Liquid fluoride thorium reactor

1477:– Compact designs have a limited lifetime for the graphite moderator and fuel / breeding loop separator. Under the influence of fast neutrons, the graphite first shrinks, then expands indefinitely until it becomes very weak and can crack, creating mechanical problems and causing the graphite to absorb enough fission products to poison the reaction. The 1960 two-fluid design had an estimated graphite replacement period of four years. Eliminating graphite from sealed piping was a major incentive to switch to a single-fluid design. Replacing this large central part requires remotely operated equipment. MSR designs have to arrange for this replacement. In a molten salt reactor, virtually all of the fuel and fission products can be piped to a holding tank. Only a fraction of one percent of the fission products end up in the graphite, primarily due to fission products slamming into the graphite. This makes the graphite surface radioactive, and without recycling/removal of at least the surface layer, creates a fairly bulky waste stream. Removing the surface layer and recycling the remainder of the graphite would solve this issue. Several techniques exist to recycle or dispose of nuclear moderator graphite. Graphite is inert and immobile at low temperatures, so it can be readily stored or buried if required. At least one design used graphite balls (pebbles) floating in salt, which could be removed and inspected continuously without shutting down the reactor. Reducing power density increases graphite lifetime. By comparison, solid-fueled reactors typically replace 1/3 of the fuel elements, including all of the highly radioactive fission products therein, every 12 to 24 months. This is routinely done under a protecting and cooling column layer of water. 1367:– Unlike mined uranium, mined thorium does not have a fissile isotope. Thorium reactors breed fissile uranium-233 from thorium, but require a small amount of fissile material for initial start up. There is relatively little of this material available. This raises the problem of how to start the reactors in a short time frame. One option is to produce U-233 in today's solid fueled reactors, then reprocess it out of the solid waste. An LFTR can also be started by other fissile isotopes, enriched uranium or plutonium from reactors or decommissioned bombs. For enriched uranium startup, high enrichment is needed. Decommissioned uranium bombs have enough enrichment, but not enough is available to start many LFTRs. It is difficult to separate plutonium fluoride from lanthanide fission products. One option for a two-fluid reactor is to operate with plutonium or enriched uranium in the fuel salt, breed U-233 in the blanket, and store it instead of returning it to the core. Instead, add plutonium or enriched uranium to continue the chain reaction, similar to today's solid fuel reactors. When enough U-233 is bred, replace the fuel with new fuel, retaining the U-233 for other startups. A similar option exists for a single-fluid reactor operating as a converter. Such a reactor would not reprocess fuel while operating. Instead the reactor would start on plutonium with thorium as the fertile and add plutonium. The plutonium eventually burns out and U-233 is produced in 1246:, this inventory would cost less than $ 4 million, a modest cost for a multibillion-dollar power plant. Consequently, a beryllium price increase over the level assumed here has little effect in the total cost of the power plant. The cost of enriched lithium-7 is less certain, at $ 120–800/kg LiF. and an inventory (again based on the MSBR system) of 17.9 tons lithium-7 as 66.5 tons LiF makes between $ 8 million and $ 53 million for the LiF. Adding the 99.1 tons of thorium at $ 30/kg adds only $ 3 million. Fissile material is more expensive, especially if expensively reprocessed plutonium is used, at a cost of $ 100 per gram fissile plutonium. With a startup fissile charge of only 1.5 tons, made possible through the soft neutron spectrum this makes $ 150 million. Adding everything up brings the total cost of the one time fuel charge at $ 165 to $ 210 million. This is similar to the cost of a first core for a light water reactor. Depending on the details of reprocessing the salt inventory once can last for decades, whereas the LWR needs a completely new core every 4 to 6 years (1/3 is replaced every 12 to 24 months). ORNL's own estimate for the total salt cost of even the more expensive 3 loop system was around $ 30 million, which is less than $ 100 million in today's money. 1377:– Fluoride salt mixtures have melting points ranging from 300 to 600 °C (572 to 1,112 °F). The salts, especially those with beryllium fluoride, are very viscous near their freezing point. This requires careful design and freeze protection in the containment and heat exchangers. Freezing must be prevented in normal operation, during transients, and during extended downtime. The primary loop salt contains the decay heat-generating fission products, which help to maintain the required temperature. For the MSBR, ORNL planned on keeping the entire reactor room (the hot cell) at high temperature. This avoided the need for individual electric heater lines on all piping and provided more even heating of the primary loop components. One "liquid oven" concept developed for molten salt-cooled, solid-fueled reactors employs a separate buffer salt pool containing the entire primary loop. Because of the high heat capacity and considerable density of the buffer salt, the buffer salt prevents fuel salt freezing and participates in the passive decay heat cooling system, provides radiation shielding and reduces deadweight stresses on primary loop components. This design could also be adopted for LFTRs. 1162:(thallium-208) that emits powerful, dangerous gamma rays. These are not a problem inside a reactor, but in a bomb, they complicate bomb manufacture, harm electronics and reveal the bomb's location. The second proliferation resistant feature comes from the fact that LFTRs produce very little plutonium, around 15 kg per gigawatt-year of electricity (this is the output of a single large reactor over a year). This plutonium is also mostly Pu-238, which makes it unsuitable for fission bomb building, due to the high heat and spontaneous neutrons emitted. The third track, a LFTR doesn't make much spare fuel. It produces at most 9% more fuel than it burns each year, and it's even easier to design a reactor that makes only 1% more fuel. With this kind of reactor, building bombs quickly will take power plants out of operation, and this is an easy indication of national intentions. And finally, use of thorium can reduce and eventually eliminate the need to enrich uranium. Uranium enrichment is one of the two primary methods by which states have obtained bomb making materials. 1429:– In order to be predictably controlled, nuclear reactors rely on delayed neutrons. They require additional slowly-evolving neutrons from fission product decay to continue the chain reaction. Because the delayed neutrons evolve slowly, this makes the reactor very controllable. In an LFTR, the presence of fission products in the heat exchanger and piping means a portion of these delayed neutrons are also lost. They do not participate in the core's critical chain reaction, which in turn means the reactor behaves less gently during changes of flow, power, etc. Approximately up to half of the delayed neutrons can be lost. In practice, it means that the heat exchanger must be compact so that the volume outside the core is as small as possible. The more compact (higher power density) the core is, the more important this issue becomes. Having more fuel outside the core in the heat exchangers also means more of the expensive fissile fuel is needed to start the reactor. This makes a fairly compact heat exchanger an important design requirement for an LFTR. 1599:, which quickly decays to lithium-6 and one fission in 12,500 produces an atom of tritium directly (in all reactor types). Practical MSRs operate under a blanket of dry inert gas, usually helium. LFTRs offer a good chance to recover the tritium, since it is not highly diluted in water as in CANDU reactors. Various methods exist to trap tritium, such as hydriding it to titanium, oxidizing it to less mobile (but still volatile) forms such as sodium fluoroborate or molten nitrate salt, or trapping it in the turbine power cycle gas and offgasing it using copper oxide pellets. ORNL developed a secondary loop coolant system that would chemically trap residual tritium so that it could be removed from the secondary coolant rather than diffusing into the turbine power cycle. ORNL calculated that this would reduce Tritium emissions to acceptable levels. 934:

point. So a temperature of about 1000 °C is sufficient to recover most of the FLiBe carrier salt. However, while possible in principle, separation of thorium fluoride from the even higher boiling point lanthanide fluorides would require very high temperatures and new materials. The chemical separation for the 2-fluid designs, using uranium as a fissile fuel can work with these two relatively simple processes: Uranium from the blanket salt can be removed by fluorine volatility, and transferred to the core salt. To remove the fissile products from the core salt, first the uranium is removed via fluorine volatility. Then the carrier salt can be recovered by high temperature distillation. The fluorides with a high boiling point, including the lanthanides stay behind as waste.

1586:, losing neutrons that are required to sustain break-even breeding. Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen, which is nearly identical, chemically, to ordinary hydrogen. In the MSR the tritium is quite mobile because, in its elemental form, it rapidly diffuses through metals at high temperature. If the lithium is isotopically enriched in lithium-7, and the isotopic separation level is high enough (99.995% lithium-7), the amount of tritium produced is only a few hundred grams per year for a 1 GWe reactor. This much smaller amount of tritium comes mostly from the lithium-7 – tritium reaction and from beryllium, which can produce tritium indirectly by first transmuting to tritium-producing lithium-6. LFTR designs that use a lithium salt, choose the 1461:– Cleanup of the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment was about $ 130 million, for a small 8 MW(th) unit. Much of the high cost was caused by the unexpected evolution of fluorine and uranium hexafluoride from cold fuel salt in storage that ORNL did not defuel and store correctly, but this has now been taken into consideration in MSR design. In addition, decommissioning costs don't scale strongly with plant size based on previous experience, and costs are incurred at the end of plant life, so a small per kilowatthour fee is sufficient. For example, a GWe reactor plant produces over 300 billion kWh of electricity over a 40-year lifetime, so a $ 0.001/kWh decommissioning fee delivers $ 300 million plus interest at the end of the plant lifetime. 1118:, is therefore only 2%, about 15 kg per GWe-year. This is a transuranic production 20x smaller than light water reactors, which produce 300 kg of transuranics per GWe-year. Importantly, because of this much smaller transuranic production, it is much easier to recycle the transuranics. That is, they are sent back to the core to eventually fission. Reactors operating on the U238-plutonium fuel cycle produce far more transuranics, making full recycle difficult on both reactor neutronics and the recycling system. In the LFTR, only a fraction of a percent, as reprocessing losses, goes to the final waste. When these two benefits of lower transuranic production, and recycling, are combined, a thorium fuel cycle reduces the 1658:– The standard Hastelloy N alloy was found to be embrittled by neutron radiation. Neutrons reacted with nickel to form helium. This helium gas concentrated at specific points inside the alloy, where it increased stresses. ORNL addressed this problem by adding 1–2% titanium or niobium to the Hastelloy N. This changed the alloy's internal structure so that the helium would be finely distributed. This relieved the stress and allowed the alloy to withstand considerable neutron flux. However the maximum temperature is limited to about 650 °C. Development of other alloys may be required. The outer vessel wall that contains the salt can have neutronic shielding, such as boron carbide, to effectively protect it from neutron damage. 1670:– Developing a large helium or supercritical carbon dioxide turbine is needed for highest efficiency. These gas cycles offer numerous potential advantages for use with molten salt-fueled or molten salt-cooled reactors. These closed gas cycles face design challenges and engineering upscaling work for a commercial turbine-generator set. A standard supercritical steam turbine could be used at a small penalty in efficiency (the net efficiency of the MSBR was designed to be approximately 44%, using an old 1970s steam turbine). A molten salt to steam generator would still have to be developed. Currently, molten nitrate salt steam generators are used in concentrated solar thermal power plants such as 1137:. The longer half-life is cesium: 30.17 years. So, after 30.17 years, decay reduces the radioactivity by a half. Ten half-lives will reduce the radioactivity by two raised to a power of ten, a factor of 1,024. Fission products at that point, in about 300 years, are less radioactive than natural uranium. What's more, the liquid state of the fuel material allows separation of the fission products not only from the fuel, but from each other as well, which enables them to be sorted by the length of each fission product's half-life, so that the ones with shorter half-lives can be brought out of storage sooner than those with longer half-lives. 1540:, which produces high levels of spontaneous neutrons and decay heat that make it impossible to construct a fission bomb with this isotope alone, and extremely difficult to construct one containing even very small percentages of it. The heat production rate of 567 W/kg means that a bomb core of this material would continuously produce several kilowatts of heat. The only cooling route is by conduction through the surrounding high explosive layers, which are poor conductors. This creates unmanageably high temperatures that would destroy the assembly. The spontaneous fission rate of 1204 kBq/g is over twice that of 1525:). Such trifluorides have a limited solubility in the FLiBe carrier salt. This complicates startup, especially for a compact design that uses a smaller primary salt inventory. Of course, leaving plutonium carrying wastes out of the startup process is an even better solution, making this a non-issue. Solubility can be increased by operating with less or no beryllium fluoride (which has no solubility for trifluorides) or by operating at a higher temperature(as with most other liquids, solubility rises with temperature). A thermal spectrum, lower power density core does not have issues with plutonium solubility. 1664:– Today's solid-fueled reactor vendors make long term revenues by fuel fabrication. Without any fuel to fabricate and sell, an LFTR would adopt a different business model. There would be significant barrier to entry costs to make this a viable business. Existing infrastructure and parts suppliers are geared towards water-cooled reactors. There is little thorium market and thorium mining, so considerable infrastructure that would be required does not yet exist. Regulatory agencies have less experience regulating thorium reactors, creating potentials for extended delays. 354:

using slowed down neutrons, gives back less than 2 new neutrons from fissioning the bred plutonium. Since 1 neutron is required to sustain the fission reaction, this leaves a budget of less than 1 neutron per fission to breed new fuel. In addition, the materials in the core such as metals, moderators and fission products absorb some neutrons, leaving too few neutrons to breed enough fuel to continue operating the reactor. As a consequence they must add new fissile fuel periodically and swap out some of the old fuel to make room for the new fuel.

1355:– While the plans usually call for break-even breeding, it is questionable if this is possible when other requirements are to be met. The thorium fuel cycle has very few spare neutrons. Due to limited chemical reprocessing (for economic reasons) and compromises needed to achieve safety requirements like a negative void coefficient too many neutrons may be lost. Old proposed single fluid designs promising breeding performance tend to have an unsafe positive void coefficient and often assume excessive fuel cleaning to be economic viable. 966:-reaction some metals can be transferred to the bismuth melt in exchange for lithium added to the bismuth melt. At low lithium concentrations U, Pu and Pa move to the bismuth melt. At more reducing conditions (more lithium in the bismuth melt) the lanthanides and thorium transfer to the bismuth melt too. The fission products are then removed from the bismuth alloy in a separate step, e.g. by contact to a LiCl melt. However this method is far less developed. A similar method may also be possible with other liquid metals like aluminum. 536:

complicates the fuel processing. And yet, like the 2 fluid reactor, it can use a highly effective separate blanket to absorb neutrons that leak from the core. The added disadvantage of keeping the fluids separate using a barrier remains, but with thorium present in the fuel salt there are fewer neutrons that must pass through this barrier into the blanket fluid. This results in less damage to the barrier. Any leak in the barrier would also be of lower consequence, as the processing system must already deal with thorium in the core.

946:, so it could decay to uranium-233 without being destroyed by neutron capture in the reactor. With a half-life of 27 days, 2 months of storage would assure that 75% of the Pa decays to U fuel. The protactinium removal step is not required per se for a LFTR. Alternate solutions are operating at a lower power density and thus a larger fissile inventory (for 1 or 1.5 fluid) or a larger blanket (for 2 fluid). Also a harder neutron spectrum helps to achieve acceptable breeding without protactinium isolation. 1569:– In designs utilizing a fluorinator, Np-237 appears with uranium as gaseous hexafluoride and can be easily separated using solid fluoride pellet absorption beds. No one has produced such a bomb, but Np-237's considerable fast fission cross section and low critical mass imply the possibility. When the Np-237 is kept in the reactor, it transmutes to short lived Pu-238. All reactors produce considerable neptunium, which is always present in high (mono)isotopic quality, and is easily extracted chemically. 693:

cooled in an ambient cooler. The low-pressure cold gas is compressed to the high-pressure of the system. The high-pressure working gas is expanded in a turbine to produce power. Often the turbine and the compressor are mechanically connected through a single shaft. High pressure Brayton cycles are expected to have a smaller generator footprint compared to lower pressure Rankine cycles. A Brayton cycle heat engine can operate at lower pressure with wider diameter piping. The world's first commercial

1483:– When graphite heats up, it increases U-233 fission, causing an undesirable positive feedback. The LFTR design must avoid certain combinations of graphite and salt and certain core geometries. If this problem is addressed by employing adequate graphite and thus a well-thermalized spectrum, it is difficult to reach break-even breeding. The alternative of using little or no graphite results in a faster neutron spectrum. This requires a large fissile inventory and radiation damage increases. 1801:. The Copenhagen Atomics Waste Burner is a single-fluid, heavy water moderated, fluoride-based, thermal spectrum and autonomously controlled molten-salt reactor. This is designed to fit inside of a leak-tight, 40-foot, stainless steel shipping container. The heavy water moderator is thermally insulated from the salt and continuously drained and cooled to below 50 °C (122 °F). A molten lithium-7 deuteroxide (7LiOD) moderator version is also being researched. The reactor utilizes the 1259:. Because LFTRs are thermal spectrum reactors, they need much less fissile fuel to get started. Only 1–2 tons of fissile are required to start up a single fluid LFTR, and potentially as low as 0.4 ton for a two fluid design. In comparison, solid fueled fast breeder reactors need at least 8 tons of fissile fuel to start the reactor. While fast reactors can theoretically start up very well on the transuranic waste, their high fissile fuel startup makes this very expensive. 1315:

a thousandfold bigger in volume than the reactor vessel. The LFTR containment can not only be smaller in physical size, its containment is also inherently low pressure. There are no sources of stored energy that could cause a rapid pressure rise (such as Hydrogen or steam) in the containment. This gives the LFTR a substantial theoretical advantage not only in terms of inherent safety, but also in terms of smaller size, lower materials use, and lower construction cost.

787:, high temperature methods working directly with the hot molten salt. Pyroprocessing does not use radiation sensitive solvents and is not easily disturbed by decay heat. It can be used on highly radioactive fuel directly from the reactor. Having the chemical separation on site, close to the reactor avoids transport and keeps the total inventory of the fuel cycle low. Ideally everything except new fuel (thorium) and waste (fission products) stays inside the plant. 6663: 6653: 6633: 1728:(CAS) annual conference in January 2011. Its ultimate target is to investigate and develop a thorium based molten salt nuclear system in about 20 years. An expected intermediate outcome of the TMSR research program is to build a 2 MW pebble bed fluoride salt cooled research reactor in 2015, and a 2 MW molten salt fueled research reactor in 2017. This would be followed by a 10 MW demonstrator reactor and a 100 MW pilot reactors. The project is spearheaded by 1349:– A 2014 study from the University of Chicago concluded that since this design hasn't yet reached the commercial phase, full economic advantages won't be realized without the advantages of large scale production: "Although substation cost-savings are associated with the building of a LFTR in comparison to a traditional uranium plant, the difference in cost, given the current industry environment , remains insufficient to justify the creation of a new LFTR". 672: 1187:). It is a byproduct of rare-earth mining, normally discarded as waste. Using LFTRs, there is enough affordable thorium to satisfy the global energy needs for hundreds of thousands of years. Thorium is more common in the earth's crust than tin, mercury, or silver. A cubic meter of average crust yields the equivalent of about four sugar cubes of thorium, enough to supply the energy needs of one person for more than ten years if completely fissioned. 1548:" rather than an explosion. Reprocessing itself involves automated handling in a fully closed and contained hot cell, which complicates diversion. Compared to today's extraction methods such as PUREX, the pyroprocesses are inaccessible and produce impure fissile materials, often with large amounts of fission product contamination. While not a problem for an automated system, it poses severe difficulties for would-be proliferators. 1395:. This is routinely done in industry. Based on this industrial experience, the added cost of beryllium safety is expected to cost only $ 0.12/MWh. After start up, the fission process in the primary fuel salt produces highly radioactive fission products with a high gamma and neutron radiation field. Effective containment is therefore a primary requirement. It is possible to operate instead using lithium fluoride-thorium fluoride 663:. The subcritical Rankine steam cycle is currently used in commercial power plants, with the newest plants utilizing the higher temperature, higher pressure, supercritical Rankine steam cycles. The work of ORNL from the 1960s and 1970s on the MSBR assumed the use of a standard supercritical steam turbine with an efficiency of 44%, and had done considerable design work on developing molten fluoride salt – steam generators. 642: 1006:. Molten fluorides are chemically stable and impervious to radiation. The salts do not burn, explode, or decompose, even under high temperature and radiation. There are no rapid violent reactions with water and air that sodium coolant has. There is no combustible hydrogen production that water coolants have. However the salt is not stable to radiation at low (less than 100 C) temperatures due to 6643: 1732:, with a start-up budget of $ 350 million, and has already recruited 140 PhD scientists, working full-time on thorium molten salt reactor research at the Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics. An expansion of staffing has increased to 700 as of 2015. As of 2016, their plan is for a 10MW pilot LFTR is expected to be made operational in 2025, with a 100MW version set to follow in 2035. 1114:, which transmutes thorium to U-233. Because thorium is a lighter element, more neutron captures are required to produce the transuranic elements. U-233 has two chances to fission in a LFTR. First as U-233 (90% will fission) and then the remaining 10% has another chance as it transmutes to U-235 (80% will fission). The fraction of fuel reaching neptunium-237, the most likely 1308:, a competing high temperature reactor coolant, the difference is even bigger. The fuel salt has over 200 times higher volumetric heat capacity as hot pressurized helium and over 3 times the thermal conductivity. A molten salt loop will use piping of 1/5 the diameter, and pumps 1/20 the power, of those required for high-pressure helium, while staying at atmospheric pressure 137: 1038:. The liquid fuel allows for online removal of gaseous fission products, such as xenon, for processing, thus these decay products would not be spread in a disaster. Further, fission products are chemically bonded to the fluoride-salt, including iodine, cesium, and strontium, capturing the radiation and preventing the spread of radioactive material to the environment. 515:, compatibility with the molten salts, high temperature resistance, and sufficient strength and integrity to separate the fuel and blanket salts. The effect of neutron radiation on graphite is to slowly shrink and then swell it, causing an increase in porosity and a deterioration in physical properties. Graphite pipes would change length, and may crack and leak. 165: 411:

the reactor core would make the outer region under-moderated, and increased the capture of neutrons there by the thorium. With this arrangement, most of the neutrons were generated at some distance from the reactor boundary, and reduced the neutron leakage to an acceptable level. Still, a single fluid design needs a considerable size to permit breeding.

1172: 711: 1361:– Despite the ARE and MSRE experimental reactors already built in the 1960s, there is still a lot of development needed for the LFTR. This includes most of the chemical separation, (passive) emergency cooling, the tritium barrier, remote operated maintenance, large scale Li-7 production, the high temperature power cycle and more durable materials. 1554:– Compact designs can breed only using rapid separation of protactinium, a proliferation risk, since this potentially gives access to high purity 233-U. This is difficult as the 233-U from these reactors will be contaminated with 232-U, a high gamma radiation emitter, requiring a protective hot enrichment facility as a possible path to 507:. The thorium blanket can effectively capture leaked neutrons from the core region. There is nearly zero fission occurring in the blanket, so the blanket itself does not leak significant numbers of neutrons. This results in a high efficiency of neutron use (neutron economy), and a higher breeding ratio, especially with small reactors. 149: 403: 39: 1590:

isotope. In the MSRE, lithium-6 was successfully removed from the fuel salt via isotopic enrichment. Since lithium-7 is at least 16% heavier than lithium-6, and is the most common isotope, lithium-6 is comparatively easy and inexpensive to extract. Vacuum distillation of lithium achieves efficiencies

1314:

By using liquid salt as the coolant instead of pressurized water, a containment structure only slightly bigger than the reactor vessel can be used. Light water reactors use pressurized water, which flashes to steam and expands a thousandfold in the case of a leak, necessitating a containment building

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Since the core is not pressurized, it does not need the most expensive item in a light water reactor, a high-pressure reactor vessel for the core. Instead, there is a low-pressure vessel and pipes (for molten salt) constructed of relatively thin materials. Although the metal is an exotic nickel alloy

1020:

cannot blow up. LFTR coolant salts are chosen to have very high boiling points. Even a several hundred degree heatup during a transient or accident does not cause a meaningful pressure increase. There is no water or hydrogen in the reactor that can cause a large pressure rise or explosion as happened

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One potential advantage of a liquid fuel is that it not only facilitates separating fission-products from the fuel, but also isolating individual fission products from one another, which is lucrative for isotopes that are scarce and in high-demand for various industrial (radiation sources for testing

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However, more recent research has questioned the need for ORNL's complex interleaving graphite tubing, suggesting a simple elongated tube-in-shell reactor that would allow high power output without complex tubing, accommodate thermal expansion, and permit tube replacement. Additionally, graphite can

127:

LFTRs differ from other power reactors in almost every aspect: they use thorium that is turned into uranium, instead of using uranium directly; they are refueled by pumping without shutdown. Their liquid salt coolant allows higher operating temperature and much lower pressure in the primary cooling

2525:

The most common isotope formed in a typical nuclear reactor is the fissile Pu-239 isotope, formed by neutron capture from U-238 (followed by beta decay), and which yields much the same energy as the fission of U-235. Well over half of the plutonium created in the reactor core is consumed in situ and

1328:

The extraction process of thorium from the earth's crust is a much safer and efficient mining method than that of uranium. Thorium's ore, monazite, generally contains higher concentrations of thorium than the percentage of uranium found in its respective ore. This makes thorium a more cost efficient

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as a fully recycling system, the discharge wastes from a LFTR are predominantly fission products, most of which (83%) have relatively short half-lives in hours or days compared to longer-lived actinide wastes of conventional nuclear power plants. This results in a significant reduction in the needed

1212:

Conventional reactors consume less than one percent of the mined uranium, leaving the rest as waste. With perfectly working reprocessing LFTR may consume up to about 99% of its thorium fuel. The improved fuel efficiency means that 1 ton of natural thorium in a LFTR produces as much energy as 35 t of

1128:

If the thorium stage ever has to be shut down, part of the reactors can be shut down and their uranium fuel inventory burned out in the remaining reactors, allowing a burndown of even this final waste to as small a level as society demands. The LFTR does still produce radioactive fission products in

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of the fuel. If the fuel overheats, it expands considerably, which, due to the liquid nature of the fuel, will push fuel out of the active core region. In a small (e.g. the MSRE test reactor) or well moderated core this reduces the reactivity. However, in a large, under-moderated core (e.g. the ORNL

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and makes reactor control more difficult if unremoved; this also improves neutron economy. The gas (mainly He, Xe and Kr) is held for about 2 days until almost all Xe-135 and other short lived isotopes have decayed. Most of the gas can then be recycled. After an additional hold up of several months,

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was a core region only prototype reactor. The MSRE provided valuable long-term operating experience. According to estimates of Japanese scientists, a single fluid LFTR program could be achieved through a relatively modest investment of roughly 300–400 million dollars over 5–10 years to fund research

410:

The one-fluid design includes a large reactor vessel filled with fluoride salt containing thorium and uranium. Graphite rods immersed in the salt function as a moderator and to guide the flow of salt. In the ORNL MSBR (molten salt breeder reactor) design a reduced amount of graphite near the edge of

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There are two ways to configure a breeder reactor to do the required breeding. One can place the fertile and fissile fuel together, so breeding and splitting occurs in the same place. Alternatively, fissile and fertile can be separated. The latter is known as core-and-blanket, because a fissile core

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risk. LFTRs could be used to handle plutonium from other reactors as well. However, as stated above, plutonium is chemically difficult to separate from thorium and plutonium cannot be used in bombs if diluted in large amounts of thorium. In addition, the plutonium produced by the thorium fuel cycle

1435:– About 83% of the radioactive waste has a half-life in hours or days, with the remaining 17% requiring 300-year storage in geologically stable confinement to reach background levels. If the fluoride fuel salts are stored in solid form over many decades, radiation can cause the release of corrosive 887:

reprocessing, pyroprocessing can be more compact and produce less secondary waste. The pyroprocesses of the LFTR salt already starts with a suitable liquid form, so it may be less expensive than using solid oxide fuels. However, because no complete molten salt reprocessing plant has been built, all

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generator has a much smaller footprint than the Rankine cycle, lower cost and higher thermal efficiency, but requires higher operating temperatures. It is therefore particularly suitable for use with a LFTR. The working gas can be helium, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide. The low-pressure warm gas is

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Another weakness of the two-fluid design is its complex plumbing. ORNL thought a complex interleaving of core and blanket tubes was necessary to achieve a high power level with acceptably low power density. ORNL chose not to pursue the two-fluid design, and no examples of the two-fluid reactor were

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All reactors breed some fuel this way, but today's solid fueled thermal reactors don't breed enough new fuel from the fertile to make up for the amount of fissile they consume. This is because today's reactors use the mined uranium-plutonium cycle in a moderated neutron spectrum. Such a fuel cycle,

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material. Because of this, commercial power reactors may have to be designed without separation. In practice, this means either not breeding, or operating at a lower power density. A two-fluid design might operate with a bigger blanket and keep the high power density core (which has no thorium and

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metallic particles. They can plate out on metal surfaces like the heat exchanger, or preferably on high surface area filters which are easier to replace. Still, there is some uncertainty where they end up, as the MSRE only provided a relatively short operating experience and independent laboratory

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On site processing is planned to work continuously, cleaning a small fraction of the salt every day and sending it back to the reactor. There is no need to make the fuel salt very clean; the purpose is to keep the concentration of fission products and other impurities (e.g. oxygen) low enough. The

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only (fluoride high-temperature reactors) and still have a solid fuel. Molten salt reactors, as a class, include both burners and breeders in fast or thermal spectra, using fluoride or chloride salt-based fuels and a range of fissile or fertile consumables. LFTRs are defined by the use of fluoride

933:

Another simple method, tested during the MSRE program, is high temperature vacuum distillation. The lower boiling point fluorides like uranium tetrafluoride and the LiF and BeF carrier salt can be removed by distillation. Under vacuum the temperature can be lower than the ambient pressure boiling

926:(e.g. iodine, molybdenum and tellurium). The volatile fluorides can be further separated by adsorption and distillation. Handling uranium hexafluoride is well established in enrichment. The higher valence fluorides are quite corrosive at high temperatures and require more resistant materials than 1651:

to less than 60 reduced corrosion by keeping the fuel salt slightly reducing. The MSRE continually contacted the flowing fuel salt with a beryllium metal rod submerged in a cage inside the pump bowl. This caused a fluorine shortage in the salt, reducing tellurium to a less aggressive (elemental)

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Since 100% of natural thorium can be used as a fuel, and the fuel is in the form of a molten salt instead of solid fuel rods, expensive fuel enrichment and solid fuel rods' validation procedures and fabricating processes are not needed. This greatly decreases LFTR fuel costs. Even if the LFTR is

1223:

LFTRs operating with modern supercritical steam turbines would operate at 45% thermal to electrical efficiency. With future closed gas Brayton cycles, which could be used in a LFTR power plant due to its high temperature operation, the efficiency could be up to 54%. This is 20 to 40% higher than

1016:. Because the coolant salts remain liquid at high temperatures, LFTR cores are designed to operate at low pressures, like 0.6 MPa (comparable to the pressure in the drinking water system) from the pump and hydrostatic pressure. Even if the core fails, there is little increase in volume. Thus the 767:

Removal of fission products is similar to reprocessing of solid fuel elements; by chemical or physical means, the valuable fissile fuel is separated from the waste fission products. Ideally the fertile fuel (thorium or U-238) and other fuel components (e.g. carrier salt or fuel cladding in solid

535:

A two fluid reactor that has thorium in the fuel salt is sometimes called a "one and a half fluid" reactor, or 1.5 fluid reactor. This is a hybrid, with some of the advantages and disadvantages of both 1 fluid and 2 fluid reactors. Like the 1 fluid reactor, it has thorium in the fuel salt, which

307:

from 1965 to 1969. Both test reactors used liquid fluoride fuel salts. The MSRE notably demonstrated fueling with U-233 and U-235 during separate test runs. Weinberg was removed from his post and the MSR program closed down in the early 1970s, after which research stagnated in the United States.

1856:

is a proposed floating molten salt reactor, by the US-based Thorcon company. The two-reactor unit is designed to be manufactured on an assembly line in a shipyard, and to be delivered via barge to any ocean or major waterway shoreline. The reactors are to be delivered as a sealed unit and never

1715:

10 MWe reactor of the same design once it had secured an additional $ 300 million in funding, but IThEMS closed in 2011 after it was unable to secure adequate funding. A new company, Thorium Tech Solution (TTS), was founded in 2011 by Kazuo Furukawa, the chief scientist from IThEMS, and Masaaki

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passively cooled storage facility. This not only stops the reactor, also the storage tank can more easily shed the decay heat from the short-lived radioactive decay of irradiated nuclear fuels. Even in the event of a major leak from the core such as a pipe breaking, the salt will spill onto the

949:

If Pa separation is specified, this must be done quite often (for example, every 10 days) to be effective. For a 1 GW, 1-fluid plant this means about 10% of the fuel or about 15 t of fuel salt need to go through reprocessing every day. This is only feasible if the costs are much lower than

459:

U-233 can be recovered by injecting additional fluorine to create uranium hexafluoride, a gas which can be captured as it comes out of solution. Once reduced again to uranium tetrafluoride, a solid, it can be mixed into the core salt medium to fission. The core's salt is also purified, first by

1161:

The LFTR resists diversion of its fuel to nuclear weapons in four ways: first, the thorium-232 breeds by converting first to protactinium-233, which then decays to uranium-233. If the protactinium remains in the reactor, small amounts of U-232 are also produced. U-232 has a decay chain product

500:

is more compact. There is no fissile material in the outer blanket that contains the fertile fuel for breeding, other than that which has been bred there. Because of this, the 1968 ORNL design required just 315 kilograms of fissile materials to start up a 250 MW(e) two fluid MSBR reactor. This

1763:

and particularly liquid fluoride thorium reactors. He first researched thorium reactors while working at NASA, while evaluating power plant designs suitable for lunar colonies. Material about this fuel cycle was surprisingly hard to find, so in 2006 Sorensen started "energyfromthorium.com", a

1704:, using technology similar to the Oak Ridge National Laboratory Reactor Experiment. It was being developed by a consortium including members from Japan, the United States, and Russia. As a breeder reactor, it converts thorium into nuclear fuels. An industry group presented updated plans about 1199:

border is estimated to contain 1,800,000 tons of high-grade thorium ore. Five hundred tons could supply all U.S. energy needs for one year. Due to lack of current demand, the U.S. government has returned about 3,200 metric tons of refined thorium nitrate to the crust, burying it in the Nevada

994:

against excursions of reactivity. The temperature dependence comes from 3 sources. The first is that thorium absorbs more neutrons if it overheats, the so-called Doppler effect. This leaves fewer neutrons to continue the chain reaction, reducing power. The second part is heating the graphite

1097:

of their reactor wastes. Light water reactors with uranium fuel have fuel that is more than 95% U-238. These reactors normally transmute part of the U-238 to Pu-239, a long-lived isotope. Almost all of the fuel is therefore only one step away from becoming a transuranic long-lived element.

1805:

using separated plutonium from spent nuclear fuel as the initial fissile load for the first generation of reactors, eventually transitioning to a thorium breeder. Copenhagen Atomics is actively developing and testing valves, pumps, heat exchangers, measurement systems, salt chemistry and

957:

Separation is more difficult if the fission products are mixed with thorium, because thorium, plutonium and the lanthanides (rare earth elements) are chemically similar. One process suggested for both separation of protactinium and the removal of the lanthanides is the contact with molten

1076:) allow the fuel/coolant mixture to escape to a drain tank, when the reactor is not running (see "Fail safe core" below). This tank is planned to have some kind (details are still open) of passive decay heat removal, thus relying on physical properties (rather than controls) to operate. 953:

Newer designs usually avoid the Pa removal and send less salt to reprocessing, which reduces the required size and costs for the chemical separation. It also avoids proliferation concerns due to high purity U-233 that might be available from the decay of the chemical separated Pa.

930:. One suggestion in the MSBR program at ORNL was using solidified salt as a protective layer. At the MSRE reactor fluorine volatility was used to remove uranium from the fuel salt. Also for use with solid fuel elements fluorine volatility is quite well developed and tested. 414:

In a breeder configuration, extensive fuel processing was specified to remove fission products from the fuel salt. In a converter configuration fuel processing requirement was simplified to reduce plant cost. The trade-off was the requirement of periodic uranium refueling.

357:

In a reactor that breeds at least as much new fuel as it consumes, it is not necessary to add new fissile fuel. Only new fertile fuel is added, which breeds to fissile inside the reactor. In addition the fission products need to be removed. This type of reactor is called a

123:

in the 1960s, though the MSRE did not use thorium. The LFTR has recently been the subject of a renewed interest worldwide. Japan, China, the UK and private US, Czech, Canadian and Australian companies have expressed the intent to develop, and commercialize the technology.

1777:

designs to power military bases; Sorensen noted that it is easier to promote novel military designs than civilian power station designs in the context of the modern US nuclear regulatory and political environment. An independent technology assessment coordinated with

1237:

The salts are fairly inexpensive compared to solid fuel production. For example, while beryllium is quite expensive per kg, the amount of beryllium required for a large 1 GWe reactor is quite small. ORNL's MSBR required 5.1 tons of beryllium metal, as 26 tons of

1772:

nomenclature to describe a subset of molten salt reactor designs based on liquid fluoride-salt fuels with breeding of thorium into uranium-233 in the thermal spectrum. In 2011, Sorensen founded Flibe Energy, a company that initially intends to develop 20–50 MW LFTR

1253:

waste containment period in a geologic repository. The remaining 17% of waste products require only 300 years until reaching background levels. The radiotoxicity of the thorium fuel cycle waste is about 10,000 times less than that of one through uranium fuel.

334:, releasing a large amount of energy and also releasing two or three new neutrons. These can split more fissile material, resulting in a continued chain reaction. Examples of fissile fuels are U-233, U-235 and Pu-239. The second type of fuel is called 1321:

There are suggestions that it might be possible to extract some of the fission products so that they have separate commercial value. However, compared to the produced energy, the value of the fission products is low, and chemical purification is

5425: 1329:

and less environmentally damaging fuel source. Thorium mining is also easier and less dangerous than uranium mining, as the mine is an open pit, which doesn't require ventilation such as the underground uranium mines, where radon levels are

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radioactivity is low enough to separate the gas at low temperatures into helium (for reuse), xenon (for sale) and krypton, which needs storage (e.g. in compressed form) for an extended time (several decades) to wait for the decay of

1836:

was a British charity founded in 2011, dedicated to raising awareness about the potential of thorium energy and LFTR. It was formally launched at the House of Lords on 8 September 2011. It is named after American nuclear physicist

362:. If it breeds just as much new fissile from fertile to keep operating indefinitely, it is called a break-even breeder or isobreeder. A LFTR is usually designed as a breeder reactor: thorium goes in, fissile products come out. 764:. This is especially important in the thorium fuel cycle with few spare neutrons and a thermal neutron spectrum, where absorption is strong. The minimum requirement is to recover the valuable fissile material from used fuel. 1082:. LFTRs can include a freeze plug at the bottom that has to be actively cooled, usually by a small electric fan. If the cooling fails, say because of a power failure, the fan stops, the plug melts, and the fuel drains to a 393:

Oak Ridge investigated both ways to make a breeder for their molten salt breeder reactor. Because the fuel is liquid, they are called the "single fluid" and "two fluid" thorium thermal breeder molten salt reactors.

1391:, which is toxic to humans (although nowhere near as toxic as the fission products and other radioactives). The salt in the primary cooling loops must be isolated from workers and the environment to prevent 1224:

today's light water reactors (33%), resulting in the same 20 to 40% reduction in fissile and fertile fuel consumption, fission products produced, waste heat rejection for cooling, and reactor thermal power.

5019: 5429: 511:

One weakness of the two-fluid design is the necessity of periodically replacing the core-blanket barrier due to fast neutron damage. ORNL chose graphite for its barrier material because of its low

1411:

in the reprocessing systems), increased solubility for plutonium-trifluoride, reduced tritium production (beryllium produces lithium-6, which in turn produces tritium) and improved heat transfer (

1052:, makes solid fueled reactors difficult to control. In a molten fueled reactor, xenon-135 can be removed. In solid-fuel reactors, xenon-135 remains in the fuel and interferes with reactor control. 888:

testing has been limited to the laboratory, and with only a few elements. There is still more research and development needed to improve separation and make reprocessing more economically viable.

5477: 659:, a turbine, a condenser, and a pump. The working fluid is usually water. A Rankine power conversion system coupled to a LFTR could take advantage of increased steam temperature to improve its 5766:

Google TechTalk by Kirk Sorensen examining the history of thorium molten salt reactor development at Oak Ridge, political climate and reasons responsible for the cancellation of the program

5123: 539:

The main design question when deciding between a one and a half or two fluid LFTR is whether a more complicated reprocessing or a more demanding structural barrier will be easier to solve.

1399:

without beryllium, as the French LFTR design, the "TMSR", has chosen. This comes at the cost of a somewhat higher melting point, but has the additional advantages of simplicity (avoiding

1821:

Thorium Energy Generation Pty. Limited (TEG) was an Australian research and development company dedicated to the worldwide commercial development of LFTR reactors, as well as thorium

1575:– Lithium-6 is a strong neutron poison; using LiF with natural lithium, with its 7.5% lithium-6 content, prevents reactors from starting. The high neutron density in the core rapidly 6666: 1544:. Even very small percentages of this isotope would reduce bomb yield drastically by "predetonation" due to neutrons from spontaneous fission starting the chain reaction causing a " 1443:. The salts must be defueled and wastes removed before extended shutdowns and stored above 100 degrees Celsius. Fluorides are less suitable for long-term storage because some (e.g. 3207: 1674:

in Spain. Such a generator could be used for an MSR as a third circulating loop, where it would also trap any tritium that diffuses through the primary and secondary heat exchanger

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concentrations of some of the rare earth elements must be especially kept low, as they have a large absorption cross section. Some other elements with a small cross section like

1652:

form. This method is also effective in reducing corrosion in general, because the fission process produces more fluorine atoms that would otherwise attack the structural metals.

1423:

increases the viscosity of the salt mixture). Alternative solvents such as the fluorides of sodium, rubidium and zirconium allow lower melting points at a tradeoff in breeding.

3812: 490:. With thorium in a separate blanket, thorium is kept isolated from the lanthanides. Without thorium in the core fluid, removal of lanthanide fission products is simplified. 369:

to sustain breeding, because only with fast moving neutrons does the fission process provide more than 2 neutrons per fission. With thorium, it is possible to breed using a

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LFTRs have liquid fuels, and therefore there is no need to shut down and take apart the reactor just to refuel it. LFTRs can thus refuel without causing a power outage (

1155:, claimed a primary reason for the United States cutting thorium reactor research in the 1970s is what makes it so attractive today: thorium is difficult to turn into a 6461: 1735:

At the end of August 2021, the Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics (SINAP) completed the construction of a 2MW (thermal) experimental thorium molten salt reactor in

729: 3239: 613:

in converting heat to electricity of 45%. This is higher than today's light water reactors (LWRs) that are at 32–36% thermal to electrical efficiency. In addition to

5310: 4257: 3914: 269:

For technical and historical reasons, the three are each associated with different reactor types. U-235 is the world's primary nuclear fuel and is usually used in

431:

The two-fluid design is mechanically more complicated than the "single fluid" reactor design. The "two fluid" reactor has a high-neutron-density core that burns

1304:

around twice that of the hot pressurized water in a pressurized water reactor. This results in efficient heat transfer and a compact primary loop. Compared to

1058:. Coolant and fuel are inseparable, so any leak or movement of fuel will be intrinsically accompanied by a large amount of coolant. Molten fluorides have high 3479: 2063: 3135:"Engineering Tests of the Metal Transfer Process for Extraction of Rare-Earth Fission Products from a Molten-Salt Breeder Reactor Fuel Salt; 1976, ORNL-5176" 1724:

The People's Republic of China has initiated a research and development project in thorium molten-salt reactor technology. It was formally announced at the

1183:

A LFTR breeds thorium into uranium-233 fuel. The Earth's crust contains about three to four times as much thorium as U-238 (thorium is about as abundant as

5732: 4416: 2233:

The KamLAND Collaboration; Gando, Y.; Ichimura, K.; Ikeda, H.; Inoue, K.; Kibe, Y.; Kishimoto, Y.; Koga, M.; Minekawa, Y.; et al. (17 July 2011).

455:

can be left in the blanket region where neutron flux is lower, so that it slowly decays to U-233 fissile fuel, rather than capture neutrons. This bred

5856: 1471:, deposit on pipes. Novel equipment, such as nickel-wool sponge cartridges, must be developed to filter and trap the noble metals to prevent build up. 1275:

As the LFTR does not have xenon poisoning, there is no problem reducing the power in times of low demand for electricity and turn back on at any time.

231: 141: 5637: 4405:. Symposium II Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management XX. Vol. 465. Boston, Massachusetts: Materials Research Society. pp. 131–137. 3719: 2298: 5127: 2683:

Furukawa; K. A.; et al. (2008). "A road map for the realization of global-scale Thorium breeding fuel cycle by single molten-fluoride flow".

1915: 1126:. The only significant long-lived waste is the uranium fuel itself, but this can be used indefinitely by recycling, always generating electricity. 5503: 4055: 1809:

In July of 2024, Copenhagen Atomics announced that their reactor is ready to be tested in a real life scenario with a critical experiment at the

3367:

Mathieu, L.; Heuer, D.; Brissot, R.; Garzenne, C.; Le Brun, C.; Lecarpentier, D.; Liatard, E.; Loiseaux, J.-M.; Méplan, O.; et al. (2006).

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The early Oak Ridge's chemistry designs were not concerned with proliferation and aimed for fast breeding. They planned to separate and store

760:

The LFTR needs a mechanism to remove the fission products from the fuel. Fission products left in the reactor absorb neutrons and thus reduce

5564: 5548: 5516: 4879: 4353: 2442: 1895: 4110: 3422: 2922: 6687: 6102: 4345:

Evaluation of the U.S. Department of Energy's alternatives for the removal and disposition of molten salt reactor experiment fluoride salts

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reduces the cost of the initial fissile startup charge, and allows more reactors to be started up on any given amount of fissile material.

4225: 4012:

Bonometti, J. "LFTR Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor-What fusion wanted to be!" Presentation available in www.energyfromthorium.com (2011)

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started up on enriched uranium, it only needs this enrichment once just to get started. After startup, no further enrichment is required.

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Thorium-fueled molten salt reactors offer many potential advantages compared to conventional solid uranium fueled light water reactors:

5288: 2880: 6301: 5693: 5680: 5667: 5650: 5631: 5614: 5311:"Program on Technology Innovation: Technology Assessment of a Molten Salt Reactor Design – The Liquid-Fluoride Thorium Reactor (LFTR)" 4854:"Potential of Thorium Molten Salt Reactors: Detailed Calculations and Concept Evolutions in View of a Large Nuclear Energy Production" 4165: 2478: 1022: 338:. Examples of fertile fuel are Th-232 (mined thorium) and U-238 (mined uranium). In order to become fissile these nuclides must first 4500: 3755: 3646: 3272:"6th Int'l Summer Student School on Nuclear Physics Methods and Accelerators in Biology and Medicine (July 2011, JINR Dubna, Russia)" 381:. Thermal reactors require less of the expensive fissile fuel to start, but are more sensitive to fission products left in the core. 5783: 3983:"Estimated Cost of Adding a Third Salt-Circulating System for Controlling Tritium Migration in the 1000-Mw(e) MSBR [Disc 5]" 2750: 2369: 1300:

that is around 22% higher than water, FLiBe has around 12% higher heat capacity than water. In addition, the LiF based salts have a

747: 374: 3816: 3087:"Low-Pressure Distillation of Molten Fluoride Mixtures: Nonradioactive Tests for the MSRE Distillation Experiment;1971, ORNL-4434" 2418: 1000:

MSBR design), less fuel salt means better moderation and thus more reactivity and an undesirable positive temperature coefficient.

6636: 6611: 6476: 5381: 5055: 5001: 4022: 2181: 1342:

LFTRs are quite unlike today's operating commercial power reactors. These differences create design difficulties and trade-offs:

1206:. Sufficient other natural resources such as beryllium, lithium, nickel and molybdenum are available to build thousands of LFTRs. 3685: 1175:

Comparison of annual fuel requirements and waste products of a 1 GW uranium-fueled LWR and 1 GW thorium-fueled LFTR power plant.

6554: 6226: 5990: 5868: 5193: 3889: 3246: 656: 4206: 1371:. At the end of the reactor fuel life, the spent fuel salt can be reprocessed to recover the bred U-233 to start up new LFTRs. 6544: 6393: 5851: 1073: 419: 304: 120: 3020: 2954: 1489:– Fluorides of plutonium, americium and curium occur as trifluorides, which means they have three fluorine atoms attached ( 6318: 6151: 2812: 2754: 2554: 2504: 2333: 1833: 1106:

in spent nuclear fuel from light water reactors. Transuranics like Pu-239 cause the perception that reactor wastes are an

1087:

kitchen-sink-shaped room the reactor is in, which will drain the fuel salt by gravity into the passively cooled dump tank.

296: 117: 6398: 6107: 5861: 5318: 4268: 3885: 2015: 74:-based molten (liquid) salt for fuel. In a typical design, the liquid is pumped between a critical core and an external 5407: 995:

moderator, that usually causes a positive contribution to the temperature coefficient. The third effect has to do with

6656: 6618: 6456: 6283: 6221: 6046: 5950: 5836: 5451: 4880:"A Reference 2400 MW(t) Power Conversion System Point Design for Molten-Salt-Cooled Fission and Fusion Energy Systems" 3158:

Conocar, Olivier; Douyere, Nicolas; Glatz, Jean-Paul; Lacquement, Jérôme; Malmbeck, Rikard & Serp, Jérôme (2006).

2894:"Oak Ridge National Laboratory: A New Approach to the Design of Steam Generators for Molten Salt Reactor Power Plants" 2283: 1890: 1725: 300: 31: 4672: 1563:(2012) that the protactinium pathway is feasible and that thorium is thus "not as benign as has been suggested . . ." 4187: 6504: 6183: 3486: 3271: 2124: 2093: 2071: 1756: 299:. At ORNL, two prototype molten salt reactors were successfully designed, constructed and operated. These were the 6156: 3957: 3515: 1959: 377:, whose final fuel load bred slightly more fissile from thorium than it consumed, despite being a fairly standard 78:

where the heat is transferred to a nonradioactive secondary salt. The secondary salt then transfers its heat to a

6481: 6090: 5873: 5082: 4600: 4397: 4226:"Preliminary Design Description for a First-Generation Liquid-Salt VHTR with Metallic Vessel Internals (AHTR-MI)" 2508: 1609:

as a fission product. In the MSRE, this caused small amounts of corrosion at the grain boundaries of the special

1392: 157: 4342:

National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Remediation of Buried and Tank Wastes. Molten Salt Panel (1997).

3647:"Assessment of Candidate Molten Salt Coolants for the Advanced High-Temperature Reactor (AHTR)- ORNL-TM-2006-12" 1292:

Liquid fluoride salts, especially LiF based salts, have good heat transfer properties. Fuel salt such as LiF-ThF

6646: 6571: 6471: 6383: 5171: 1297: 1059: 675: 128:

loop. These distinctive characteristics give rise to many potential advantages, as well as design challenges.

83: 4853: 4423: 1786:

represents the most detailed information so far publicly available about Flibe Energy's proposed LFTR design.

342:

that's been produced in the process of fission, to become Th-233 and U-239 respectively. After two sequential

6350: 6601: 6576: 6190: 5967: 4317: 4083: 2234: 1910: 1853: 1810: 1330: 987: 915: 4533: 2128: 2097: 6466: 1900: 1873: 1122:

of transuranic wastes by more than a thousand-fold compared to a conventional once-through uranium-fueled

1066:, even higher than water. This allows them to absorb large amounts of heat during transients or accidents. 1032: 883:

For cleaning the salt mixture several methods of chemical separation were proposed. Compared to classical

614: 247: 4965: 4818: 4628: 4448: 4372: 3726: 3548: 2893: 2595: 768:

fuels) can also be reused for new fuel. However, for economic reasons they may also end up in the waste.

6496: 6451: 5913: 5841: 4791: 4752: 4698: 2965: 2848: 2820: 2772: 2656: 2562: 2341: 2305: 2034: 1905: 1885: 1774: 1627: 1545: 1532: 919: 891:

Uranium and some other elements can be removed from the salt by a process called fluorine volatility: A

621:

from the high-temperature LFTR can be used as high-grade industrial process heat for many uses, such as

323: 5686:

The Nuclear Imperative: A Critical Look at the Approaching Energy Crisis (More Physics for Presidents)

5382:"Copenhagen Atomics enlists PSI to validate reactor technology : New Nuclear - World Nuclear News" 4726: 3842: 3454: 1129:

its waste, but they don't last very long – the radiotoxicity of these fission products is dominated by

4066: 3134: 3110: 3086: 6446: 6431: 5642: 5573: 5220: 4189:

Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactors: Traditional Nuclear Plant Comparison Analysis and Feasibility Study

3857: 3563: 3316: 3173: 2995: 2692: 2422: 2381: 2249: 1440: 1301: 1213:

enriched uranium in conventional reactors (requiring 250 t of natural uranium), or 4,166,000 tons of

1017: 904: 892: 860: 784: 274: 223: 5522: 4373:"Fluorine Production and Recombination in Frozen MSR Salts after Reactor Operation [Disc 5]" 6606: 6581: 6366: 5960: 5828: 5155: 4294:"The Thorium Molten Salt Reactor: Launching The Thorium Cycle While Closing The Current Fuel Cycle" 2133: 1842: 1822: 1798: 1123: 1115: 900: 630: 465: 378: 292: 282: 270: 97: 89: 63: 4890: 4186:

Chiang, Howard; Jiang, Yihao; Levine, Sam; Pittard, Kris; Qian, Kevin; Yu, Pam (8 December 2014).

4056:"Comparison of Molten Salt and High-Pressure Helium for the NGNP Intermediate Heat Transfer Fluid" 6486: 6323: 6250: 6061: 5606: 5540: 5244: 5037: 4133: 3754:

Engel, J. R.; Grimes, W. R.; Bauman, H. F.; McCoy, H. E.; Dearing, J. F.; Rhoades, W. A. (1980).

3429: 3401: 3383: 3189: 2929: 2452: 1802: 1794: 1760: 1697: 1452: 1111: 800: 660: 610: 512: 436: 239: 67: 4988: 4476: 4158: 655:

The Rankine cycle is the most basic thermodynamic power cycle. The simplest cycle consists of a

4629:"Distribution and Behavior of Tritium in the Coolant-Salt Technology Facility [Disc 6]" 2630:

Section 5.3, WASH 1097 "The Use of Thorium in Nuclear Power Reactors", available as a PDF from

5818: 5689: 5676: 5663: 5659: 5646: 5627: 5623: 5610: 5591: 5544: 5512: 5236: 4349: 4236: 3757:

Conceptual design characteristics of a denatured molten-salt reactor with once-through fueling

3334: 3028:

Proceedings of the 2006 International Congress on Advances in Nuclear Power Plants (ICAPP '06)

2438: 2412: 1838: 1764:

document repository, forum, and blog to promote this technology. In 2006, Sorensen coined the

996: 791:

welds via radiography), agricultural (sterilizing produce via irradiation), and medical uses (

697:

solar power module (100 kW) was built and demonstrated in Israel's Arava Desert in 2009.

288: 259: 5426:"The Weinberg Foundation – London: Weinberg Foundation to heat up campaign for safe, green,…" 5101:"Kun Chen from Chinese Academy of Sciences on China Thorium Molten Salt Reactor TMSR Program" 3679:"A Modular Radiant Heat-Initiated Passive Decay-Heat-Removal System for Salt-Cooled Reactors" 1857:

opened on site. All reactor maintenance and fuel processing is done at an off-site location.

6692: 5581: 5228: 5059: 5020:"Chapter X. MSR-FUJI General Information, Technical Features, and Operating Characteristics" 4920: 4733: 4679: 4125: 3865: 3790: 3598: 3571: 3393: 3324: 3181: 2860: 2758: 2700: 2610: 2430: 2389: 2257: 2196: 2102: 2011: 1974: 1920: 1783: 1444: 1266: 1049: 1035: 943: 452: 448: 335: 243: 205: 6306: 6146: 6085: 2526:

is responsible for about one third of the total heat output of a light water reactor (LWR).

2482: 2327:"Molten-Salt Reactor Program: Semiannual Progress Report for Period Ending August 31, 1971" 1994:

Fluoride Salt-cooled High Temperature Reactors – Technology Status and Development Strategy

671: 6564: 6524: 6051: 5978: 5807: 4804: 4765: 4711: 4507: 4293: 3764: 3653: 3480:"Thermal- and Fast Spectrum Molten Salt Reactors for Actinide Burning and Fuel Production" 2978: 2833: 2785: 2669: 2575: 2464: 2397: 2354: 1701: 1592: 1214: 991: 923: 761: 370: 359: 339: 317: 177: 173: 6056: 423:

to fill minor technical gaps and build a small reactor prototype comparable to the MSRE.

5710: 5577: 5224: 4652:

Manely; W. D.; et al. (1960). "Metallurgical Problems in Molten Fluoride Systems".

3982: 3861: 3567: 3320: 3177: 2696: 2646:"Molten-Salt Reactor Program Semiannual Progress Report For Period Ending July 31, 1964" 2426: 2385: 2253: 633:

by water splitting, eliminating the efficiency loss of first converting to electricity.

6539: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6259: 6166: 6135: 6117: 5723: 5340: 4449:"Oak Ridge National Laboratory: Graphite Behaviour and Its Effects on MSBR Performance" 3616: 1872:

announced that research on the irradiation of molten thorium fluoride salts inside the

1729: 1156: 1144: 872: 796: 618: 75: 4029: 2204: 1806:

purification systems, and control systems and software for molten salt applications.

6681: 5995: 5505:

Aim High!: Thorium energy cheaper than from coal solves more than just global warming

5248: 5208: 4940: 4576: 2805: 2645: 2547: 2326: 2276:"Lab's early submarine reactor program paved the way for modern nuclear power plants" 1555: 1541: 1537: 1448: 1094: 844: 792: 694: 689: 683: 650: 626: 278: 201: 79: 5772:

Kirk Sorensen's presentation at Thorium Energy Alliance Conference No. 4 in Chicago.

4909:"A review of helium gas turbine technology for high-temperature gas-cooled reactors" 4555: 3932: 3602: 3405: 3368: 3193: 1978: 641: 6270: 5775: 3575: 2921:

Sabharwall, Piyush; Kim, Eung S.; McKellar, Michael; Anderson, Nolan (April 2011).

2751:"Two-Fluid Molten-Salt Breeder Reactor Design Study (Status as of January 1, 1968)" 2704: 1736: 1468: 1148: 1134: 911: 524: 497: 473: 461: 366: 181: 93: 5005: 4532:

Rodriguez-Vieitez, E.; Lowenthal, M. D.; Greenspan, E.; Ahn, J. (7 October 2002).

3423:"Engineering Database of Liquid Salt Thermophysical and Thermochemical Properties" 3397: 2722: 2275: 1797:

is a Danish molten salt technology company developing mass manufacturable 100MWth

609:

An LFTR with a high operating temperature of 700 degrees Celsius can operate at a

5560:"Should We Consider Using Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactors for Power Generation?" 5534: 4841: 4343: 3305:"Should We Consider Using Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactors for Power Generation?" 3161:"Promising pyrochemical actinide/lanthanide separation processes using aluminium" 1625:-N alloy improves resistance to corrosion by tellurium. Maintaining the ratio of 6328: 5918: 4129: 3061: 3031: 2182:"Liquid fluoride thorium reactors: an old idea in nuclear power gets reexamined" 1866: 1103: 1083: 812: 487: 432: 308:

Today, the ARE and the MSRE remain the only molten salt reactors ever operated.

219: 215: 209: 188: 110: 5757: 5232: 2512: 385:

produces the heat and neutrons while a separate blanket does all the breeding.

5769: 5763: 5751: 5358: 5100: 5002:"IThEO Presents International Thorium Energy & Molten-Salt Technology Inc" 4925: 4908: 2235:"Partial radiogenic heat model for Earth revealed by geoneutrino measurements" 1188: 1130: 1007: 877: 840: 828: 343: 96:

mixed into a molten salt. They should not be confused with designs that use a

5172:"Update on the Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor projects in China and the USA" 3589:

Leblanc, D. (2010). "Molten salt reactors: A new beginning for an old idea".

1559:

therefore no protactinium). However, a group of nuclear engineers argues in

496:. Because the fissile fuel is concentrated in a small core fluid, the actual 6039: 6029: 3111:"Design Studies of 1000-Mw(e) Molten-Salt Breeder Reactors; 1966, ORNL-3996" 1622: 1614: 1606: 1587: 1579: 1388: 1283: 1099: 1045: 927: 908: 868: 820: 816: 777: 255: 251: 6534: 5595: 5240: 4966:"Heat Transfer Salt for High Temperature Steam Generation [Disc 5]" 4601:"Neptunium 237 and Americium: World Inventories and Proliferation Concerns" 4023:"Critical issues of nuclear energy systems employing molten salt fluorides" 3338: 136: 4786:. LAB NE 2002-1. Department of Energy, Nuclear Energy Research Initiative. 3870: 164: 6559: 6408: 6403: 6343: 6012: 5940: 5923: 5908: 5883: 5004:. International Thorium Energy Organisation. 20 July 2010. Archived from 3185: 2923:

Process Heat Exchanger Options for Fluoride Salt High Temperature Reactor

2865: 2614: 1740: 1705: 1689: 1596: 1436: 1396: 896: 836: 347: 71: 3388: 3278: 2631: 2200: 1743:. China plans to follow up the experiment with a 373MW version by 2030. 1044:. A molten fuel reactor has the advantage of easy removal of xenon-135. 783:

As the fuel of a LFTR is a molten salt mixture, it is attractive to use

148: 6549: 6529: 5928: 5903: 4941:"Conceptual Design study of a Single Fluid Molten Salt Breeder Reactor" 4727:"Conceptual Design Study of a Single-Fluid Molten-Salt Breeder Reactor" 4087: 3915:

Obama could kill fossil fuels overnight with a nuclear dash for thorium

3522: 2806:"Conceptual Design Study of a Single-Fluid Molten-Salt Breeder Reactor" 2393: 1671: 1618: 1583: 1576: 1368: 1192: 1171: 959: 864: 856: 832: 773: 622: 456: 444: 440: 402: 331: 327: 227: 196: 192: 153: 106: 5586: 5559: 4780: 3329: 3304: 3160: 2434: 6338: 6333: 6313: 6293: 6278: 6161: 5898: 5878: 5846: 5760:

Google TechTalk by Dr. Joe Bonometti NASA / Naval Postgraduate School

4683: 4111:"Recovery of Platinum Group Metals from High Level Radioactive Waste" 2749:

Robertson, R. C.; Briggs, R. B.; Smith, O. L.; Bettis, E. S. (1970).

2261: 2098:"Atomic Energy 'Secret' Put into Language That Public Can Understand" 1708:

in July 2010. They projected a cost of 2.85 cents per kilowatt hour.

1610: 1591:

of up to 8% per stage and requires only heating in a vacuum chamber.

1305: 863:

of helium. In addition, some of the "noble" metals are removed as an

824: 4737: 4506:. ORNL-4548: Molten-Salt Reactor Program. p. 57. Archived from 4399:

Direct Conversion of Halogen-Containing Wastes to Borosilicate Glass

2763: 486:. Thorium is chemically similar to several fission products, called 17: 5888: 2996:"Pyrochemical Separations in Nuclear Applications: A Status Report" 6375: 6231: 6034: 6024: 3549:"Recommendations for a restart of molten salt reactor development" 2479:"ORNL: The First 50 Years - Chapter 6: Responding to Social Needs" 2414:

The First Nuclear Era: The Life and Times of a Technological Fixer

1384: 1196: 1170: 1063: 963: 884: 852: 670: 640: 543:

Calculated nuclear performance of 1000-MW(e) MSBR design concepts

469: 401: 263: 163: 147: 135: 43: 37: 1716:

Furukawa. TTS acquired the FUJI design and some related patents.

479:

The advantages of separating the core and blanket fluid include:

350:

U-233 and Pu-239 respectively. This process is called breeding.

6236: 6125: 5935: 5893: 5733:

Is Thorium the Biggest Energy Breakthrough Since Fire? Possibly.

5724:“Uranium Is So Last Century – Enter Thorium, the New Green Nuke“ 5700: 5341:"Advances in Small Modular Reactor Technology Developments 2018" 5314: 5285:"New Huntsville company to build Thorium-based nuclear reactors" 4501:"Semiannual Progress Report for Period Ending February 28, 1970" 1779: 1752: 1184: 1152: 780:

may accumulate over years of operation before they are removed.

38: 5779: 5124:"Completion date slips for China.s thorium molten salt reactor" 4054:

Peterson, Per F.; Zhao, H. & Fukuda, G. (5 December 2003).

3516:"Simple Molten Salt Reactors: a time for courageous impatience" 6209: 6073: 5558:

Cooper, N.; Minakata, D.; Begovic, M.; Crittenden, J. (2011).

3709:

Thorium Fuel Cycle, AEC Symposium Series, 12, USAEC, Feb. 1968

3303:

Cooper, N.; Minakata, D.; Begovic, M.; Crittenden, J. (2011).

1693: 704: 5609:

and Charles C. Humpstone, 166 pages, Harper & Row (1973)

3455:"Chapter 13: Construction Materials for Molten-Salt Reactors" 843:) do not form fluorides in the normal salt, but instead fine 5738: 5709:

Wigeland, R, Taiwo, T, Todosow, M, Halsey, W, and Gehin, J.

5360:

Thorium: World's Cheapest Energy! [Science Unveiled]

1997: 1711:

The IThEMS consortium planned to first build a much smaller

5452:"New NGO to fuel interest in safe thorium nuclear reactors" 5287:. Huntsvillenewswire.com. 27 September 2011. Archived from 5262: 5151:"China blazes trail for 'clean' nuclear power from thorium" 4251: 4249: 1031:. LFTRs are not subject to pressure buildup of gaseous and 523:

be replaced with high molybdenum alloys, which are used in

365:

Reactors that use the uranium-plutonium fuel cycle require

250:; they were forged in the cores of dying stars through the 5536:

SuperFuel: Thorium, the Green Energy Source for the Future

5083:"China enters race to develop nuclear energy from thorium" 4819:"Status of materials development for molten salt reactors" 3763:. Oak Ridge National Lab, TN. ORNL/TM-7207. Archived from 3369:"The Thorium molten salt reactor: Moving on from the MSBR" 5758:

Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor: What Fusion Wanted To Be

4258:"A Modular Pebble-Bed Advance D High Temperature Reactor" 27:

Type of nuclear reactor that uses molten material as fuel

5209:"China prepares to test thorium-fuelled nuclear reactor" 4396:

Forsberg, C.; Beahm, E.; Rudolph, J. (2 December 1996).

4224:

Peterson, Per F. & Zhao, Haihua (29 December 2005).

4159:"Thorium fuel cycle – Potential benefits and challenges" 3927: 3925: 3923: 2548:"The Development Status of Molten-Salt Breeder Reactors" 5764:

The Thorium Molten-Salt Reactor: Why Didn't This Happen

3208:"Molten Salt Reactors: A New Beginning for an Old Idea" 2596:"Molten Salt Reactors – History, Status, and Potential" 2594:

Rosenthal, M. W.; Kasten, P. R.; Briggs, R. B. (1970).

1960:"Molten salt reactors: A new beginning for an old idea" 1573:

Neutron poisoning and tritium production from lithium-6

725: 5713:. United States: N. p., 2009. Web. doi:10.2172/978356. 5673:

Thorium Fuel Cycle – Potential Benefits and Challenges

5656:

The Second Nuclear Era: A New Start for Nuclear Power

5058:. Whb.news365.com.cn. 26 January 2011. Archived from 4843:(52 MB) Intergranular Cracking of INOR-8 in the MSRE, 2064:"Thorium Power Is the Safer Future of Nuclear Energy" 1617:-N. Metallurgical studies showed that adding 1 to 2% 4878:

Zhao, H. & Peterson, Per F. (25 February 2004).

4008: 4006: 4004: 4002: 3789:

Hargraves, Robert & Moir, Ralph (27 July 2011).

2716: 2714: 2175: 2173: 2171: 559:

Single-fluid, 30-year graphite life, fuel processing

6594: 6495: 6425: 6374: 6365: 6292: 6258: 6249: 6208: 6201: 6181: 6134: 6116: 6072: 5977: 5959: 5827: 4471: 4469: 3843:"Revisiting the Thorium-Uranium nuclear fuel cycle" 2928:(Report). Idaho National Laboratory. Archived from 2169: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2159: 2157: 2155: 2153: 2151: 2035:"Molten Salt Reactors: The Future of Green Energy?" 803:dye for marking cancerous cells in medical scans). 720:

may be too technical for most readers to understand

570:

Single-fluid, 4-year graphite life, fuel processing

5194:"Chinese molten-salt reactor cleared for start up" 5038:"China Takes Lead in Race for Clean Nuclear Power" 4595: 4593: 3240:"Potential of Thorium Fueled Molten Salt Reactors" 3159: 871:is particularly important, as it is a very strong 4907:Hee Cheon No; Ji Hwan Kim; Hyeun Min Kim (2007). 4535:Optimization of a Molten-Salt Transmuting Reactor 4367: 4365: 3617:"The Influence of Xenon-135 on Reactor Operation" 2589: 2587: 2585: 2299:"Lessons for the Liquid-Fluoride Thorium Reactor" 3841:Sylvain, David; et al. (March–April 2007). 1953: 1951: 1949: 1947: 1945: 1943: 1941: 1939: 1937: 1935: 4417:"Costs of decommissioning nuclear power plants" 2955:""Flower power" has been inaugurated in Israel" 2721:Hargraves, Robert; Moir, Ralph (January 2011). 2280:Argonne's Nuclear Science and Technology Legacy 2223:. Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung. gsi.de 1552:Proliferation risk from protactinium separation 406:Simplified schematic of a single fluid reactor. 116:The LFTR concept was first investigated at the 5428:. Mynewsdesk. 8 September 2011. Archived from 3362: 3360: 3358: 3356: 3354: 3352: 3350: 3348: 1825:. As of June 2015, TEG had ceased operations. 1093:. LFTRs can dramatically reduce the long-term 988:negative temperature coefficient of reactivity 527:and have greater tolerance to neutron damage. 443:salt absorbs neutrons and slowly converts its 6462:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 5791: 5662:et al., 460 pages, Praeger Publishers (1985) 4623: 4621: 3749: 3747: 2916: 2914: 2546:Rosenthal; M. W.; et al. (August 1972). 1467:– Some radioactive fission products, such as 8: 5770:Kirk Sorensen – A Global Alternative @ TEAC4 3725:. Thoriumenergyaslliance.com. Archived from 3062:"LIFE Materials: Molten-Salt Fuels Volume 8" 2180:Hargraves, Robert; Moir, Ralph (July 2010). 2057: 2055: 1817:Thorium Energy Generation Pty. Limited (TEG) 1755:scientist and Chief Nuclear Technologist at 1481:Graphite-caused positive reactivity feedback 1353:Reaching break-even breeding is questionable 1072:. Many reactor designs (such as that of the 907:, containing the uranium-233 fuel, but also 592:Two-fluid, replaceable core, fuel processing 581:1.5 fluid, replaceable core, fuel processing 326:, there are two types of fuel. The first is 5705:. Addison-Wesley & US AEC. p. 972. 5688:, Jeff Eerkens, 212 pages, Springer (2010) 5149:Evans-Pritchard, Ambrose (6 January 2013). 3888:. Thoriumenergyalliance.com. Archived from 3641: 3639: 3637: 3509: 3507: 3056: 3054: 3052: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2651:. ORNL-3708. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 2626: 2624: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2535: 2325:Rosenthal, M.; Briggs, R.; Haubenreich, P. 2320: 2318: 1228:No enrichment and fuel element fabrication. 950:current costs for reprocessing solid fuel. 468:to remove and reuse the carrier salts. The 242:, having existed in their current form for 6642: 6439: 6371: 6255: 6205: 6198: 5974: 5798: 5784: 5776: 4195:(Technical report). University of Chicago. 3913:Evans-Pritchard, Ambrose (29 August 2010) 2990: 2988: 1286:-N, the amount needed is relatively small. 476:are the fission products waste of a LFTR. 5754:. presentation about LFTR at TEDxYYC 2011 5645:, 284 pages, Simon & Schuster (1981) 5585: 5408:"Thorium advocates launch pressure group" 4924: 4556:"Nuclear Weapons Archive – Useful Tables" 4318:"The Aircraft Reactor Experiment-Physics" 3933:"Oak Ridge National Laboratory: Abstract" 3869: 3836: 3834: 3387: 3328: 2864: 2762: 748:Learn how and when to remove this message 732:, without removing the technical details. 273:. U-238/Pu-239 has found the most use in 5638:2081: A Hopeful View of the Human Future 5620:Sustainable energy – Without the Hot Air 5357:Copenhagen Atomics (22 September 2023). 4673:"Titanium for long-term tritium storage" 4348:. National Academies Press. p. 15. 3917:. Telegraph. Retrieved on 24 April 2013. 3720:"Using LTFR to Minimize Actinide Wastes" 3417: 3415: 1110:problem. In contrast, the LFTR uses the 1102:of 24,000 years, and is the most common 541: 389:Reactor primary system design variations 180:had been publicly identified for use as 142:relatively abundant in the Earth's crust 1931: 1916:Accelerator-driven sub-critical reactor 1595:, about one fission in 90,000 produces 6389:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 5565:Environmental Science & Technology 5207:Mallapaty, Smriti (9 September 2021). 4800: 4789: 4761: 4750: 4707: 4696: 4550: 4548: 4256:Fei, Ting; et al. (16 May 2008). 3309:Environmental Science & Technology 2974: 2963: 2829: 2818: 2781: 2770: 2665: 2654: 2571: 2560: 2460: 2450: 2350: 2339: 1870:Nuclear Research and Consultancy Group 1861:Nuclear Research and Consultancy Group 6394:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 5126:. Weinberg Foundation. Archived from 3021:"Molten-Salt-Reactor Technology Gaps" 2033:Williams, Stephen (16 January 2015). 1896:List of small nuclear reactor designs 1605:– The reactor makes small amounts of 938:Optional protactinium-233 separations 922:, as well as fluorides of some other 730:make it understandable to non-experts 531:Hybrid "one and a half fluid" reactor 230:; which has about four times greater 218:, which can be bred from non-fissile 7: 2062:Warmflash, David (16 January 2015). 2016:"LFTR: A Long-Term Energy Solution?" 1529:Proliferation risk from reprocessing 1447:) have high water solubility unless 6399:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 5036:Martin, Richard (1 February 2011). 2603:Nuclear Applications and Technology 2370:"The Molten Salt Reactor Adventure" 2368:MacPherson, H. G. (1 August 1985). 2304:. Mountain View, CA. Archived from 1759:, has been a long-time promoter of 1531:– Effective reprocessing implies a 903:fluorides as a gas. This is mainly 330:material, which splits when hit by 275:liquid sodium fast breeder reactors 254:and scattered across the galaxy by 5626:, 384 pages, UIT Cambridge (2009) 5406:Clark, Duncan (9 September 2011). 5081:Clark, Duncan (16 February 2011). 4913:Nuclear Engineering and Technology 4725:Robertson, R.C. (31 August 2012). 4166:International Atomic Energy Agency 1312:Smaller, low pressure containment. 1023:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident 25: 5752:TEDxYYC – Kirk Sorensen – Thorium 5454:. BusinessGreen. 8 September 2011 5317:. 22 October 2015. Archived from 4887:U.C. Berkeley Report UCBTH-03-002 4779:Moir; R. W.; et al. (2002). 4265:U.C. Berkeley Report UCBTH-08-001 4233:U.C. Berkeley Report UCBTH-05-005 4063:U.C. Berkeley Report UCBTH-03-004 2960:. Enel Green Power. 10 July 2009. 1656:Radiation damage to nickel alloys 1282:that resists heat and corrosion, 375:Shippingport Atomic Power Station 373:. This was proven to work in the 281:. Th-232/U-233 is best suited to 195:, and occurs as 0.72% of natural 113:in the thermal neutron spectrum. 6662: 6661: 6652: 6651: 6641: 6632: 6631: 6482:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 5122:Halper, Mark (30 October 2012). 4784:(Application under Solicitation) 4781:"Deep-Burn Molten-Salt Reactors" 3958:"Denatured Molten Salt Reactors" 3556:Energy Conversion and Management 2849:"Too Good to Leave on the Shelf" 2685:Energy Conversion and Management 1204:No shortage of natural resources 1029:No pressure buildup from fission 709: 168:Molten salt reactor at Oak Ridge 3603:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2009.12.033 3166:Nuclear Science and Engineering 2644:Briggs, R. B. (November 1964). 2632:Liquid-Halide Reactor Documents 2374:Nuclear Science and Engineering 1979:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2009.12.033 1766:liquid fluoride thorium reactor 1459:Uncertain decommissioning costs 172:By 1946, eight years after the 105:fuel salts and the breeding of 52:liquid fluoride thorium reactor 6472:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 5170:Brian Wang (11 October 2016). 4671:Heung, L.K. (31 August 2012). 4086:. Flibe Energy. Archived from 3791:"Liquid Fuel Nuclear Reactors" 3591:Nuclear Engineering and Design 3576:10.1016/j.enconman.2007.07.047 2804:Robertson, R. C. 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PHYSOR 2002. Seoul, Korea. 2511:. March 2012. Archived from 2129:"Third Nuclear Source Bared" 1992:Greene, Sherrel (May 2011). 1841:, who pioneered the thorium 1487:Limited plutonium solubility 1383:– The proposed salt mixture 1242:. At a price of $ 147/kg BeF 986:. LFTR designs use a strong 238:Th-232, U-235 and U-238 are 212:(>99% of natural uranium) 174:discovery of nuclear fission 6688:Nuclear power reactor types 6619:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 4130:10.1595/003214091X354202208 2881:Supercritical Rankine Cycle 2879:Hough, Shane (4 July 2009) 2847:LeBlanc, David (May 2010). 2284:Argonne National Laboratory 2221:Synthesis of heavy elements 1891:Thorium-based nuclear power 1726:Chinese Academy of Sciences 1720:Chinese thorium MSR project 848:experiments are difficult. 701:Removal of fission products 301:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 262:produces about half of the 90:Molten-salt-fueled reactors 32:Thorium-based nuclear power 6709: 6457:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 5502:Hargraves, Robert (2009). 5386:www.world-nuclear-news.org 5233:10.1038/d41586-021-02459-w 4859:. Hal.archives-ouvertes.fr 4654:Progress in Nuclear Energy 4422:. Iaea.org. Archived from 3813:"for nuclear energy looms" 3684:. Ornl.gov. Archived from 3521:. C4tx.org. Archived from 3376:Progress in Nuclear Energy 1823:accelerator-driven systems 1757:Teledyne Brown Engineering 1387:contains large amounts of 1263:No downtime for refueling. 1070:Passive decay heat cooling 681: 648: 315: 29: 6627: 6582:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 6477:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 6442: 6284:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 5814: 5675:, IAEA, 105 pages (2005) 5103:. YouTube. 10 August 2012 4926:10.5516/net.2007.39.1.021 3428:. Inl.gov. Archived from 2509:World Nuclear Association 1865:On 5 September 2017, the 1829:Alvin Weinberg Foundation 1813:in Switzerland in 2026. 1475:Limited graphite lifetime 1221:Thermodynamic efficiency. 291:pioneered the use of the 6647:List of nuclear reactors 6487:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 6103:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 5533:Martin, Richard (2012). 5511:. BookSurge Publishing. 4577:"Thorium Fuel Has Risks" 3067:. E-reports-ext.11nl.gov 2411:Weinberg, Alvin (1997). 1874:Petten high-flux reactor 1603:Corrosion from tellurium 1427:Loss of delayed neutrons 1298:volumetric heat capacity 1290:Excellent heat transfer. 1279:No high pressure vessel. 1257:Less fissile fuel needed 1141:Proliferation resistance 1060:volumetric heat capacity 807:Details by element group 676:Closed-cycle gas turbine 464:to remove uranium, then 439:. A separate blanket of 84:closed-cycle gas turbine 6637:Nuclear fusion reactors 6602:Organic nuclear reactor 5808:nuclear fission reactor 5699:Lane, James. A (1958). 4946:. Energyfromthorium.com 1958:LeBlanc, David (2010). 1911:Thorium Energy Alliance 1854:ThorCon nuclear reactor 1811:Paul Scherrer Institute 1319:From waste to resource. 916:technetium hexafluoride 867:. The quick removal of 859:come out easily with a 505:More efficient breeding 484:Simpler fuel processing 472:bottoms left after the 4799:Cite journal requires 4760:Cite journal requires 4706:Cite journal requires 4118:Platinum Metals Review 2973:Cite journal requires 2853:Mechanical Engineering 2828:Cite journal requires 2780:Cite journal requires 2664:Cite journal requires 2570:Cite journal requires 2349:Cite journal requires 1901:Passive nuclear safety 1751:Kirk Sorensen, former 1217:in a coal power plant. 1176: 1167:Economy and efficiency 1014:Low pressure operation 899:removes volatile high- 679: 646: 615:electricity generation 407: 248:formation of the Earth 244:over 4.5 billion years 169: 161: 160:, under magnification. 145: 47: 4991:pp. 821–856, Jan 2007 2096:(29 September 1946). 1906:Small modular reactor 1886:Generation IV reactor 1775:small modular reactor 1174: 1091:Less long-lived waste 920:selenium hexafluoride 674: 644: 494:Low fissile inventory 405: 324:nuclear power reactor 264:Earth's internal heat 167: 151: 139: 41: 6467:Traveling-wave (TWR) 5951:Supercritical (SCWR) 5739:Molten Salt Reactors 5370:– via YouTube. 4139:on 24 September 2015 4109:Bush, R. P. (1991). 3659:on 26 September 2012 3547:Moir, R. W. (2008). 3528:on 23 September 2015 3186:10.13182/NSE06-A2611 2866:10.1115/1.2010-May-2 2615:10.13182/NT70-A28619 2485:on 16 September 2012 2311:on 12 December 2011. 2000:. San Francisco, CA. 1799:molten salt reactors 1441:uranium hexafluoride 1302:thermal conductivity 1098:Plutonium-239 has a 1018:containment building 905:uranium hexafluoride 625:production with the 398:Single fluid reactor 283:molten salt reactors 271:light water reactors 5837:Aqueous homogeneous 5702:Fluid Fuel Reactors 5578:2011EnST...45.6237C 5225:2021Natur.597..311M 5156:The Daily Telegraph 3938:. Energyfromthorium 3871:10.1051/EPN:2007007 3862:2007ENews..38b..24D 3568:2008ECM....49.1849M 3321:2011EnST...45.6237C 3178:2006NSE...153..253C 2697:2008ECM....49.1832F 2427:1995PhT....48j..63W 2386:1985NSE....90..374M 2254:2011NatGe...4..647K 2210:on 8 December 2013. 2201:10.1511/2010.85.304 2134:The Tuscaloosa News 2127:(21 October 1946). 2014:(12 January 2012). 1843:molten salt reactor 1696:molten-salt-fueled 1679:Recent developments 1465:Noble metal buildup 1393:beryllium poisoning 1331:potentially harmful 1210:Reactor efficiency. 1124:light water reactor 1116:transuranic element 990:to achieve passive 645:Rankine steam cycle 631:Hydrogen production 544: 466:vacuum distillation 379:light water reactor 240:primordial nuclides 191:, which is already 64:molten salt reactor 58:; often pronounced 6657:Nuclear technology 5711:AFCI Options Study 5607:Theodore B. Taylor 5541:Palgrave Macmillan 5480:on 1 December 2017 5432:on 30 October 2011 4896:on 1 January 2014. 4477:"IAEA-TECDOC-1521" 4242:on 1 January 2014. 4072:on 11 August 2014. 3963:. Coal2nuclear.com 3770:on 14 January 2010 3691:on 21 October 2008 3492:on 19 January 2012 3252:on 22 January 2012 3037:on 29 October 2013 2421:. pp. 63–64. 2394:10.13182/NSE90-374 2189:American Scientist 2074:on 21 January 2015 1803:thorium fuel cycle 1795:Copenhagen Atomics 1790:Copenhagen Atomics 1761:thorium fuel cycle 1698:thorium fuel cycle 1453:borosilicate glass 1381:Beryllium toxicity 1250:LFTRs are cleaner: 1181:Thorium abundance. 1177: 1112:thorium fuel cycle 795:which decays into 680: 661:thermal efficiency 647: 611:thermal efficiency 554:Fissile inventory 542: 525:fusion experiments 519:ever constructed. 513:neutron absorption 437:thorium fuel cycle 408: 170: 162: 146: 92:(MSRs) supply the 68:thorium fuel cycle 48: 6675: 6674: 6667:Nuclear accidents 6590: 6589: 6421: 6420: 6417: 6416: 6361: 6360: 6245: 6244: 6177: 6176: 5660:Alvin M. Weinberg 5643:Gerard K. O'Neill 5624:David J.C. MacKay 5587:10.1021/es2021318 5550:978-0-230-11647-4 5518:978-1-4392-2538-7 5219:(7876): 311–312. 5174:. Next Big Future 4606:. Isis-online.org 4355:978-0-309-05684-7 4274:on 1 January 2014 3330:10.1021/es2021318 3220:on 4 October 2013 2634:Accessed 11/23/09 2444:978-1-56396-358-2 2435:10.1063/1.2808209 2242:Nature Geoscience 2068:Discover Magazine 1839:Alvin M. Weinberg 1326:Efficient mining. 1042:Easier to control 997:thermal expansion 758: 757: 750: 602: 601: 427:Two fluid reactor 289:Alvin M. Weinberg 260:radioactive decay 208:from non-fissile 152:Tiny crystals of 16:(Redirected from 6700: 6665: 6664: 6655: 6654: 6645: 6644: 6635: 6634: 6577:Helium gas (GFR) 6440: 6435: 6372: 6256: 6206: 6199: 6194: 6193: 5975: 5971: 5970: 5800: 5793: 5786: 5777: 5729:magazine article 5706: 5599: 5589: 5554: 5529: 5528:on 11 June 2011. 5527: 5521:. Archived from 5510: 5490: 5489: 5487: 5485: 5476:. Archived from 5470: 5464: 5463: 5461: 5459: 5448: 5442: 5441: 5439: 5437: 5422: 5416: 5415: 5403: 5397: 5396: 5394: 5392: 5378: 5372: 5371: 5369: 5367: 5354: 5348: 5347: 5345: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5328: 5326: 5321:on 10 March 2016 5307: 5301: 5300: 5298: 5296: 5281: 5275: 5274: 5272: 5270: 5259: 5253: 5252: 5204: 5198: 5197: 5196:. 9 August 2022. 5190: 5184: 5183: 5181: 5179: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5146: 5140: 5139: 5137: 5135: 5130:on 21 April 2017 5119: 5113: 5112: 5110: 5108: 5097: 5091: 5090: 5078: 5072: 5071: 5069: 5067: 5052: 5046: 5045: 5033: 5027: 5026: 5024: 5016: 5010: 5009: 5008:on 27 July 2010. 4998: 4992: 4986: 4980: 4979: 4977: 4975: 4970: 4962: 4956: 4955: 4953: 4951: 4945: 4937: 4931: 4930: 4928: 4904: 4898: 4897: 4895: 4889:. Archived from 4884: 4875: 4869: 4868: 4866: 4864: 4858: 4850: 4844: 4839: 4833: 4832: 4830: 4828: 4823: 4815: 4809: 4808: 4802: 4797: 4795: 4787: 4785: 4776: 4770: 4769: 4763: 4758: 4756: 4748: 4746: 4744: 4731: 4722: 4716: 4715: 4709: 4704: 4702: 4694: 4692: 4690: 4684:10.2172/10117162 4677: 4668: 4662: 4661: 4649: 4643: 4642: 4640: 4638: 4633: 4625: 4616: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4605: 4597: 4588: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4573: 4567: 4566: 4564: 4562: 4552: 4543: 4542: 4540: 4529: 4523: 4522: 4520: 4518: 4512: 4505: 4497: 4491: 4490: 4488: 4486: 4481: 4473: 4464: 4463: 4461: 4459: 4454:. Moltensalt.org 4453: 4445: 4439: 4438: 4436: 4434: 4429:on 6 August 2009 4428: 4421: 4413: 4407: 4406: 4404: 4393: 4387: 4386: 4384: 4382: 4377: 4369: 4360: 4359: 4339: 4333: 4332: 4330: 4328: 4323:. Moltensalt.org 4322: 4314: 4308: 4307: 4305: 4303: 4298: 4290: 4284: 4283: 4281: 4279: 4273: 4267:. Archived from 4262: 4253: 4244: 4243: 4241: 4235:. 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Archived from 3651: 3643: 3632: 3631: 3629: 3627: 3621: 3613: 3607: 3606: 3586: 3580: 3579: 3562:(7): 1849–1858. 3553: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3527: 3520: 3514:Devanney, Jack. 3511: 3502: 3501: 3499: 3497: 3491: 3485:. Archived from 3484: 3476: 3470: 3469: 3467: 3465: 3460:. Moltensalt.org 3459: 3451: 3445: 3444: 3442: 3440: 3435:on 8 August 2014 3434: 3427: 3419: 3410: 3409: 3391: 3373: 3364: 3343: 3342: 3332: 3300: 3294: 3293: 3291: 3289: 3283: 3276: 3268: 3262: 3261: 3259: 3257: 3251: 3245:. Archived from 3244: 3236: 3230: 3229: 3227: 3225: 3219: 3213:. Archived from 3212: 3204: 3198: 3197: 3163: 3155: 3149: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3139: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3122: 3120: 3115: 3107: 3101: 3100: 3098: 3096: 3091: 3083: 3077: 3076: 3074: 3072: 3066: 3058: 3047: 3046: 3044: 3042: 3036: 3030:. Archived from 3025: 3016: 3010: 3009: 3007: 3005: 3000: 2992: 2983: 2982: 2976: 2971: 2969: 2961: 2959: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2935:on 8 August 2014 2934: 2927: 2918: 2909: 2908: 2906: 2904: 2899:. Moltensalt.org 2898: 2890: 2884: 2877: 2871: 2870: 2868: 2844: 2838: 2837: 2831: 2826: 2824: 2816: 2810: 2801: 2790: 2789: 2783: 2778: 2776: 2768: 2766: 2746: 2735: 2734: 2718: 2709: 2708: 2680: 2674: 2673: 2667: 2662: 2660: 2652: 2650: 2641: 2635: 2628: 2619: 2618: 2600: 2591: 2580: 2579: 2573: 2568: 2566: 2558: 2552: 2543: 2530: 2528: 2522: 2520: 2515:on 30 March 2010 2501: 2495: 2494: 2492: 2490: 2481:. Archived from 2475: 2469: 2468: 2462: 2458: 2456: 2448: 2417:. Vol. 48. 2408: 2402: 2401: 2396:. Archived from 2365: 2359: 2358: 2352: 2347: 2345: 2337: 2331: 2322: 2313: 2312: 2310: 2303: 2294: 2288: 2287: 2272: 2266: 2265: 2262:10.1038/ngeo1205 2239: 2230: 2224: 2218: 2212: 2211: 2209: 2203:. Archived from 2186: 2177: 2146: 2145: 2143: 2141: 2121: 2115: 2114: 2112: 2110: 2103:Pittsburgh Press 2090: 2084: 2083: 2081: 2079: 2070:. Archived from 2059: 2050: 2049: 2047: 2045: 2030: 2024: 2023: 2008: 2002: 2001: 1989: 1983: 1982: 1964: 1955: 1921:Energy amplifier 1784:Southern Company 1650: 1649: 1648: 1638: 1636: 1635: 1524: 1523: 1522: 1512: 1511: 1510: 1500: 1499: 1498: 1445:caesium fluoride 1433:Waste management 1422: 1421: 1420: 1410: 1409: 1408: 1267:online refueling 1235:Lower fuel cost. 1050:neutron absorber 1036:fission products 944:protactinium-233 924:fission products 753: 746: 742: 739: 733: 713: 712: 705: 605:Power generation 545: 453:Protactinium-233 449:protactinium-233 340:absorb a neutron 246:, predating the 178:fissile isotopes 66:. LFTRs use the 21: 6708: 6707: 6703: 6702: 6701: 6699: 6698: 6697: 6678: 6677: 6676: 6671: 6623: 6586: 6491: 6436: 6429: 6428: 6413: 6357: 6288: 6263: 6241: 6213: 6195: 6188: 6187: 6186: 6173: 6139: 6130: 6112: 6077: 6068: 5982: 5965: 5964: 5963: 5955: 5869:Natural fission 5823: 5822: 5810: 5804: 5748: 5720: 5698: 5557: 5551: 5532: 5525: 5519: 5508: 5501: 5498: 5496:Further reading 5493: 5483: 5481: 5472: 5471: 5467: 5457: 5455: 5450: 5449: 5445: 5435: 5433: 5424: 5423: 5419: 5405: 5404: 5400: 5390: 5388: 5380: 5379: 5375: 5365: 5363: 5356: 5355: 5351: 5343: 5339: 5338: 5334: 5324: 5322: 5309: 5308: 5304: 5294: 5292: 5291:on 6 April 2012 5283: 5282: 5278: 5268: 5266: 5261: 5260: 5256: 5206: 5205: 5201: 5192: 5191: 5187: 5177: 5175: 5169: 5168: 5164: 5148: 5147: 5143: 5133: 5131: 5121: 5120: 5116: 5106: 5104: 5099: 5098: 5094: 5080: 5079: 5075: 5065: 5063: 5062:on 17 July 2012 5056:"未来核电站安全"不挑食"" 5054: 5053: 5049: 5035: 5034: 5030: 5022: 5018: 5017: 5013: 5000: 4999: 4995: 4987: 4983: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4964: 4963: 4959: 4949: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4938: 4934: 4906: 4905: 4901: 4893: 4882: 4877: 4876: 4872: 4862: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4851: 4847: 4840: 4836: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4817: 4816: 4812: 4798: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4777: 4773: 4759: 4749: 4742: 4740: 4738:10.2172/4030941 4729: 4724: 4723: 4719: 4705: 4695: 4688: 4686: 4675: 4670: 4669: 4665: 4651: 4650: 4646: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4627: 4626: 4619: 4609: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4598: 4591: 4581: 4579: 4575: 4574: 4570: 4560: 4558: 4554: 4553: 4546: 4538: 4531: 4530: 4526: 4516: 4514: 4513:on 29 June 2011 4510: 4503: 4499: 4498: 4494: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4475: 4474: 4467: 4457: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4446: 4442: 4432: 4430: 4426: 4419: 4415: 4414: 4410: 4402: 4395: 4394: 4390: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4371: 4370: 4363: 4356: 4341: 4340: 4336: 4326: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4315: 4311: 4301: 4299: 4296: 4292: 4291: 4287: 4277: 4275: 4271: 4260: 4255: 4254: 4247: 4239: 4228: 4223: 4222: 4218: 4205: 4204: 4200: 4192: 4185: 4184: 4180: 4170: 4168: 4161: 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2178: 2149: 2139: 2137: 2123: 2122: 2118: 2108: 2106: 2092: 2091: 2087: 2077: 2075: 2061: 2060: 2053: 2043: 2041: 2032: 2031: 2027: 2020:Huffington Post 2012:Stenger, Victor 2010: 2009: 2005: 1991: 1990: 1986: 1962: 1957: 1956: 1933: 1929: 1882: 1863: 1851: 1831: 1819: 1792: 1749: 1739:, known as the 1722: 1702:breeder reactor 1686: 1681: 1647: 1644: 1643: 1642: 1640: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1629: 1626: 1521: 1518: 1517: 1516: 1514: 1509: 1506: 1505: 1504: 1502: 1497: 1494: 1493: 1492: 1490: 1419: 1416: 1415: 1414: 1412: 1407: 1404: 1403: 1402: 1400: 1340: 1295: 1273:Load following. 1245: 1241: 1169: 1160: 1149:Dr Carlo Rubbia 1127: 1062:, some such as 1048:, an important 992:inherent safety 984:Inherent safety 980: 972: 940: 809: 762:neutron economy 754: 743: 737: 734: 726:help improve it 723: 714: 710: 703: 686: 669: 657:steam generator 653: 639: 617:, concentrated 607: 551:Breeding ratio 548:Design concept 533: 429: 400: 391: 371:thermal reactor 360:breeder reactor 320: 318:Breeder reactor 314: 312:Breeding basics 204:, which can be 158:thorium mineral 134: 62:) is a type of 34: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6706: 6704: 6696: 6695: 6690: 6680: 6679: 6673: 6672: 6670: 6669: 6659: 6649: 6639: 6628: 6625: 6624: 6622: 6621: 6616: 6615: 6614: 6609: 6598: 6596: 6592: 6591: 6588: 6587: 6585: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6568: 6567: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6501: 6499: 6493: 6492: 6490: 6489: 6484: 6479: 6474: 6469: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6452:Integral (IFR) 6449: 6443: 6437: 6426: 6423: 6422: 6419: 6418: 6415: 6414: 6412: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6380: 6378: 6369: 6363: 6362: 6359: 6358: 6356: 6355: 6354: 6353: 6348: 6347: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6316: 6311: 6310: 6309: 6298: 6296: 6290: 6289: 6287: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6267: 6265: 6261: 6253: 6247: 6246: 6243: 6242: 6240: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6218: 6216: 6211: 6203: 6196: 6182: 6179: 6178: 6175: 6174: 6172: 6171: 6170: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6143: 6141: 6137: 6132: 6131: 6129: 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Flibe Energy 5263:"Flibe Energy" 5254: 5199: 5185: 5162: 5141: 5114: 5092: 5073: 5047: 5028: 5011: 4993: 4981: 4957: 4932: 4899: 4870: 4845: 4834: 4810: 4801:|journal= 4771: 4762:|journal= 4717: 4708:|journal= 4663: 4644: 4617: 4589: 4568: 4544: 4524: 4492: 4465: 4440: 4408: 4388: 4361: 4354: 4334: 4309: 4285: 4245: 4216: 4198: 4178: 4150: 4124:(4): 202–208. 4101: 4075: 4046: 4014: 3998: 3974: 3949: 3919: 3906: 3877: 3830: 3804: 3781: 3743: 3732:on 15 May 2013 3711: 3702: 3670: 3633: 3608: 3581: 3539: 3503: 3471: 3446: 3411: 3382:(7): 664–679. 3344: 3315:(15): 6237–8. 3295: 3284:on 15 May 2013 3263: 3231: 3199: 3172:(3): 253–261. 3150: 3126: 3102: 3078: 3048: 3011: 2984: 2975:|journal= 2946: 2910: 2885: 2872: 2839: 2830:|journal= 2791: 2782:|journal= 2736: 2710: 2675: 2666:|journal= 2636: 2620: 2609:(2): 107–117. 2581: 2572:|journal= 2531: 2496: 2470: 2461:|journal= 2443: 2403: 2380:(4): 374–380. 2360: 2351:|journal= 2314: 2289: 2267: 2248:(9): 647–651. 2225: 2213: 2195:(4): 304–313. 2147: 2116: 2085: 2051: 2025: 2003: 1984: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1924: 1923: 1918: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1898: 1893: 1888: 1881: 1878: 1876:was underway. 1862: 1859: 1850: 1847: 1830: 1827: 1818: 1815: 1791: 1788: 1748: 1745: 1730:Jiang Mianheng 1721: 1718: 1685: 1682: 1680: 1677: 1676: 1675: 1665: 1662:Business model 1659: 1653: 1645: 1632: 1600: 1570: 1564: 1549: 1526: 1519: 1507: 1495: 1484: 1478: 1472: 1462: 1456: 1430: 1424: 1417: 1405: 1378: 1375:Salts freezing 1372: 1362: 1356: 1350: 1339: 1336: 1335: 1334: 1323: 1316: 1309: 1293: 1287: 1276: 1270: 1260: 1254: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1232: 1225: 1218: 1207: 1201: 1168: 1165: 1164: 1163: 1157:nuclear weapon 1145:Nobel Laureate 1138: 1088: 1080:Fail safe core 1077: 1067: 1053: 1039: 1026: 1011: 1004:Stable coolant 1001: 979: 976: 971: 968: 939: 936: 873:neutron poison 808: 805: 797:Technetium-99m 785:pyroprocessing 756: 755: 717: 715: 708: 702: 699: 682:Main article: 668: 665: 649:Main article: 638: 635: 619:thermal energy 606: 603: 600: 599: 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5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5844: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5834: 5832: 5830: 5826: 5821: 5820: 5813: 5809: 5801: 5796: 5794: 5789: 5787: 5782: 5781: 5778: 5771: 5768: 5765: 5762: 5759: 5756: 5753: 5750: 5749: 5745: 5740: 5737: 5734: 5731: 5728: 5725: 5722: 5721: 5717: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5703: 5697: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5639: 5635: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5552: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5537: 5531: 5524: 5520: 5514: 5507: 5506: 5500: 5499: 5495: 5479: 5475: 5474:"NRG: Detail" 5469: 5466: 5453: 5447: 5444: 5431: 5427: 5421: 5418: 5413: 5409: 5402: 5399: 5387: 5383: 5377: 5374: 5362: 5361: 5353: 5350: 5342: 5336: 5333: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5306: 5303: 5290: 5286: 5280: 5277: 5264: 5258: 5255: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5203: 5200: 5195: 5189: 5186: 5173: 5166: 5163: 5158: 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4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4112: 4105: 4102: 4089: 4085: 4079: 4076: 4068: 4064: 4057: 4050: 4047: 4031: 4024: 4018: 4015: 4009: 4007: 4005: 4003: 3999: 3984: 3978: 3975: 3959: 3953: 3950: 3934: 3928: 3926: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3910: 3907: 3891: 3887: 3881: 3878: 3872: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3844: 3837: 3835: 3831: 3818: 3814: 3808: 3805: 3792: 3785: 3782: 3766: 3759: 3758: 3750: 3748: 3744: 3728: 3721: 3715: 3712: 3706: 3703: 3687: 3680: 3674: 3671: 3655: 3648: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3634: 3622:. C-n-t-a.com 3618: 3612: 3609: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3585: 3582: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3550: 3543: 3540: 3524: 3517: 3510: 3508: 3504: 3488: 3481: 3475: 3472: 3456: 3450: 3447: 3431: 3424: 3418: 3416: 3412: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3390: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3370: 3363: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3355: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3345: 3340: 3336: 3331: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3299: 3296: 3280: 3273: 3267: 3264: 3248: 3241: 3235: 3232: 3216: 3209: 3203: 3200: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3162: 3154: 3151: 3136: 3130: 3127: 3112: 3106: 3103: 3088: 3082: 3079: 3063: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3049: 3033: 3029: 3022: 3015: 3012: 2997: 2991: 2989: 2985: 2980: 2967: 2956: 2950: 2947: 2931: 2924: 2917: 2915: 2911: 2895: 2889: 2886: 2882: 2876: 2873: 2867: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2843: 2840: 2835: 2822: 2814: 2811:. ORNL-4541. 2807: 2800: 2798: 2796: 2792: 2787: 2774: 2765: 2760: 2756: 2753:. ORNL-4528. 2752: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2737: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2717: 2715: 2711: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2679: 2676: 2671: 2658: 2647: 2640: 2637: 2633: 2627: 2625: 2621: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2597: 2590: 2588: 2586: 2582: 2577: 2564: 2556: 2553:. ORNL-4812. 2549: 2542: 2540: 2538: 2536: 2532: 2527: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2500: 2497: 2484: 2480: 2474: 2471: 2466: 2454: 2446: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2415: 2407: 2404: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2364: 2361: 2356: 2343: 2335: 2332:. ORNL-4728. 2328: 2321: 2319: 2315: 2307: 2300: 2293: 2290: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2271: 2268: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2236: 2229: 2226: 2222: 2217: 2214: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2183: 2176: 2174: 2172: 2170: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2158: 2156: 2154: 2152: 2148: 2136: 2135: 2130: 2126: 2120: 2117: 2105: 2104: 2099: 2095: 2089: 2086: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2058: 2056: 2052: 2040: 2036: 2029: 2026: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2007: 2004: 1999: 1995: 1988: 1985: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1961: 1954: 1952: 1950: 1948: 1946: 1944: 1942: 1940: 1938: 1936: 1932: 1926: 1922: 1919: 1917: 1914: 1912: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1902: 1899: 1897: 1894: 1892: 1889: 1887: 1884: 1883: 1879: 1877: 1875: 1871: 1868: 1860: 1858: 1855: 1848: 1846: 1844: 1840: 1835: 1828: 1826: 1824: 1816: 1814: 1812: 1807: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1789: 1787: 1785: 1781: 1776: 1771: 1767: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1746: 1744: 1742: 1738: 1733: 1731: 1727: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1709: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1683: 1678: 1673: 1669: 1666: 1663: 1660: 1657: 1654: 1637: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1594: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1578: 1574: 1571: 1568: 1565: 1562: 1557: 1556:weapons-grade 1553: 1550: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1534: 1533:proliferation 1530: 1527: 1488: 1485: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1473: 1470: 1466: 1463: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1451:in insoluble 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1431: 1428: 1425: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1379: 1376: 1373: 1370: 1366: 1363: 1360: 1357: 1354: 1351: 1348: 1345: 1344: 1343: 1338:Disadvantages 1337: 1332: 1327: 1324: 1320: 1317: 1313: 1310: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1291: 1288: 1285: 1280: 1277: 1274: 1271: 1268: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1255: 1251: 1248: 1236: 1233: 1229: 1226: 1222: 1219: 1216: 1211: 1208: 1205: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1179: 1178: 1173: 1166: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1139: 1136: 1132: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1096: 1095:radiotoxicity 1092: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1078: 1075: 1071: 1068: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1054: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1040: 1037: 1034: 1030: 1027: 1024: 1019: 1015: 1012: 1009: 1005: 1002: 998: 993: 989: 985: 982: 981: 977: 975: 969: 967: 965: 961: 955: 951: 947: 945: 937: 935: 931: 929: 925: 921: 917: 913: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 889: 886: 881: 879: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 849: 846: 842: 838: 834: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 806: 804: 802: 799:, a valuable 798: 794: 793:Molybdenum-99 788: 786: 781: 779: 775: 769: 765: 763: 752: 749: 741: 731: 727: 721: 718:This section 716: 707: 706: 700: 698: 696: 695:Brayton cycle 691: 690:Brayton cycle 685: 684:Brayton cycle 677: 673: 667:Brayton cycle 666: 664: 662: 658: 652: 651:Rankine cycle 643: 637:Rankine cycle 636: 634: 632: 628: 627:Haber process 624: 620: 616: 612: 604: 597: 594: 591: 590: 586: 583: 580: 579: 576:1500 kg 575: 572: 569: 568: 565:2300 kg 564: 561: 558: 557: 553: 550: 547: 546: 540: 537: 530: 528: 526: 520: 516: 514: 506: 503: 499: 495: 492: 489: 485: 482: 481: 480: 477: 475: 471: 467: 463: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 434: 426: 424: 421: 416: 412: 404: 397: 395: 388: 386: 382: 380: 376: 372: 368: 367:fast reactors 363: 361: 355: 351: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 319: 311: 309: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 284: 280: 276: 272: 267: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 234:than uranium) 233: 229: 225: 221: 217: 214: 211: 207: 203: 202:Plutonium-239 200: 198: 194: 190: 187: 186: 185: 183: 179: 175: 166: 159: 155: 150: 143: 138: 131: 129: 125: 122: 119: 114: 112: 108: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 85: 81: 80:steam turbine 77: 73: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 45: 40: 36: 33: 19: 6505:Sodium (SFR) 6432:fast-neutron 6388: 6271: 5817: 5741:– Ralph Moir 5726: 5701: 5685: 5672: 5655: 5636: 5619: 5602: 5569: 5563: 5535: 5523:the original 5504: 5482:. 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Retrieved 2038: 2028: 2019: 2006: 1993: 1987: 1970: 1966: 1864: 1852: 1832: 1820: 1808: 1793: 1769: 1765: 1750: 1747:Flibe Energy 1737:Wuwei, Gansu 1734: 1723: 1712: 1710: 1687: 1684:The Fuji MSR 1667: 1661: 1655: 1602: 1572: 1566: 1560: 1551: 1528: 1486: 1480: 1474: 1469:noble metals 1464: 1458: 1432: 1426: 1380: 1374: 1365:Startup fuel 1364: 1358: 1352: 1346: 1341: 1325: 1318: 1311: 1289: 1278: 1272: 1262: 1256: 1249: 1234: 1227: 1220: 1209: 1203: 1180: 1140: 1135:strontium-90 1119: 1107: 1090: 1079: 1069: 1055: 1041: 1028: 1013: 1003: 983: 973: 956: 952: 948: 941: 932: 912:hexafluoride 890: 882: 850: 810: 789: 782: 770: 766: 759: 744: 735: 719: 687: 654: 608: 598:700 kg 587:900 kg 538: 534: 521: 517: 510: 504: 498:reactor core 493: 483: 478: 474:distillation 462:fluorination 430: 417: 413: 409: 392: 383: 364: 356: 352: 321: 303:in 1954 and 287: 268: 237: 182:nuclear fuel 171: 126: 115: 101: 94:nuclear fuel 88: 59: 55: 51: 49: 35: 6540:Superphénix 6367:Molten-salt 6319:VHTR (HTGR) 6096:HW BLWR 250 6062:R4 Marviken 5991:Pressurized 5961:Heavy water 5945:many others 5874:Pressurized 5829:Light water 5484:29 November 3774:22 November 3597:(6): 1644. 2691:(7): 1832. 2505:"Plutonium" 2489:12 November 2039:ZME Science 1998:ICENES-2011 1973:(6): 1644. 1143:. In 2016, 1104:transuranic 1084:subcritical 1056:Slow heatup 1021:during the 851:Gases like 629:or thermal 488:lanthanides 433:uranium-233 344:beta decays 226:of natural 220:thorium-232 216:Uranium-233 210:uranium-238 189:Uranium-235 140:Thorium is 111:uranium-233 98:molten salt 6682:Categories 6324:PBR (PBMR) 5458:24 October 5436:24 October 5295:24 October 5269:24 October 5107:24 October 5066:24 October 4974:24 October 4950:24 October 4863:24 October 4827:24 October 4743:24 October 4689:24 October 4660:: 164–179. 4637:24 October 4610:24 October 4582:16 October 4485:24 October 4458:24 October 4433:24 October 4381:24 October 4327:24 October 4302:24 October 4278:24 October 4171:27 October 4094:24 October 4084:"Products" 4039:24 October 3991:24 October 3967:24 October 3942:24 October 3899:24 October 3823:26 January 3736:24 October 3695:24 October 3663:24 October 3626:24 October 3532:24 October 3496:24 October 3464:24 October 3439:24 October 3288:24 October 3256:24 October 3224:24 October 3143:24 October 3119:24 October 3095:24 October 3071:24 October 3004:24 October 2903:24 October 2733:(1): 6–10. 2140:18 October 2109:18 October 2078:22 January 1927:References 1845:research. 1577:transmutes 1536:is mostly 1322:expensive. 1215:black coal 1189:Lemhi Pass 1147:physicist 1131:cesium-137 1120:production 1008:radiolysis 970:Advantages 801:radiolabel 738:April 2015 256:supernovas 132:Background 30:See also: 6376:Fluorides 6040:IPHWR-700 6035:IPHWR-540 6030:IPHWR-220 5819:Moderator 5806:Types of 5414:. London. 5249:237471852 5089:. London. 4561:31 August 4207:"Thorium" 3793:. Aps.org 2529:(Updated) 2463:ignored ( 2453:cite book 2044:12 August 1623:Hastelloy 1615:Hastelloy 1607:tellurium 1588:lithium-7 1580:lithium-6 1449:vitrified 1389:beryllium 1284:Hastelloy 1100:half-life 1046:Xenon-135 928:Hastelloy 909:neptunium 845:colloidal 811:The more 678:schematic 435:from the 252:r-process 6409:TMSR-LF1 6404:TMSR-500 6384:Fuji MSR 6344:THTR-300 6184:Graphite 6047:PHWR KWU 6013:ACR-1000 5941:IPWR-900 5924:ACPR1000 5919:HPR-1000 5909:CPR-1000 5884:APR-1400 5596:21732635 5325:10 March 5241:34504330 5134:17 April 4989:Fuji MSR 3797:3 August 3406:15091933 3339:21732635 3194:91818903 2419:Springer 1880:See also 1741:TMSR-LF1 1713:MiniFUJI 1706:FUJI MSR 1700:thermal 1690:FUJI MSR 1597:helium-6 1439:gas and 1437:fluorine 1397:eutectic 1033:volatile 897:fluorine 815:metals ( 348:isotopes 332:neutrons 258:. 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