of KREEP.

4394: 1911: 612:. Because these minerals were denser than the molten material around them, they sank. After crystallization was about 75% complete, less dense 1525:– hit the lunar surface and insert themselves into the mineral grains. Upon analyzing the composition of the regolith, particularly its 2408: 1761:). Plagioclase feldspar is mostly found in the lunar crust, whereas pyroxene and olivine are typically seen in the lunar mantle. The mineral 1575:

form a potentially important location for constructing a future lunar base, which may be used for local exploration and development, or as a

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materials. Over time, these impact processes have pulverized and "gardened" the surface materials, forming a fine-grained layer termed

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Coombs, Cassandra R.; Hawke, B. Ray (September 1992). "A search for intact lava tubes on the Moon: Possible lunar base habitats".

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Luna 20 was launched from the lunar surface on 22 February 1972 carrying 30 grams of collected lunar samples in a sealed capsule

1354:(SFD) of crater diameters on a given surface (that is, the number of craters as a function of diameter) approximately follows a 1253:. These are thought to be formed by relatively viscous, possibly silica-rich lava, erupting from localized vents. The resulting 4536: 3867: 1922: 1345:

These craters appear in a continuum of diameters across the surface of the Moon, ranging in size from tiny pits to the immense

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After resumption of Lunar exploration in the 1990s, it was discovered there are scarps across the globe that are caused by the

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began to form, although the exact depths at which this occurred are not known precisely. Recent theories suggest that Mg-suite

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half the size of the body. The Moon is thus anomalous in having a core whose size is only about one quarter of its radius.

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left behind during the crewed Apollo program missions, as well as investigations of the Moon's gravity field and rotation.

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took the systematic study of the Moon away from the astronomers and placed it firmly in the hands of the lunar geologists.

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are the only abrupt geologic force acting on the Moon today, though the variation of Earth tides on the scale of the Lunar

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and ledges. The largest impact basins, the multiring basins, can even have secondary concentric rings of raised material.

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Cliffs in the lunar crust indicate the Moon shrank globally in the geologically recent past and is still shrinking today.

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Yu. V. Barkin, J. M. Ferrándiz and Juan F. Navarro, 'Terrestrial tidal variations in the selenopotential coefficients,'

1585: 1403:, or crater chains, which are linear strings of craters that are formed when the impact body breaks up prior to impact. 1007:) are not always covered by maria. The highlands are older than the visible maria, and hence are more heavily cratered. 478: 3761: 2157: 1346: 642:

Quickly after the lunar crust formed, or even as it was forming, different types of magmas that would give rise to the

4191: 3754: 3740: 3696: 3176: 1351: 238: 1588:, many lunar lava tubes have been imaged. These lunar pits are found in several locations across the Moon, including 868: 3193: 30: 4685: 4529: 3860: 3853: 3508: 3402: 3388: 3336: 3237: 2029: 1975: 1730: 841: 1886:

robotic probes, returned with basalts with even lower concentrations, now called "very low titanium" basalts. The

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that a large portion of the Moon was once molten, and that the crust formed by fractional crystallization of this

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The Moon is the only extraterrestrial body for which we have samples with a known geologic context. A handful of

119: 2851: 281:(Ti). Among the more abundant are oxygen, iron and silicon. The oxygen content is estimated at 45% (by weight). 4085: 3945: 2014: 919: 578: 1630:, a few millimetric fragments of rocks coming from the highlands were picked up. These are composed mainly of 4408: 4039: 3913: 3653: 3343: 3320: 2801: 2308:

the mission successfully collected 170.1 grams of lunar samples and deposited them into a collection capsule

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does not correspond to any known impact structure, and the lowest elevations of the Moon within the farside

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Relative concentration (in weight %) of various elements on lunar highlands, lunar lowlands, and Earth

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is often used to describe the heavily fractured bedrock directly beneath the near-surface regolith layer.

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is the most notable geological process on the Moon. The craters are formed when a solid body, such as an

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rocks with respect to the rocks of the lunar highlands is that the basalts contain higher abundances of

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Mark Wieczorek and 15 coauthors, M. A. (2006). "The constitution and structure of the lunar interior".

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composition of the regolith varies according to its location; the regolith in the highlands is rich in

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Smithsonian Institution Senior Scientist Tom Watters talks about the Moon's recent geological activity.

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are not only essential to sustain life, but are also potentially very useful in the production of

1171:, whose crust is thinner than Oceanus Procellarum, was only modestly filled by volcanic products. 98:. Instead, the surface is eroded much more slowly through the bombardment of the lunar surface by 4568: 4286: 4138: 3906: 3807: 3554: 3492: 3450: 3052: 3033: 3014: 2951:, by G.H. Heiken, D.T. Vaniman, B.M. French, et al. Cambridge University Press, New York (1991). 2721: 2580: 2465: 2324: 1888: 1497:

The lunar regolith is very important because it also stores information about the history of the

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Generally speaking, a lunar crater is roughly circular in form. Laboratory experiments at NASA's

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For a long period of time, the fundamental question regarding the history of the Moon was of

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Geologic map of the Moon, with general features colored in by age, except in the case of

3104: 3068: 2935: 2885: 2708: 2664: 2443: 4131: 4055: 3920: 3837: 3814: 3216: 2355: 2165: 1986: 1800:-rich plagioclase feldspar. Another significant component of the crust are the igneous 1738: 1734: 1722: 1448: 1430: 1250: 1246: 1138: 1107: 1092: 1087: 829: 817: 636: 379: 223: 208: 131: 1447:

The surface of the Moon has been subject to billions of years of collisions with both

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features that form under extensional stresses. Structurally, they are composed of two

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The geological history of the Moon has been defined into six major epochs, called the

4700: 4509: 4475: 4357: 4251: 4184: 3793: 3733: 3570: 3547: 3515: 3501: 3478: 1981: 1576: 1549:. The composition of the lunar regolith can also be used to infer its source origin. 1366: 1327: 1266: 1234: 1003:. The maria often coincide with the "lowlands," but the lowlands (such as within the 940: 805: 679: 363: 111: 75: 55: 43: 3113:"Exploring the Moon: A Teacher's Guide with Activities for Earth and Space Sciences" 2469: 2426:"Hf–W Chronometry of Lunar Metals and the Age and Early Differentiation of the Moon" 4608: 4343: 4159: 4078: 3899: 3777: 3592: 3432: 3306: 3077: 2024: 1813: 1593: 1305: 1290: 1214: 667: 632: 430: 118:, which is now thought to have ended less than 50 million years ago. The Moon is a 1673:

samples suggests the lunar crust differentiated 4.51±0.01 billion years ago.

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Relative concentration of various elements on the lunar surface (in weight %)

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used in lunar stratigraphy formed in this recent epoch. For example, the crater

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line of these blocks can impact to form a valley. These are distinguished from

1133: 110:, and because of its small size, it cooled faster. In addition to impacts, the 17: 4265: 3844: 3770: 3747: 3710: 3664: 3606: 3425: 3231: 3205: 2506: 1996: 1805: 1642: 1502: 1466: 1442: 1422: 1387: 1254: 1026: 1016: 833: 825: 719: 686: 663: 654: 290: 226:

returned another 301 grams (10.6 oz) of samples, and the Chinese robotic

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The Second Conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century

2513:. Curation and Analysis Planning Team for Extraterrestrial Materials (CAPTEM) 4272: 4258: 4244: 4228: 4221: 4170: 3892: 3800: 3524: 3464: 3418: 3350: 2452: 2425: 1959: 1955: 1879: 1828: 1782: 1758: 1726: 1715: 1694: 1670: 1638: 1619: 1615: 1580: 1572: 1479: 1355: 1226: 1151: 1046: 1042: 948: 813: 793: 658: 643: 590: 581:. Starting about 4.5 billion years ago, the newly formed Moon was in a 274: 270: 262: 200: 192: 179: 115: 47: 2461: 1486:, just as the rocks in those regions. The regolith in the maria is rich in 1395:

other impacts, which can submerge features and even bury the central peak.

3143:, edited by Harold Masursky, G. W. Colton, and Farouk El-baz, NASA SP-362. 2893: 211:

landings from 1969 to 1972, which returned 382 kilograms (842 lb) of

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Elements known to be present on the lunar surface include, among others,

3069:"Gamma Rays, Meteorites, Lunar Samples, and the Composition of the Moon" 1361: 1118: 596:

The first important event in the geologic evolution of the Moon was the

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The temperature and pressure of the Moon's interior increase with depth

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mission landed in an area in which the material coming from the crater

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feature, located in the Aristarchus plateau along the eastern edge of

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Lunar and Planetary Institute: Lunar Atlas and Photography Collection

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Barboni et al. "Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago."

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eruptions. Some deposits appear to be associated with dark elongated

1143: 1037: 1030: 1000: 698: 650: 582: 289:(N) appear to be present only in trace quantities from deposition by 282: 250: 4521: 1249:

can be found in selected locations on the lunar surface, such as on

3171: 1831:, and impact-melt breccias, depending on how they were formed. The 4145: 3968: 3786: 3409: 1871: 1832: 1817: 1812:, and KREEP-basalts. These rocks are thought to be related to the 1703: 1662: 1562: 1534: 1456: 1360: 1335: 1300: 1210: 1132: 1117: 1101: 1086: 1074: 972: 968: 797: 624: 562: 487: 178: 154: 136: 79: 39: 29: 3096:"Hafnium, Tungsten, and the Differentiation of the Moon and Mars" 2403:(2 ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 199. 1823:

Composite rocks on the lunar surface often appear in the form of

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is highly abundant in some mare basalts, and a new mineral named

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The ages of the mare basalts have been determined both by direct

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Scientists eye moon colonies - in the holes on the lunar surface

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The current model of the interior of the Moon was derived using

1864: 1641:. The identification of these mineral fragments led to the bold 1546: 1514: 1487: 1147: 1033: 995:

who introduced the names in the 17th century. The highlands are

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causes small variations in stresses. Some of the most important

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Ralph Aeschliman Planetary Cartography and Graphics: Lunar Maps

2939:, by D.E. Wilhelms. University of Arizona Press, Tucson (1993). 1213:

on the Moon sometimes resulted from the formation of localized

682:) could have been mistakenly assigned the same age as Imbrium. 1498: 988: 851: 191:

studies of the Moon are based on a combination of Earth-based

1675: 207:

data. Six locations were sampled directly during the crewed

2936:

To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist's History of Lunar Exploration

2679:"Possible scenarios to cultivate cyanobacteria on the Moon" 1079:

Moon – Evidence of young lunar volcanism (October 12, 2014)

2424:

Kleine, T.; Palme, H.; Mezger, K.; Halliday, A.N. (2005).

2722:

Marius Hills Pit Offers Potential Location for Lunar Base

2321:"China's Chang'e-5 retrieves 1,731 grams of moon samples" 585:

state and was orbiting much closer to Earth resulting in

3226: 2967:, edited by W.K. Hartmann, R.J. Phillips, G. J. Taylor, 2485:"Ancient lunar dynamo may explain magnetized moon rocks" 1025:

are evident to Earth-bound observers in the form of the

74:, although the latter term can refer more generally to " 3242: 3217:

Moon articles in Planetary Science Research Discoveries

3194:

Lunar Gravity, Topography and Crustal Thickness Archive

2653:

Proceedings of the Ninth Lunar and Planetary Conference

1386:

materials that initially gives the crater, ejecta, and

635:, a unique geologic province that is now known as the 589:. These tidal forces deformed the molten body into an 42:(red) and other special features. Oldest to youngest: 2381:"Distribution of hydrogen at the surface of the moon" 1827:. Of these, the subcategories are called fragmental, 1186:

Many of the lunar basalts contain small holes called

2755:; By Rich O'Malley; January 4th 2010; DAILY NEWS, NY 2120:

Scientific and Technical Information Branch (1986).

2103: 2101: 1584:

temperature variations. Following the launch of the

4630: 4607: 4559: 4328: 4296: 4201: 4118: 4038: 3877: 3580: 3378: 3289: 3078:"Lunar Crater Rays Point to a New Lunar Time Scale" 2560:, Volume 24, Number 3 / June 2005, pp. 215 - 236.) 2158:"Active moon volcanos in geologically recent times" 237:have been recognized on Earth, though their source 3222:Another Hit to Hoax:Traces of Man on Lunar Surface 1725:brought back 380.05 kilograms (837.87 lb) of 3233:Video (04:56) – The Moon in 4K (NASA, April 2018) 3172:Lunar and Planetary Institute: Exploring the Moon 1785:crew) was first discovered in the lunar samples. 2949:The Lunar Sourcebook: A User's Guide to the Moon 2573:"NASA's LRO Reveals 'Incredible Shrinking Moon'" 1835:impact melt breccias, which are typified by the 749:– rectangular structure (visible – topography – 555:is widely accepted by the scientific community. 230:returned a sample of 1,731 g (61.1 oz) in 2020. 2814:History Division, Office of Policy and Plans. 2807:Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference 2511:NASA/Johnson Space Center photograph S73-19456 1637:; some fragments were composed exclusively of 1579:to serve exploration beyond the Moon. A lunar 1225:. An example of a sinuous rille exists at the 1175:predicted that they were deposits produced by 4537: 3258: 2810:. The NASA History Series. Washington, D.C.: 2628:Shoemaker by Levy: The man who made an impact 1490:and magnesium and is silica-poor, as are the 593:, with the major axis pointed towards Earth. 8: 2199:"Lunar Rocks and Soils from Apollo Missions" 2151: 2149: 2147: 702:in the past. Along with mare volcanism came 183:The same image using different color filters 2906:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2558:Astronomical and Astrophysical Transactions 2060:. Cambridge University Press. p. 170. 886:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4544: 4530: 4522: 3265: 3251: 3243: 2651:"Experimental studies of oblique impact". 2293:National Space Science Data Center Catalog 2260:National Space Science Data Center Catalog 2226:National Space Science Data Center Catalog 295: 3107:. Planetary Science Research Discoveries. 3098:. Planetary Science Research Discoveries. 3089:. Planetary Science Research Discoveries. 3080:. Planetary Science Research Discoveries. 3071:. Planetary Science Research Discoveries. 3030:The Big Splat, or How Our Moon Came to Be 2487:. Regents of the University of California 2451: 906:Learn how and when to remove this message 1788:The maria are composed predominantly of 939:The lunar landscape is characterized by 114:of the lunar surface has been shaped by 3160:The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal (NASA) 3133:Apollo over the Moon: A View from Orbit 3103:G. Jeffrey Taylor (December 31, 1998). 3094:G. Jeffrey Taylor (November 28, 2003). 3067:G. Jeffrey Taylor (November 22, 2005). 2983:. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. 2703:. NASA. Johnson Space Center: 219–229. 2533:"Recent volcanic eruptions on the moon" 2400:The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System 2057:The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System 2046: 718:are only modestly covered by mare (see 2899: 2874:Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 2800:Orloff, Richard W. (September 2004) . 2789:https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1602365 2734:Moon hole might be suitable for colony 1652:A natural outcome of the hypothetical 999:in composition, whereas the maria are 304: 301: 2979:Canup, R.; Righter, K., eds. (2000). 2331:from the original on 20 December 2020 2123:Status and Future of Lunar Geoscience 1045:patterns and collapses attributed to 102:. It does not have any known form of 27:Structure and composition of the Moon 7: 4668:Geology of solar terrestrial planets 2185: 2107: 2092: 2080: 1962:landing sites. Although the initial 1421:material, such as that found on the 1390:a bright appearance. The process of 979:), and the darker plains are called 884:adding citations to reliable sources 219:to Earth In addition, three robotic 3227:Visible and Terrain Map of the Moon 3076:Linda Martel (September 28, 2004). 2852:"Craters Expose the Moon's Insides" 2156:Imster, Eleanor (12 October 2014). 297:Lunar surface chemical composition 78:") is quite different from that of 1382:The impact process excavates high 25: 4483:Lilith (hypothetical second moon) 3211:Moon Rocks through the Microscope 2787:. Vol 3. Issue 1. January, 2017. 2483:Stevens, Tim (November 9, 2011). 2352:Lunar Science: a Post-Apollo View 1729:, most of which is stored at the 1626:. Although the mission landed on 1567:Lunar pit in Mare Tranquillitatis 1122:Wrinkle ridges within the crater 832:impacts. This process causes the 722:for a more detailed discussion). 4681: 4680: 4505: 4504: 4446:Moon landing conspiracy theories 3369: 1999: 1921: 1910: 1847:The main characteristics of the 1091:Volcanic rilles near the crater 951:and depressions filled by lava. 856: 774: 758: 738: 502: 195:observations, measurements from 3868:Selenographic coordinate system 1796:, a rock composed primarily of 1781:lins, the three members of the 1494:rocks from which it is formed. 461: 162:image of the Moon taken by the 4395:Artificial objects on the Moon 3177:Clementine Lunar Image Browser 3155:Lunar Sample Information (JSC) 3149:Geologic Processes on the Moon 3105:"Origin of the Earth and Moon" 3085:Marc Norman (April 21, 2004). 3051:, Cambridge University Press, 2603:"Geologic History of the Moon" 1902:Internal structure of the Moon 1023:volcanic processes on the Moon 824:due to high energy particles, 1: 3486:Total penumbral lunar eclipse 3049:Volcanoes of the Solar System 2531:Eric Hand (12 October 2014). 1501:. The atoms that compose the 169:showing geological features. 4461:Moon is made of green cheese 3755:Permanently shadowed craters 2981:Origin of the Earth and Moon 2928:Geologic History of the Moon 2577:Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter 2507:"Apollo 17 troctolite 76535" 1586:Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter 1233:, located on the rim of the 785:– closeup (artist's concept) 539:. Early hypotheses included 2736:; January 1, 2010; CNN-Tech 1352:size frequency distribution 1029:. These are large flows of 4728: 4388:Craters named after people 3861:Transient lunar phenomenon 3509:Solar eclipses on the Moon 2774:; September 14, 2010; NASA 2350:Taylor, Stuart R. (1975). 2030:Transient lunar phenomenon 1976:Magnetic field of the Moon 1973: 1899: 1737:, and the uncrewed Soviet 1731:Lunar Receiving Laboratory 1692: 1607: 1556: 1440: 1106:Volcanic domes within the 1014: 932: 917: 842:contraction due to cooling 528: 4676: 4663: 4499: 3367: 3280: 3036:, John Wiley & Sons, 2931:, U.S. Geological Survey. 2802:"Extravehicular Activity" 1202:highest concentrations). 637:Procellarum KREEP Terrane 473:indicate the presence of 449: 307: 3213:Retrieved 22 August 2007 3011:The Once and Future Moon 2854:. Space.com. 5 July 2010 2054:Kenneth R. Lang (2003). 2015:Lunar geologic timescale 1843:Composition of the maria 1056:and by the technique of 920:Lunar geologic timescale 579:lunar geologic timescale 477:(H) concentrated at the 4409:Moon in science fiction 3914:Giant-impact hypothesis 3762:South Pole–Aitken basin 3087:"The Oldest Moon Rocks" 2765:New Views of Lunar Pits 2453:10.1126/science.1118842 1465:. The thickness of the 1347:South Pole–Aitken basin 1169:South Pole-Aitken basin 1036:that correspond to low- 1005:South Pole-Aitken basin 751:GRAIL gravity gradients 716:South Pole-Aitken basin 553:giant-impact hypothesis 84:lacks a true atmosphere 4430:futuristic exploration 3953:Late Heavy Bombardment 2724:; March 25, 2010; NASA 2579:. NASA. Archived from 2397:Lang, Kenneth (2011). 1727:lunar surface material 1718: 1685: 1568: 1371: 1312: 1155: 1126: 1111: 1095: 1080: 1062:irregular mare patches 1021:The major products of 943:, their ejecta, a few 935:Topography of the Moon 676:late heavy bombardment 574: 493: 184: 176: 151: 63: 4490:Splitting of the Moon 4402:Memorials on the Moon 4006:Lunar sample displays 3688:Peak of eternal light 3017:, Smithsonian Books, 2943:New views of the Moon 2919:Scientific references 2894:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3 2242:of collected material 1707: 1679: 1566: 1364: 1350:smaller craters. The 1304: 1136: 1121: 1105: 1090: 1078: 987:, from the Latin for 704:pyroclastic eruptions 572: 491: 245:Elemental composition 182: 158: 149: 90:and water eliminates 86:, and the absence of 33: 2626:Levy, David (2002). 2327:. 19 December 2020. 1628:Mare Tranquillitatis 1598:Mare Tranquillitatis 1408:Ames Research Center 880:improve this section 465:Neutron spectrometry 54:(greens/turquoise), 4707:Geology of the Moon 4640:Geology of the Moon 3990:Lunar laser ranging 3119:. 1994. p. 91. 2886:2006RvMG...60..221W 2832:. NASA SP-2000-4029 2709:1992lbsa.conf..219C 2665:1978LPSC....9.3843G 2444:2005Sci...310.1671K 2438:(5754): 1671–1674. 2007:Solar System portal 1804:rocks, such as the 1223:Oceanus Procellarum 1165:Oceanus Procellarum 1150:photo taken during 1066:Oceanus Procellarum 753:) (October 1, 2014) 732:("Ocean of Storms") 730:Oceanus Procellarum 712:Oceanus Procellarum 629:Oceanus Procellarum 483: 298: 197:orbiting spacecraft 68:geology of the Moon 58:(light orange) and 4599:Geology of Neptune 4584:Geology of Jupiter 4569:Geology of Mercury 4139:Lunisolar calendar 3808:Lunar basalt 70017 3555:Tidal acceleration 3410:Perigee and apogee 3300:Internal structure 3199:2015-02-13 at the 3187:2004-02-06 at the 3165:2008-12-16 at the 3138:2014-10-07 at the 3000:General references 2964:Origin of the Moon 2770:2015-11-14 at the 2751:2010-01-07 at the 2325:Xinhua News Agency 1896:Internal structure 1719: 1686: 1654:giant-impact event 1569: 1372: 1313: 1194:is one candidate. 1156: 1127: 1112: 1096: 1081: 1054:radiometric dating 828:implantation, and 697:. The majority of 575: 531:Origin of the Moon 494: 462: 296: 185: 177: 152: 70:(sometimes called 64: 4694: 4693: 4655:Geology of Charon 4650:Geology of Triton 4594:Geology of Uranus 4589:Geology of Saturn 4553:Planetary Geology 4519: 4518: 4469:Natural satellite 3928:Lunar magma ocean 3704:Volcanic features 3047:Charles Frankel, 2583:on 21 August 2010 2410:978-0-521-19857-8 1947:moment of inertia 1700:Surface materials 1680:Formation of the 1610:Lunar magma ocean 1604:Lunar magma ocean 1415:Dark-halo craters 1365:The lunar crater 1160: 1159: 916: 915: 908: 848:Strata and epochs 802:anomalistic month 570: 522: 521: 460: 459: 147: 106:, it has a lower 16:(Redirected from 4719: 4684: 4683: 4622:Geology of Pluto 4617:Geology of Ceres 4574:Geology of Venus 4546: 4539: 4532: 4523: 4512: 4508: 4507: 4492: 4485: 4478: 4471: 4464: 4455: 4448: 4439: 4432: 4425: 4418: 4411: 4404: 4397: 4390: 4381: 4374: 4367: 4360: 4353: 4346: 4339: 4321: 4314: 4312:Meridian passage 4307: 4289: 4282: 4275: 4268: 4261: 4254: 4247: 4240: 4231: 4224: 4217: 4194: 4187: 4180: 4173: 4162: 4155: 4148: 4141: 4134: 4111: 4104: 4095: 4088: 4081: 4074: 4065: 4058: 4051: 4031: 4029:Lunar seismology 4022: 4015: 4008: 3999: 3992: 3985: 3978: 3971: 3964: 3962:Lunar meteorites 3955: 3948: 3941: 3930: 3923: 3916: 3909: 3902: 3895: 3888: 3870: 3863: 3856: 3847: 3840: 3833: 3831:Space weathering 3826: 3817: 3810: 3803: 3796: 3789: 3780: 3773: 3764: 3757: 3750: 3743: 3736: 3727: 3720: 3713: 3706: 3699: 3690: 3683: 3674: 3667: 3656: 3649: 3642: 3635: 3628: 3621: 3614: 3609: 3602: 3595: 3573: 3564: 3557: 3550: 3543: 3536: 3527: 3518: 3511: 3504: 3495: 3488: 3481: 3474: 3467: 3460: 3453: 3444: 3435: 3428: 3421: 3412: 3405: 3398: 3396:Orbital elements 3391: 3373: 3360: 3353: 3346: 3339: 3330: 3323: 3316: 3309: 3302: 3267: 3260: 3253: 3244: 3234: 3120: 3108: 3099: 3090: 3081: 3072: 3028:Dana Mackenzie, 2994: 2912: 2911: 2905: 2897: 2869: 2863: 2862: 2860: 2859: 2848: 2842: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2797: 2791: 2785:Science Advances 2781: 2775: 2762: 2756: 2743: 2737: 2731: 2725: 2719: 2713: 2712: 2692: 2686: 2685: 2683: 2675: 2669: 2668: 2648: 2642: 2641: 2623: 2617: 2616: 2614: 2613: 2607:ser.sese.asu.edu 2599: 2593: 2592: 2590: 2588: 2569: 2563: 2554: 2548: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2528: 2522: 2521: 2519: 2518: 2503: 2497: 2496: 2494: 2492: 2480: 2474: 2473: 2455: 2421: 2415: 2414: 2394: 2388: 2387: 2385: 2376: 2370: 2369: 2347: 2341: 2340: 2338: 2336: 2317: 2311: 2310: 2305: 2303: 2284: 2278: 2277: 2272: 2270: 2251: 2245: 2244: 2238: 2236: 2217: 2211: 2210: 2208: 2206: 2195: 2189: 2183: 2177: 2176: 2174: 2172: 2153: 2142: 2141: 2117: 2111: 2105: 2096: 2090: 2084: 2078: 2072: 2071: 2051: 2041:Cited references 2009: 2004: 2003: 2002: 1925: 1914: 1618:brought back by 1553:Lunar lava tubes 1392:space weathering 1328:Impact cratering 1247:shield volcanoes 1219:Vallis Schröteri 1071: 1070: 911: 904: 900: 897: 891: 860: 852: 822:space weathering 778: 762: 742: 571: 559:Geologic history 506: 484: 470:Lunar Prospector 412:titanium dioxide 299: 235:lunar meteorites 148: 21: 4727: 4726: 4722: 4721: 4720: 4718: 4717: 4716: 4697: 4696: 4695: 4690: 4672: 4659: 4626: 4603: 4579:Geology of Mars 4555: 4550: 4520: 4515: 4503: 4495: 4488: 4481: 4474: 4467: 4458: 4451: 4444: 4435: 4428: 4421: 4414: 4407: 4400: 4393: 4386: 4377: 4372:Man in the Moon 4370: 4363: 4356: 4349: 4342: 4335: 4324: 4317: 4310: 4303: 4297:Daily phenomena 4292: 4285: 4278: 4271: 4264: 4257: 4250: 4245:Super and micro 4243: 4236: 4227: 4220: 4213: 4206: 4197: 4190: 4183: 4176: 4169: 4158: 4151: 4144: 4137: 4130: 4120: 4114: 4109:Lunar resources 4107: 4100: 4091: 4084: 4077: 4070: 4061: 4054: 4047: 4034: 4027: 4018: 4011: 4004: 3995: 3988: 3983: 3974: 3967: 3960: 3951: 3944: 3937: 3926: 3919: 3912: 3905: 3898: 3891: 3884: 3873: 3866: 3859: 3852: 3843: 3836: 3829: 3822: 3813: 3806: 3799: 3792: 3785: 3776: 3769: 3760: 3753: 3746: 3739: 3732: 3723: 3716: 3709: 3702: 3695: 3686: 3679: 3670: 3663: 3652: 3645: 3638: 3633: 3624: 3617: 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18:Lunar highlands 15: 12: 11: 5: 4725: 4723: 4715: 4714: 4709: 4699: 4698: 4692: 4691: 4689: 4688: 4677: 4674: 4673: 4671: 4670: 4664: 4661: 4660: 4658: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4636: 4634: 4628: 4627: 4625: 4624: 4619: 4613: 4611: 4605: 4604: 4602: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4565: 4563: 4557: 4556: 4551: 4549: 4548: 4541: 4534: 4526: 4517: 4516: 4514: 4513: 4500: 4497: 4496: 4494: 4493: 4486: 4479: 4472: 4465: 4456: 4449: 4442: 4441: 4440: 4433: 4426: 4419: 4405: 4398: 4391: 4384: 4383: 4382: 4375: 4361: 4354: 4347: 4340: 4332: 4330: 4326: 4325: 4323: 4322: 4315: 4308: 4300: 4298: 4294: 4293: 4291: 4290: 4283: 4276: 4269: 4262: 4255: 4248: 4241: 4234: 4233: 4232: 4218: 4210: 4208: 4199: 4198: 4196: 4195: 4192:Lunar distance 4188: 4181: 4174: 4167: 4166: 4165: 4164: 4163: 4142: 4135: 4132:Lunar calendar 4127: 4125: 4116: 4115: 4113: 4112: 4105: 4098: 4097: 4096: 4082: 4075: 4068: 4067: 4066: 4059: 4056:Apollo program 4044: 4042: 4036: 4035: 4033: 4032: 4025: 4024: 4023: 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3203: 3191: 3179: 3174: 3169: 3157: 3152: 3144: 3127: 3126:External links 3124: 3122: 3121: 3109: 3100: 3091: 3082: 3073: 3064: 3045: 3026: 3007:Paul D. Spudis 3003: 3002: 3001: 2996: 2995: 2989: 2976: 2960: 2946: 2940: 2932: 2925:Don Wilhelms, 2922: 2921: 2920: 2914: 2913: 2880:(1): 221–364. 2864: 2843: 2820: 2792: 2776: 2757: 2738: 2726: 2714: 2687: 2670: 2659:: 3843. 1978. 2643: 2636: 2618: 2594: 2564: 2549: 2523: 2498: 2475: 2416: 2409: 2389: 2371: 2365:978-0080182742 2364: 2358:. p. 64. 2356:Pergamon Press 2342: 2312: 2279: 2246: 2212: 2190: 2178: 2143: 2136: 2130:. p. 13. 2112: 2097: 2085: 2073: 2066: 2045: 2044: 2043: 2042: 2037: 2034: 2033: 2032: 2027: 2022: 2017: 2011: 2010: 1994: 1991: 1987:magnetic field 1974:Main article: 1971: 1970:Magnetic field 1968: 1930: 1929: 1920: 1919: 1918: 1909: 1908: 1907: 1906: 1905: 1900:Main article: 1897: 1894: 1844: 1841: 1739:Luna programme 1735:Houston, Texas 1723:Apollo program 1701: 1698: 1693:Main article: 1690: 1687: 1608:Main article: 1605: 1602: 1557:Main article: 1554: 1551: 1467:lunar regolith 1441:Main article: 1438: 1435: 1433:impact basin. 1431:Mare Orientale 1322:Gene Shoemaker 1298: 1297:Impact craters 1295: 1279: 1276: 1267:Wrinkle ridges 1263: 1262:Wrinkle ridges 1260: 1242: 1239: 1229:landing site, 1207: 1204: 1158: 1157: 1139:Rima Ariadaeus 1129: 1128: 1114: 1113: 1098: 1097: 1083: 1082: 1015:Main article: 1012: 1009: 956: 953: 941:impact craters 933:Main article: 930: 927: 918:Main article: 914: 913: 864: 862: 855: 849: 846: 830:micrometeorite 780: 773: 772: 764: 757: 756: 744: 737: 736: 735: 727: 726: 725: 724: 693:-rich mineral 560: 557: 529:Main article: 526: 523: 520: 519: 511: 510: 501: 500: 499: 498: 497: 495: 458: 457: 454: 451: 447: 446: 443: 440: 436: 433: 427: 426: 423: 420: 417: 414: 408: 407: 404: 401: 398: 392: 391: 388: 385: 382: 380:iron(II) oxide 376: 375: 372: 369: 366: 360: 359: 356: 353: 350: 346: 343: 337: 336: 333: 330: 327: 324: 318: 317: 314: 310: 309: 306: 303: 246: 243: 209:Apollo program 153: 120:differentiated 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4724: 4713: 4712:Lunar science 4710: 4708: 4705: 4704: 4702: 4687: 4679: 4678: 4675: 4669: 4666: 4665: 4662: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4645:Geology of Io 4643: 4641: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4629: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4614: 4612: 4610: 4609:Dwarf Planets 4606: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4566: 4564: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4547: 4542: 4540: 4535: 4533: 4528: 4527: 4524: 4511: 4502: 4501: 4498: 4491: 4487: 4484: 4480: 4477: 4476:Double planet 4473: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4457: 4454: 4450: 4447: 4443: 4438: 4434: 4431: 4427: 4424: 4420: 4417: 4413: 4412: 4410: 4406: 4403: 4399: 4396: 4392: 4389: 4385: 4380: 4376: 4373: 4369: 4368: 4366: 4362: 4359: 4358:Moon illusion 4355: 4352: 4348: 4345: 4341: 4338: 4337:Lunar deities 4334: 4333: 4331: 4327: 4320: 4316: 4313: 4309: 4306: 4302: 4301: 4299: 4295: 4288: 4284: 4281: 4277: 4274: 4270: 4267: 4263: 4260: 4256: 4253: 4249: 4246: 4242: 4239: 4235: 4230: 4226: 4225: 4223: 4219: 4216: 4212: 4211: 4209: 4204: 4200: 4193: 4189: 4186: 4185:Lunar station 4182: 4179: 4175: 4172: 4168: 4161: 4157: 4156: 4154: 4150: 4149: 4147: 4143: 4140: 4136: 4133: 4129: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4119:Time-telling 4117: 4110: 4106: 4103: 4099: 4094: 4090: 4089: 4087: 4083: 4080: 4076: 4073: 4069: 4064: 4060: 4057: 4053: 4052: 4050: 4046: 4045: 4043: 4041: 4037: 4030: 4026: 4021: 4017: 4014: 4010: 4009: 4007: 4003: 3998: 3994: 3991: 3987: 3986: 3982: 3977: 3973: 3970: 3966: 3963: 3959: 3954: 3950: 3949: 3947: 3943: 3942: 3940: 3936: 3929: 3925: 3922: 3918: 3917: 3915: 3911: 3910: 3908: 3904: 3901: 3897: 3894: 3890: 3887: 3883: 3882: 3880: 3876: 3869: 3865: 3862: 3858: 3855: 3851: 3846: 3842: 3839: 3835: 3834: 3832: 3828: 3825: 3821: 3816: 3812: 3809: 3805: 3804: 3802: 3798: 3795: 3791: 3788: 3784: 3779: 3775: 3774: 3772: 3768: 3763: 3759: 3756: 3752: 3749: 3745: 3742: 3738: 3737: 3735: 3731: 3726: 3722: 3719: 3715: 3712: 3708: 3707: 3705: 3701: 3698: 3694: 3689: 3685: 3684: 3682: 3678: 3673: 3669: 3668: 3666: 3662: 3655: 3651: 3650: 3648: 3644: 3641: 3637: 3636: 3632: 3627: 3623: 3620: 3616: 3615: 3611: 3608: 3604: 3601: 3597: 3594: 3590: 3589: 3587: 3585: 3579: 3572: 3571:Lunar station 3568: 3563: 3559: 3556: 3552: 3549: 3548:Tidal locking 3545: 3542: 3538: 3537: 3535: 3531: 3526: 3522: 3517: 3516:Eclipse cycle 3513: 3510: 3506: 3503: 3502:Solar eclipse 3499: 3494: 3490: 3487: 3483: 3482: 3480: 3479:Lunar eclipse 3476: 3475: 3473: 3469: 3466: 3462: 3459: 3455: 3454: 3452: 3448: 3443: 3439: 3434: 3430: 3429: 3427: 3423: 3420: 3416: 3411: 3407: 3406: 3404: 3400: 3399: 3397: 3393: 3390: 3386: 3385: 3383: 3381: 3377: 3372: 3359: 3355: 3354: 3352: 3348: 3345: 3341: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3325: 3324: 3322: 3321:Gravity field 3318: 3315: 3311: 3308: 3304: 3301: 3297: 3296: 3294: 3288: 3284: 3279: 3275: 3268: 3263: 3261: 3256: 3254: 3249: 3248: 3245: 3239: 3235: 3230: 3228: 3225: 3223: 3220: 3218: 3215: 3212: 3209: 3207: 3204: 3202: 3198: 3195: 3192: 3190: 3186: 3183: 3180: 3178: 3175: 3173: 3170: 3168: 3164: 3161: 3158: 3156: 3153: 3151: 3150: 3145: 3142: 3141: 3137: 3134: 3130: 3129: 3125: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3101: 3097: 3092: 3088: 3083: 3079: 3074: 3070: 3065: 3062: 3061:0-521-47201-6 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3043: 3042:0-471-15057-6 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3024: 3023:1-56098-847-9 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3005: 3004: 2999: 2998: 2992: 2990:0-8165-2073-9 2986: 2982: 2977: 2974: 2973:0-942862-03-1 2970: 2966: 2965: 2961: 2958: 2957:0-521-33444-6 2954: 2950: 2947: 2944: 2941: 2938: 2937: 2933: 2930: 2929: 2924: 2923: 2918: 2917: 2909: 2903: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2868: 2865: 2853: 2847: 2844: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2821:0-16-050631-X 2817: 2813: 2809: 2808: 2803: 2796: 2793: 2790: 2786: 2780: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2766: 2761: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2747: 2742: 2739: 2735: 2730: 2727: 2723: 2718: 2715: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2691: 2688: 2680: 2674: 2671: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2647: 2644: 2639: 2637:9780691113258 2633: 2629: 2622: 2619: 2608: 2604: 2598: 2595: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2568: 2565: 2562: 2559: 2553: 2550: 2538: 2534: 2527: 2524: 2512: 2508: 2502: 2499: 2486: 2479: 2476: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2454: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2432: 2427: 2420: 2417: 2412: 2406: 2402: 2401: 2393: 2390: 2382: 2375: 2372: 2367: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2346: 2343: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2316: 2313: 2309: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2283: 2280: 2276: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2250: 2247: 2243: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2216: 2213: 2200: 2194: 2191: 2188:, p. 10. 2187: 2182: 2179: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2152: 2150: 2148: 2144: 2139: 2137:9780160042089 2133: 2129: 2125: 2124: 2116: 2113: 2110:, p. 13. 2109: 2104: 2102: 2098: 2095:, p. 93. 2094: 2089: 2086: 2083:, p. 91. 2082: 2077: 2074: 2069: 2067:9780521813068 2063: 2059: 2058: 2050: 2047: 2040: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2028: 2026: 2023: 2021: 2018: 2016: 2013: 2012: 2008: 1997: 1992: 1990: 1988: 1983: 1977: 1969: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1951: 1948: 1942: 1940: 1924: 1913: 1903: 1895: 1893: 1891: 1890: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1842: 1840: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1821: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1786: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1717: 1714:collected by 1713: 1710: 1706: 1699: 1696: 1688: 1683: 1678: 1674: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1658: 1655: 1650: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1611: 1603: 1601: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1582: 1578: 1577:human outpost 1574: 1565: 1560: 1552: 1550: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1475: 1473: 1472:mega-regolith 1468: 1464: 1463: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1444: 1436: 1434: 1432: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1409: 1404: 1402: 1396: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1380: 1378: 1368: 1363: 1359: 1357: 1353: 1348: 1343: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1323: 1319: 1318:superposition 1311: 1307: 1303: 1296: 1294: 1292: 1291:normal faults 1288: 1284: 1277: 1275: 1273: 1268: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1245:A variety of 1240: 1238: 1236: 1235:Imbrium Basin 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1215:lava channels 1212: 1205: 1203: 1200: 1195: 1193: 1189: 1184: 1182: 1178: 1172: 1170: 1166: 1163:Furthermore, 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1140: 1135: 1131: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1116: 1115: 1109: 1104: 1100: 1099: 1094: 1089: 1085: 1084: 1077: 1073: 1072: 1069: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1050: 1048: 1044: 1039: 1035: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1018: 1010: 1008: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 954: 952: 950: 946: 942: 936: 928: 926: 921: 910: 907: 899: 889: 885: 881: 875: 874: 870: 865:This section 863: 859: 854: 853: 847: 845: 844:of the Moon. 843: 838: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 784: 777: 768: 761: 752: 748: 741: 731: 723: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 700: 696: 692: 688: 683: 681: 680:Mare Nectaris 677: 671: 669: 668:Imbrium basin 665: 660: 656: 652: 649: 645: 640: 638: 634: 633:Imbrium basin 630: 626: 621: 618: 615: 611: 607: 604: 599: 594: 592: 588: 584: 580: 558: 556: 554: 551:. Today, the 550: 546: 542: 538: 532: 524: 513: 505: 496: 490: 486: 485: 482: 480: 476: 472: 471: 466: 455: 452: 448: 444: 441: 434: 432: 429: 428: 424: 421: 415: 413: 410: 409: 405: 402: 399: 397: 394: 393: 389: 386: 383: 381: 378: 377: 373: 370: 367: 365: 362: 361: 357: 354: 344: 342: 339: 338: 334: 331: 325: 323: 320: 319: 315: 312: 311: 300: 294: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 272: 268: 264: 260: 256: 252: 244: 242: 240: 236: 231: 229: 225: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 201:lunar samples 198: 194: 190: 181: 175: 173: 168: 166: 161: 157: 135: 133: 129: 125: 122:body, with a 121: 117: 113: 112:geomorphology 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 76:lunar science 73: 69: 61: 57: 56:Eratosthenian 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 32: 19: 4639: 4344:Lunar effect 4160:Nodal period 4086:Colonization 3938: 3900:Lunar theory 3593:Selenography 3433:Nodal period 3147: 3131: 3048: 3029: 3010: 2980: 2962: 2948: 2934: 2926: 2902:cite journal 2877: 2873: 2867: 2856:. Retrieved 2846: 2834:. Retrieved 2806: 2795: 2784: 2779: 2760: 2741: 2729: 2717: 2700: 2696: 2690: 2673: 2656: 2652: 2646: 2627: 2621: 2610:. Retrieved 2606: 2597: 2585:. Retrieved 2581:the original 2576: 2567: 2557: 2552: 2540:. Retrieved 2536: 2526: 2515:. Retrieved 2510: 2501: 2489:. Retrieved 2478: 2435: 2429: 2419: 2399: 2392: 2379:S. Maurice. 2374: 2351: 2345: 2333:. Retrieved 2315: 2307: 2300:. Retrieved 2292: 2287:Ivankov, A. 2282: 2274: 2267:. Retrieved 2259: 2254:Ivankov, A. 2249: 2240: 2233:. Retrieved 2225: 2220:Ivankov, A. 2215: 2203:. Retrieved 2193: 2181: 2169:. Retrieved 2162:earthsky.org 2161: 2122: 2115: 2088: 2076: 2056: 2049: 2025:Selenography 1979: 1963: 1952: 1943: 1939:seismometers 1936: 1887: 1846: 1836: 1822: 1814:petrogenesis 1801: 1787: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1720: 1669:analysis of 1659: 1651: 1613: 1594:Mare Ingenii 1590:Marius Hills 1570: 1496: 1476: 1471: 1460: 1446: 1427: 1414: 1413: 1405: 1400: 1397: 1381: 1373: 1344: 1326: 1314: 1306:Mare Imbrium 1281: 1265: 1244: 1209: 1196: 1185: 1173: 1161: 1137: 1061: 1051: 1020: 997:anorthositic 984: 980: 964: 960: 958: 938: 923: 902: 893: 878:Please help 866: 839: 791: 783:rift valleys 767:rift valleys 747:rift valleys 684: 672: 641: 614:anorthositic 595: 587:tidal forces 576: 549:co-accretion 548: 544: 543:from Earth, 540: 534: 468: 463: 431:sodium oxide 308:Composition 248: 232: 187: 170: 164: 71: 67: 65: 4453:Moon Treaty 4437:Hollow Moon 4379:Moon rabbit 4351:Earth phase 4153:Lunar month 4040:Exploration 3984:Experiments 3886:Observation 3748:Ray systems 3613:Hemispheres 3581:Surface and 3562:Tidal range 3541:Tidal force 3344:Sodium tail 3328:Hill sphere 2537:science.org 2335:19 December 2205:21 November 1861:plagioclase 1859:, and less 1806:troctolites 1794:anorthosite 1769:(named for 1767:armalcolite 1752:plagioclase 1689:Lunar rocks 1682:anorthosite 1647:magma ocean 1632:plagioclase 1340:rarefaction 1270:the crater 1255:lunar domes 1251:Mons Rümker 1231:Rima Hadley 1199:pyroclastic 1177:pyroclastic 1108:Mons Rümker 1027:lunar maria 967:, from the 896:August 2011 834:ray systems 792:Impacts by 687:lunar maria 655:troctolites 617:plagioclase 205:geophysical 174: photo 160:False-color 88:free oxygen 82:. The Moon 38:(in blue), 4701:Categories 4423:Apollo era 4365:Pareidolia 4123:navigation 3845:Sputtering 3725:Lava tubes 3647:South pole 3640:North pole 3600:Terminator 3442:Precession 3358:Earthshine 3314:Atmosphere 3307:Topography 3292:properties 2858:2015-12-23 2612:2024-01-19 2542:3 February 2517:2006-11-21 2491:August 13, 2354:. Oxford: 2302:13 October 2269:13 October 2235:13 October 2171:25 January 2036:References 1889:Clementine 1829:granulitic 1777:drin, and 1643:hypothesis 1614:The first 1573:lava tubes 1503:solar wind 1453:asteroidal 1451:and large 1443:Lunar soil 1388:ray system 1310:Copernicus 1047:lava tubes 1017:Lunar mare 983:(singular 963:(singular 949:lava flows 826:solar wind 810:Copernicus 794:meteorites 720:lunar mare 537:its origin 467:data from 316:Highlands 291:solar wind 217:lunar soil 213:lunar rock 189:Geological 72:selenology 60:Copernican 4171:Fortnight 4063:Explorers 4020:Apollo 17 4013:Apollo 11 3976:Volcanism 3946:Timescale 3893:Libration 3681:Mountains 3619:Near side 3525:Supermoon 3465:Full moon 3419:Libration 3351:Moonlight 2836:August 1, 2587:21 August 2289:"Luna 24" 2256:"Luna 20" 2222:"Luna 16" 2186:NASA 1994 2108:NASA 1994 2093:NASA 1994 2081:NASA 1994 1982:geodynamo 1960:Apollo 14 1956:Apollo 12 1880:Apollo 12 1783:Apollo 11 1759:anorthite 1716:Apollo 15 1695:Moon rock 1671:Apollo 14 1639:anorthite 1620:Apollo 11 1581:lava cave 1480:aluminium 1356:power law 1227:Apollo 15 1181:ash cones 1152:Apollo 10 1043:lava flow 991:), after 955:Highlands 947:, hills, 945:volcanoes 867:does not 814:Apollo 17 769:– context 659:plutonism 603:silicates 591:ellipsoid 525:Formation 277:(Mn) and 275:manganese 271:aluminium 263:magnesium 228:Chang'e 5 193:telescope 116:volcanism 62:(yellow). 50:(brown), 48:Nectarian 44:Aitkenian 4686:Category 4510:Category 4305:Moonrise 4238:Crescent 4178:Sennight 4093:Moonbase 4049:Missions 3718:Calderas 3626:Far side 3584:features 3472:Eclipses 3458:New moon 3403:Distance 3290:Physical 3197:Archived 3185:Archived 3163:Archived 3136:Archived 2830:00061677 2768:Archived 2749:Archived 2470:34172110 2462:16308422 2329:Archived 2166:EarthSky 1993:See also 1876:ilmenite 1857:pyroxene 1849:basaltic 1825:breccias 1802:Mg-suite 1773:strong, 1763:ilmenite 1755:feldspar 1748:pyroxene 1635:feldspar 1543:nitrogen 1531:hydrogen 1527:isotopic 1523:nitrogen 1507:hydrogen 1492:basaltic 1462:regolith 1457:cometary 1437:Regolith 1419:basaltic 1377:terraces 1332:asteroid 1287:tectonic 1272:Letronne 1188:vesicles 1154:mission. 1124:Letronne 1031:basaltic 1001:basaltic 781:Ancient 765:Ancient 745:Ancient 699:basaltic 695:ilmenite 691:titanium 631:and the 620:feldspar 610:pyroxene 475:hydrogen 396:magnesia 302:Compound 287:nitrogen 285:(C) and 279:titanium 46:(pink), 4561:Planets 4329:Related 4319:Moonset 4102:Tourism 4079:Landing 3939:Geology 3878:Science 3734:Craters 3697:Valleys 3283:Outline 3238:YouTube 2882:Bibcode 2705:Bibcode 2661:Bibcode 2440:Bibcode 2431:Science 1874:called 1869:titanic 1853:olivine 1810:norites 1798:calcium 1744:olivine 1709:Olivine 1624:basalts 1283:Grabens 1278:Grabens 1110:complex 888:removed 873:sources 806:craters 728:Moon – 708:volcano 651:norites 606:olivine 545:capture 541:fission 456:100.0% 341:alumina 305:Formula 267:calcium 255:silicon 239:craters 167:orbiter 165:Galileo 108:gravity 96:weather 94:due to 92:erosion 52:Imbrian 4287:Tetrad 4203:Phases 4072:Probes 3907:Origin 3854:Quakes 3787:Rilles 3778:swirls 3493:Tetrad 3451:Syzygy 3059: 3040: 3021: 2987: 2971: 2955: 2828: 2818: 2634: 2468: 2460: 2407: 2362: 2201:. NASA 2134: 2064: 1964:Apollo 1884:Soviet 1790:basalt 1750:, and 1712:basalt 1667:zircon 1571:Lunar 1539:carbon 1519:carbon 1511:helium 1484:silica 1401:catena 1384:albedo 1211:Rilles 1206:Rilles 1144:graben 1038:albedo 961:terrae 798:comets 583:molten 547:, and 450: 374:15.9% 358:24.0% 335:45.5% 322:silica 283:Carbon 273:(Al), 269:(Ca), 265:(Mg), 261:(Fe), 257:(Si), 251:oxygen 221:Soviet 203:, and 130:, and 128:mantle 4632:Moons 4266:Black 4252:Blood 4229:Names 4207:names 4146:Month 3997:ALSEP 3969:KREEP 3921:Theia 3824:Water 3801:Rocks 3711:Domes 3665:Maria 3634:Poles 3426:Nodes 3380:Orbit 2682:(PDF) 2466:S2CID 2384:(PDF) 1872:oxide 1865:ferro 1833:mafic 1818:KREEP 1684:crust 1663:KREEP 1622:were 1616:rocks 1535:water 1470:term 1449:small 1423:maria 1370:form. 1336:comet 1241:Domes 1142:is a 1093:Prinz 1011:Maria 981:maria 973:earth 969:Latin 965:terra 818:Tycho 648:suite 625:KREEP 479:poles 453:99.9% 445:0.6% 425:0.6% 406:7.5% 390:5.9% 387:14.1% 371:11.8% 355:14.9% 332:45.4% 313:Maria 253:(O), 124:crust 80:Earth 40:KREEP 36:maria 4416:list 4273:Dark 4259:Blue 4222:Full 4121:and 3771:Soil 3741:List 3672:List 3654:Face 3607:Limb 3534:Tide 3274:Moon 3117:NASA 3057:ISBN 3053:1996 3038:ISBN 3034:2003 3019:ISBN 3015:1998 2985:ISBN 2969:ISBN 2953:ISBN 2908:link 2838:2013 2826:LCCN 2816:ISBN 2812:NASA 2632:ISBN 2589:2010 2544:2023 2493:2012 2458:PMID 2405:ISBN 2360:ISBN 2337:2020 2304:2018 2297:NASA 2271:2018 2264:NASA 2237:2018 2230:NASA 2207:2022 2173:2023 2132:ISBN 2128:NASA 2062:ISBN 1958:and 1855:and 1721:The 1596:and 1547:fuel 1541:and 1521:and 1515:neon 1488:iron 1482:and 1455:and 1367:King 1285:are 1148:NASA 1034:lava 985:mare 977:land 971:for 871:any 869:cite 796:and 685:The 653:and 608:and 442:0.6% 422:3.9% 403:9.2% 364:lime 259:iron 215:and 172:NASA 132:core 66:The 4280:Wet 4215:New 4205:and 3236:on 2890:doi 2448:doi 2436:310 1816:of 1779:Col 1771:Arm 1733:in 1537:), 1499:Sun 1334:or 989:sea 882:by 416:TiO 400:MgO 384:FeO 368:CaO 326:SiO 4703:: 3115:. 3055:, 3032:, 3013:, 3009:, 2904:}} 2900:{{ 2888:. 2878:60 2876:. 2824:. 2804:. 2699:. 2655:. 2605:. 2575:. 2535:. 2509:. 2464:. 2456:. 2446:. 2434:. 2428:. 2323:. 2306:. 2295:. 2291:. 2273:. 2262:. 2258:. 2239:. 2228:. 2224:. 2164:. 2160:. 2146:^ 2126:. 2100:^ 1820:. 1808:, 1775:Al 1746:, 1649:. 1600:. 1592:, 1517:, 1513:, 1509:, 1274:. 1146:. 1049:. 975:, 664:Ga 644:Mg 639:. 435:Na 345:Al 293:. 199:, 134:. 126:, 4545:e 4538:t 4531:v 4463:" 4459:" 3266:e 3259:t 3252:v 3063:. 3044:. 3025:. 2993:. 2975:. 2959:. 2910:) 2896:. 2892:: 2884:: 2861:. 2840:. 2711:. 2707:: 2701:1 2684:. 2667:. 2663:: 2657:3 2640:. 2615:. 2591:. 2546:. 2520:. 2495:. 2472:. 2450:: 2442:: 2413:. 2386:. 2368:. 2339:. 2209:. 2175:. 2140:. 2070:. 1867:- 1757:( 1533:( 909:) 903:( 898:) 894:( 890:. 876:. 646:- 481:. 439:O 437:2 418:2 351:3 349:O 347:2 328:2 20:)

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Index