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wall of about 140 meters along the eastern side curving around the northern end. Modern excavations have discovered portions tapering column drums that may belonged to the turning posts at either end of the race-course, from whose location it appears that the hippodrome could have had a length of 320 meters and a width of 140. A bath building is being excavated about 35 meters to the northeast of the hippodrome; a large portion of it appears to have been dedicated to a cistern, and large stone basins from the middle of the structure have been uncovered.
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topographical and architectural survey of the site. Romano continued his work with the Mt. Lykaion
Excavation and Survey Project under the auspices of the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Arizona. A preliminary planning phase of cleaning and surveying took place in 2004 and 2005, and was followed by a five-year excavation program beginning in June 2006. A two-year period during which the findings will be studied is scheduled to begin in the summer of 2011. As of 2023, the research was sponsored by the University of Arizona and the
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confirmed 6 starting line blocks, four of which were grouped together and were thus possibly found near their original orientation and position. From this, archaeologist David Romano speculated that a stadium racecourse of 170–180 meters would have been enclosed within the hippodrome. The apparently double-use of the space is particularly interesting because inscriptional evidence concerning the
Lykaian Games of the 4th century BCE indicates that horse and foot-races were held during the same festivals, and possibly on the same day.
120:
295:, the lower fountain, and the rows of seats all appear to have been built in an intentionally similar alignment. Just to the north of the stoa four rows of seats were excavated, with the remains of a group of stelae and statue bases nearby. These would have bordered the hippodrome's southern edge, and correspond to an earlier excavated row of seats on the south-eastern edge of the racetrack. The majority of the spectators of events in the hippodrome, however, would have sat on the surrounding hills.
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690:(only 22 miles away) has a similar ash altar, and both settlements held ancient athletic games. The extremely early date of activity at Lykaion could suggest that these customs originated there. Stratigraphic analysis from the most recent excavations showed prehistoric human activity at the altar site, which seems to have been in continuous use from the Late Neolithic period through to the Hellenistic era. A number of drinking vessels and bones of sheep and goats from the
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234:, as Lycaon had been after sacrificing a child. The altar of Zeus consists of a great mound of ashes with a retaining wall. It was said that no shadows fell within the precincts and that any who entered it died within the year. The sanctuary of Zeus played host to athletic games held every four years, the
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Two inscriptions were uncovered in the excavations of
Kouriouniotis that give the names of winning athletes in the various contests of the Lykaian Games that were held every four years between 320 and 304 BCE. These contests included footraces for men and for boys, various chariot races with teams of
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The hippodrome at Mount
Lykaion, located in a valley below and to the north of the altar, is the only extant hippodrome from Greek antiquity, and is therefore crucial to our understanding of Greek athletic festivals. The hippodrome was constructed on roughly a north-south orientation with a retaining
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In 2016, excavations of the ash altar revealed a 3000-year-old skeleton of an adolescent boy thought to be a human sacrifice. The researchers explained it is not a cemetery, and the skeleton was lined with stones, showing that it was not a typical human burial. Plato and other ancient writers linked
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The
Lykaian hippodrome is further unique in apparently having encompassed the stadium racecourse. The early 20th century excavator of Lykaion, Kouriouniotis discovered stone blocks in the middle of the hippodrome that would have formed the starting line of the stadium. The topological survey of 1996
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Beulé described the hippodrome and surrounding area, including large stones that he assumed formed had formed the seats of the judges and magistrates, and the remains of a building he called a temple to Pan, but which probably corresponds to the stoa of the modern excavations. The German writer Ross
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Since
Kourouniotes's excavation, anthropologists and scholars of Arcadian religion have studied the site in terms of its development as a sanctuary, but there was no further systematic or scientific investigation until 1996, when Dr. David Gilman Romano of the University of Pennsylvania conducted a
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Pausanias records the presence of a mound of earth on the highest point of the mountain, an altar to Zeus
Lykaios. He describes two pillars near the altar which had once been topped by golden eagles. Although Pausanias alludes to secret sacrifices which took place on this altar, he explains that he
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period indicates that the altar was the site of
Mycenean drinking and feasting rituals, probably in honor of Zeus. An especially interesting discovery was a seal ring from the Late Minoan period (1500–1400 BCE), which could indicate some interaction between Mt. Lykaion and Crete, both of which are
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Mt. Lykaion was initially excavated by the Greek
Archaeological Service, first in 1897 by archaeologist K. Kontopoulos and again in 1902 by K. Kourouniotes. Kontopoulos dug several trial trenches near the hippodrome and the altar. Kourouniotes's excavations of the altar and surrounding area (the
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The athletic competitions at
Lykaion, held every four years, receive occasional mention in the literary record. Authors are in disagreement as to when exactly the games were first instituted: Aristotle is said to have ranked the Lykaion games fourth in order of institution after the
351:, a Roman-era mythological compendium, adds the story that Lycaon attempted to test Zeus’ omniscience by tricking him into eating a sacrifice mixed with human flesh. In punishment, Zeus slew Lycaon and his fifty sons. Other sources, including the Roman poet
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A circular altar of blackened earth about 1.5 meters in height and 30 meters in diameter seems to date from before the migration of Indo-European peoples into the area. The excavations of Kourouniotes in 1903 of the altar and its nearby
605:) were particularly informative; he learned that the altar consisted of a raised mound of blackened earth as described by Pausanias. Excavation of the earth of the altar yielded burnt stones, small animal (cow and pig) bones, tiny
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in 294 BC. Mt. Lykaion extended between the camps of the two sides, causing some consternation among the Macedonians due to their unfamiliarity with the terrain. Nevertheless, Demetrius’ forces won the battle with relative ease.
260:, but of the nearby valley where the Lykaian Games were held. The detailed digital records and drawings of every architectural stone block. To date, a complete map of the area has been made, including not only the Ash Altar and
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mention of an "open-fire altar"; Linear B (14th–13th centuries BCE) inscriptions also give the first mentions of offerings to Zeus and of the sacred precinct (temenos) near the altar, such as has been excavated at Lykaion.
916:
Paul Anthony Cartledge " Aristomenes (1)" The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Ed. Simon Hornblower and Anthony Spawforth. Oxford University Press 2009. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. 17 February 2011
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The northern peak is higher, 1,421 m, than the southern, 1,382 m (4,662 and 4,534 ft). Mount Lykaion was sacred to Zeus Lykaios, who was said to have been born and brought up on it, and was the home of
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produced several bronze figures, some iron objects, and roof tiles. In 1909 Kourouniotes excavated an area at the east of the mountain and beneath the summit, the site of the hippodrome, stadium, and bathhouse.
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Mount Lykaion specifically to human sacrifices to Zeus—the legends say a sacrificed boy would be cooked with sacrificed animal meat and those who consumed the human portion would become a wolf for 9 years.
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began work at the site in 2004, with the aim of continuing the topographical survey begun in 1996 and carrying out a full topographical and architectural analysis not only of the altar and
345:, the mythical founder of the Greek race, is said to have instituted the worship of Zeus at Mt. Lykaion, giving the god the epithet Lykaios and establishing games in his honor. The
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Many of these buildings seem to have been planned in relation to each other: the baths at the northern end of the hippodrome are on the same alignment as it is, and the stoa, the
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Mt. Lykaion, its religious significance, and its quadrennial athletic games appear with some frequency in the ancient literary sources. The 2nd-century Greek geographer
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311:, where he discusses Lykaion's mythological, historical, and physical characteristics in detail. More isolated references occur, however, in sources ranging from
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determined definite cult activity at the Lykaion altar from the late 7th century b.c.e, including animals bones, miniature tripods, knives, and statuettes of
448:. Although the details are vague, both authors make it clear that the Achaeans were defeated and that Aratus was believed (mistakenly) to have been killed.
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surrounded by a grove of trees. At the sanctuary were bases of statues, which by Pausanias’ time had been deprived of the statues themselves, as well as a
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published scholarly studies of the area, and discussions of the region appeared in German and British travelogues as well. Many of these writers used
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An excavation in 2007 revealed pottery fragments and signs of activity in the ash altar believed to have been used as early as 3000 BCE. Nearby
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as their guide to the geography and sights of the region, but were also concerned to correlate modern Greek place-names with ancient evidence.
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would die within a year, along with the legend that all creatures, human and animal alike, cast no shadow while inside the sacred area.
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recently excavated from the Lykaian hippodrome provide information about the events, participants, and winners at the games.
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atop Mt. Lykaion as the birthplace of Zeus, although tradition had handed down at least two other locations for Zeus’ birth.
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described the bathhouse and its ancient but still-visible cisterns, which site he noted the locals called the Skaphidia.
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of Zeus, a sacred precinct which humans were forbidden to enter. He notes the common belief that any person entering the
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lived on Mt. Lykaion while in exile from the mid-440s BC until 427, where he built a house straddling the sacred region (
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385:. The inscription supposedly commemorated the execution of Aristocrates of Arcadia, who had betrayed the Messenian hero
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Romano, D.G. 1997. "Topographical and Architectural Survey of the Sanctuary of Zeus on Mt. Lykaion, Arcadia."
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Mt. Lykaion was an important site of religious worship in ancient Greece. Pausanias describes a sanctuary of
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Romano, D.G. (2005) "A New Topographical and Architectural Survey of The Sanctuary of Zeus at Mt. Lykaion"
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was reluctant to inquire into these rites due to their extreme antiquity. Pausanias also discusses the
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436:, a Greek author writing under the Roman empire, cite a battle at Mt. Lykaion in 227 BC between the
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games, while Pausanias argues for the Lykaian competition's priority to the Panathenaia.
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and a feast in which the man who received the portion of a human victim was changed to a
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1250:"New Evidence From Excavations In Arcadia, Greece, Supports Theory Of 'Birth Of Zeus'"
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Archaeological excavations were first carried out in 1897 by K. Kontopoulos for the
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holding an eagle and a lightning bolt. These objects were primarily found in the
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A view from the summit of Mt. Lykaion, looking E toward the stoa and hippodrome.
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1314:"Mt. Lykaion Excavation and Survey Project Report of Activities, Summer 2016"
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provides the greatest amount of information in the eighth book of his
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The Mt. Lykaion Excavation and Survey Project, a joint effort of the
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1139:"Mt. Lykaion Excavation and Survey Project - Project Overview"
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Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Peloponnese (region)
1362:"Chilling mountaintop find may confirm dark Greek legend"
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After 1832, when Greece had gained independence from the
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Dig turns up surprises and questions from ancient Greece
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Ross, L. Reisen im Reiserouten durch Griechenland. 91 ff
495:,” “Often swift Faunus exchanges Lykaion for pleasant
784:"Homepage – Mt. Lykaion Excavation and Survey Project"
288:, several rows of seats, and a group of statue bases.
245:, followed by K. Kourouniotes between 1902 and 1909.
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given as the birthplace of Zeus by ancient sources.
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adult and juvenile horses, boxing, wrestling, and a
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Velox amoenum saepe Lucretilem / mutat Lycaeo Faunus
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1400:. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 149.
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553:records the victories of several athletes in his
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477:Lupercal / Parrhasio dictum Panos de more Lycaei
276:, a building that was probably a bathhouse, the
367:According to Pausanias and the Greek historian
632:American School of Classical Studies at Athens
1337:"Bones may belong to teen sacrificed to Zeus"
1200:"Mt. Lykaion Excavation & Survey Project"
8:
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1159:Kourouniotes, K. 1909. Praktika, pp. 185–200
1090:Paris: Firmin Didot frères, 1855. pp. 159ff.
424:describes a battle between the Spartans and
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549:competition. The ancient Greek lyric poet
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634:and the Ministry of Culture and Sports.
609:, iron knives, clay figures, coins from
409:) of Zeus to avoid further persecution.
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678:. The earth-altar may correspond to a
1176:, T.H. Nieslen and J. Roy (eds.) 1999
1019:Aristotle apud schol. Aristid. p. 105
119:
7:
946:Polybius 2.51.3, 2.55.2; Plutarch,
907:Pausanias 4.22.7, Polybius 4.33.2–6
389:at the battle of the Great Trench.
132:Location of Mount Lykaion in Greece
1223:Inscriptiones Graece V 549 and 550
210:) to the south where the altar of
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1455:Mountains of Peloponnese (region)
1415:Landforms of Arcadia, Peloponnese
1292:"Surprise Finds on Wolf Mountain"
487:worship of Lykaian Pan,” and in
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111:
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1059:Syll. 314 (English translation)
399:, writes that the Spartan king
1170:Sanctuaires et cults d'Arcadie
617:. Further trenches dug in the
1:
1045:7.80ff., 9.95ff., 13.105ff.,
1445:Locations in Greek mythology
628:Greek Archaeological Service
243:Greek Archaeological Service
395:, a Greek historian of the
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1440:Sacred mountains of Greece
630:under the auspices of the
327:Pausanias states that the
250:University of Pennsylvania
202:
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1275:Davis, Heather A. (2008)
192:. Lykaion has two peaks:
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44:
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1174:Defining Ancient Arkadia
847:Pausanias 8.36.3, 8.38.2
766:Kourouniotes, K. (1909)
753:Kourouniotes, K. (1904)
740:Kourouniotes, K. (1903)
1425:Ancient Greek geography
1397:Encyclopædia Britannica
1281:. Retrieved 2008-04-08.
1121:Kourouniotes, K. 1903.
1088:Études sur le Péloponè.
786:. Lykaionexcavation.org
755:Archaiologike Ephemeris
727:Kontopoulos, K. (1898)
444:and the Spartans under
381:, a revolt against the
371:, an inscribed pillar (
1430:Ancient Greek religion
1149:on September 22, 2009.
1108:Kontopoulos, K. 1898.
1074:March 7, 2009, at the
299:In the literary record
177:
1312:Romano, D.G. (2016).
1143:corinth.sas.upenn.edu
577:and the Peloponnese.
309:Description of Greece
254:University of Arizona
196:to the north and St.
85:37.45694°N 21.97500°E
703:Notes and references
557:, and two inscribed
541:, an imperial Roman
426:Demetrius of Macedon
379:Second Messenian War
81: /
1435:Arcadian mythology
483:, named after the
416:, the 2nd-century
90:37.45694; 21.97500
57:Highest point
27:Mountain in Greece
1028:Pliny the Elder,
948:Life of Cleomenes
928:Thucydides 5.16.3
607:pottery fragments
452:Religious worship
397:Peloponnesian War
363:Historical events
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811:
805:
803:
801:
797:
785:
779:
777:
773:
770:, pp. 185–200
769:
763:
760:
756:
750:
747:
743:
737:
734:
730:
724:
721:
717:
711:
708:
702:
700:
696:
693:
692:Late Helladic
689:
684:
681:
677:
673:
669:
668:
658:
656:
654:
648:
644:
637:
635:
633:
629:
623:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
598:
594:
592:
588:
584:
583:Charles Beulé
580:
579:Ernst Curtius
576:
572:
564:
562:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
519:
517:
515:
511:
502:
500:
498:
494:
490:
489:Horace's Odes
486:
482:
478:
474:
473:
468:
464:
456:
451:
449:
447:
446:Cleomenes III
443:
439:
435:
432:Polybius and
430:
427:
423:
419:
415:
410:
408:
407:
402:
398:
394:
390:
388:
384:
380:
376:
375:
370:
362:
360:
358:
354:
350:
349:
344:
340:
336:
334:
330:
322:
320:
318:
314:
310:
306:
298:
296:
294:
289:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
246:
244:
239:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
215:
213:
209:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
163:
162:Ancient Greek
159:
158:Mount Lykaion
151:
147:
144:
140:
126:Mount Lykaion
114:
104:
99:
94:
66:
64:
60:
55:
48:
43:
36:
33:Mount Lykaion
31:
19:
1395:
1369:. Retrieved
1365:
1356:
1344:. Retrieved
1341:usatoday.com
1340:
1331:
1320:. Retrieved
1307:
1295:. Retrieved
1286:
1277:
1257:. Retrieved
1253:
1233:
1228:
1219:
1208:. Retrieved
1206:. 2023-06-12
1203:
1194:
1189:101, p. 374.
1186:
1181:
1173:
1169:
1164:
1155:
1147:the original
1142:
1122:
1117:
1109:
1104:
1095:
1087:
1082:
1065:
1054:
1046:
1042:
1037:
1029:
1024:
1015:
1006:
986:
981:
973:
968:
959:
951:
947:
942:
933:
924:
912:
903:
895:
890:
882:
877:
857:
856:cf. Cicero,
852:
843:
835:
831:
826:
818:
813:
788:. Retrieved
767:
762:
754:
749:
741:
736:
731:, pp. 17–18.
728:
723:
715:
710:
697:
685:
675:
665:
662:
649:
645:
641:
624:
618:
602:
599:
595:
568:
565:Modern study
558:
555:Victory Odes
554:
523:
513:
509:
506:
503:Zeus Lykaios
492:
476:
470:
460:
431:
420:rhetorician
413:
411:
404:
391:
372:
366:
346:
337:
326:
308:
302:
292:
290:
277:
261:
257:
247:
240:
222:and his son
216:
214:is located.
207:
193:
178:Mons Lycaeus
170:Lýkaion Óros
169:
166:Λύκαιον ὄρος
157:
156:
40:Mons Lycaeus
38:Λύκαιος ορος
1371:29 November
1346:29 November
1125:, pp. 50ff.
718:, 81. 1914.
714:Cook, A.B.
531:Panathenaia
479:,” “...the
401:Pleistoanax
387:Aristomenes
357:lycanthropy
348:Bibliotheca
208:Agios Īlías
203:Άγιος Ηλίας
88: /
63:Coordinates
1409:Categories
1322:2024-06-09
1259:2011-02-17
1210:2024-06-09
1112:, pp. 17–8
898:, 1.163ff.
834:10.14–15;
790:2013-10-01
744:, pp. 50ff
653:pentathlon
638:Hippodrome
533:, and the
497:Lucretilis
485:Parrhasian
467:hippodrome
418:Macedonian
414:Stratagems
393:Thucydides
270:hippodrome
76:21°58′30″E
73:37°27′25″N
1297:1 October
1236:pp. 153ff
659:Ash altar
591:Pausanias
547:gymnastic
527:Eleusinia
422:Polyaenus
341:, son of
329:Arcadians
305:Pausanias
266:Pausanias
101:Geography
1123:Praktika
1110:Praktika
1072:Archived
1049:10.45ff.
1041:Pindar,
989:1.17.1–2
985:Horace,
972:Virgil,
836:Georgics
832:Eclogues
819:Republic
768:Praktika
757:, 153ff.
742:Praktika
729:Praktika
680:Linear B
543:polymath
481:Lupercal
434:Plutarch
383:Spartans
369:Polybius
343:Pelasgus
331:claimed
252:and the
220:Pelasgus
182:mountain
142:Location
1234:ArchEph
1232:(1904)
1086:Beulé,
976:8.343-4
883:Epitome
817:Plato,
688:Olympia
676:temenos
667:temenos
619:temenos
615:tripods
603:temenos
514:temenos
510:temenos
412:In his
406:temenos
274:stadium
262:temenos
258:temenos
194:Stefani
186:Arcadia
180:) is a
146:Arcadia
18:Lycaeus
974:Aeneid
894:Ovid,
821:565d-e
611:Aegina
585:, and
575:Sparta
559:stelae
551:Pindar
535:Argive
529:, the
472:Aeneid
442:Aratus
440:under
339:Lycaon
333:Cretea
317:Virgil
272:, the
268:, the
236:Lykaia
224:Lycaon
190:Greece
150:Greece
1317:(PDF)
1032:7.205
950:5.1,
885:3.8.1
520:Games
374:stele
313:Plato
293:xenon
284:), a
282:hotel
278:xenon
198:Ilias
174:Latin
1373:2023
1348:2023
1299:2013
1047:Nem.
987:Odes
954:36.1
860:3.53
716:Zeus
672:Zeus
353:Ovid
286:stoa
232:wolf
212:Zeus
1187:AJA
1043:Ol.
499:.”
491:: “
475:: “
463:Pan
457:Pan
315:to
184:in
1411::
1394:.
1364:.
1339:.
1268:^
1252:.
1241:^
1202:.
1141:.
1130:^
994:^
865:^
799:^
775:^
655:.
581:,
359:.
319:.
238:.
206:,
188:,
176::
172:;
168:,
164::
148:,
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1350:.
1325:.
1301:.
1262:.
1213:.
793:.
280:(
200:(
160:(
20:)
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