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youth of Mexico saw other countries protesting their own false unification, and craved the individuality that those protestors had found. This challenge to authority manifested in the rock and roll music and clothing in the everyday lives of Mexico's adolescents. And just as the students in other countries peacefully protested conservative governments, the students of Mexico begin to challenge authority in Mexico too. Gilberto
Guevara Niebla, a student leader, stated in an interview: "The Student Movement had many dimensions. On one hand, it was a student movement; on the other, it was not. The Student movement was the bearer of demands that were not only strictly student concerns but those of the society. Before 1968, the authoritarian state had brutally beaten workers, also campesinos, and it had destroyed the leftist opposition parties. It was in this vacuum, that students injected their demands, aspirations, and desires that were not exclusively of student interest, but also of interest to campesinos, workers, intellectuals, political parts, etc.".
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changed and slowly evolved a rebellious stage inspired by the youth rebellion of the United States. One of the major ways in which the youth of Mexico began to rebel was by listening to and performing rock and roll. At first, they would perform famous songs in
English from famous English-speaking rock and rollers like Elvis Presley, the Beatles, and the Rolling Stones. The Mexican government saw a chance to reach Mexican youth by supporting rock and roll music and helping Mexican musicians to play rock and roll music. The government hoped to change the meaning of the music. Instead of rebellion, the music would inspire support for the Mexican government and promote becoming upstanding citizens. But "government efforts to blockade the arrival of foreign music indirectly contributed to the emergence of a native rockânâroll product and more and more rock and roll bands began to emerge.
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upheaval was needed. On July 29, 1968, "students barricaded themselves inside their high school to protest police abuse" then "infantry troops used a bazooka to blast" into the school and "proceeded to beat and ultimately arrest one thousand students". This and many other cases of police abuse triggered an ultimate student protest on
October 2, 1968. Internally, the 1968 student movement was linked to "the growing criticism of the Mexican Revolution that was particularly evident in the labor struggles of the 1950s and 1960s". The political movements of other countries and their success in changing legislation inspired the revolutionary youth. The Mexican youth thought that if they peacefully banded together and showed their support for their cause, the PRI might heed their demands.
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were only able to witness a small part of the
American counterculture, and that in other countries, so they had to interpret and express what they saw through their music. Besides television, film, and literature, the youth of Mexico only had one true way to experience the counterculture in a unified way, and that was through music. The Cafe Cantantes "thus served as a kind of transcultural performance space where the styles, gestures, and sounds of the youth culture from abroad were transposed for a Mexican audience". The Mexican government felt a need to shut down the clubs because they "foment rebellion without a cause' leading to increases in juvenile delinquency". As the cafes were raided and shut down, the
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aspirations" grew faster than the
Mexican economy. The younger generation was still inspired by foreign protests against rigid government regimes. Through literature, music, and art, Mexico's youth connected and amassed into a larger group that included students, peasants and industrial workers. They began to challenge the status quo and question authority, seeking self-expression and equality for all. Across Mexico, more and more universities got involved, students began to meet and address issues and hold rallies protesting world events and injustice in Mexico. As more and more campuses joined in, the government became uncomfortable and paranoid about the effect the students would have on Mexico's reputation.
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Tlatelolco, La Onda evolved again. First it had been a protestation of conservative traditions legitimized during the
Mexican Revolution. This youth movement questioned authority through the use of rock and roll music, beatnik literature, and daring fashion. Next came the Student Movements that challenged the authoritarian government and fought for the democratization of Mexico. After the Tlatelolco Massacre, a new wave of La Onda emerged â that of the jipitecas, or hippies, who rebelled against the status quo and preached peace and democracy above a strict authoritarian government.
423:. This stability lasted until 1971, when the Mexican economy began to decline. One of the major reasons for such a prosperous economy at this time was Mexico's decision to nationalize its oil production. This nationalization and Mexico's modernization program helped to stabilize the economy. Another factor was the Korean War which "had increased world prices, provided opportunities for Mexican exports, and led to the inflow of foreign capital". But by the late 1960s, the Mexican economy was unable to finance itself, resulting in lower wages and worker discontent.
368:
that invaded lands under the direction of organizations with relatively radical ideologies, outside the official structures". By the late 1960s, "the monopoly party had deepened its control over the political processes and took credit for the economic expansion that resulted". Now it was not only Mexico's middle-class youth that were rebelling against the authoritarian government. The working-class was rebelling also, against the old industrial institutions and to fighting for better pay and protection from the companies and the government.
299:(PRI). Mexican society had a great deal to do with the growth and popularity of the Mexican counterculture. "The countryâs transformation from predominantly rural to urban, the expansion of national industries, the emergence of a mixed economy with a high profile, and the expansion of educational institutions all fostered the impression that Mexico had finally emerged from the blight of underdevelopment and was on the road to peace and prosperity". The PRI wanted Mexico to become an evolved and prosperous country, like the United States.
364:
First World power. In the 1940s they began "to industrialize the country, by means of an import-substitution policy...displacing the traditional center of gravity, which had been the countryside, to the cities". This shift, and their focus on the middle-class family eventually led to the first phase of La Onda, in which the children and grandchildren of the
Revolutionaries began to challenge authority and individualizing and expressing themselves through rock and roll music and foreign fashion trends.
556:
States, was a culmination of the efforts of La Onda along with the efforts of the government to control political unrest and make the public feel as though their protests were heard. La Onda, which had started as a teenage rebellion against conservative parenting, had turned into a political movement fighting for democracy in an authoritarian government, and lastly returned to a musical demonstration, but instead of violently rebelling against authority, it taught
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1968 student movement wasn't just students; peasants, businessmen and Mexico's working class also took part in the fight for democracy. In 1968, the student movement "challenged the legitimacy of the system and proved, by the bloody repression it suffered, that had an authoritarian core". Protesters wanted a mass movement that would force the government to reform the official party and provide greater opportunity for political participation.
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and economy went hand in hand when "political stability encouraged enough foreign capital back into the country to bolster high rates of growth". Mexico's "emphasis on economic development...has focused on those activities, industry and commerce, that are most efficiently undertaken in urban areas, where there is an adequate supply of labor, credit, transportation, and communication". This emphasis on
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for respect and constitutional rights. By August 13, 1968, "100,000 people were protesting against the regimeâs disrespect for public liberties and the presence of tanks in the city streets". The government saw the growing political unrest as "a revolutionary conspiracy...designed to bring down the existing political order". People gathered on the evening of
October 2, 1968, at the
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observed peaceful transfers of power from one administration to the next". But an authoritarian government eventually emerged. "The combination of favorable international circumstances and internal conditions enabled the governing party to become a monopoly party of government during the three decades after 1940". Presidents like
404:. The Mexican government had been dealing with the effects of La Onda as minor social rebellions inspired by the American counterculture movement. As passive and active resistance grew, the Mexican government saw a need to put down the opposition. Ordaz felt that the Olympics were Mexico's initiation into the
435:âs political miscalculations allowed a dispute over better pay and working conditions with hospital doctors working in the public sector to escalate into a strike movement". Although this strike did not have anything to do with La Onda, it did serve as an example for Mexico's youth in their fight against an
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and so many more playing to a crowd of over 300,000 people for two days. This huge music spectacle culminated all the effort of La Onda, describing "a modern sense of movement and communication, as in radio or television 'wavelength'". The festival, which greatly resembled the
Woodstock of the United
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The massacre "created a legitimacy" for democratization â no longer could the
Mexican government deny that Mexico had an authoritarian government. Not only did the massacre "reorganize civil society and catalyze electoral reforms", it also "spotlighted Mexican authoritarianism". After the Massacre at
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displayed the terrible effects of absolute government on the people of Mexico; "the issue of accountability, along with other constitutional questions such as the relationship of the powers and the effective participation of civil society in the political processes, fell by the wayside". The monopoly
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Mexico's economy expanded substantially after World War II. As it expanded, the country became prosperous and the population more middle class. More and more factories were built, bolstering the economy, but resulting in lower pay for workers â the people who kept the economy afloat. Mexican politics
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The counterculture was no longer just about rock and roll. Now, in the early 1960s, youth were also adopting foreign fashion and attitudes towards authority and rock music "was again becoming a wedge against traditional social values and a vehicle for free expression". The Mexican government was very
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Mexican rock and roll bands needed a place to perform their music that was accessible to everyone. They began performing in places like Cafe Cantante, a rock club that allowed everyone to access the counter culture. The youth of Mexico identified with the youth of the United States, but unfortunately
130:
By the late 1950s, "youth from the middle classes began to form their own bandsâŠpracticing as best they could versions of hit songs in English by their favorite foreign rock'n'rollers". The youth of Mexico began to identify with the youth of the United States and the United Kingdom, and it was only a
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By the 1960s, the import-substitution model was no longer working. The enthusiasm with which the Mexican government had fostering towards economic growth and political stability was slowly stifling the Mexican people. In the 1950s, Northern Mexico witnessed "a vigorous mobilization of peasant groups
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On July 26, 1968, demonstrators attempted to gather at the ZĂłcalo, which was reserved for organized demonstrations of support for the president. As more and more people gathered, DĂaz Ordaz "regarded the movement as an affront to the dignity of Mexico".). The PRI had no control over student demands
468:
For a long time, the Mexican government had been pushing the Mexican people into a unified structure, one where the youth of Mexico did not rebel and the entire population worked together to recreate Mexico as a First World power. This forced and false unity inspired the Mexican counterculture. The
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It began to monitor politically active students, but the more the government monitored students, the more they joined the cause. By late 1968, even some high schools and middle schools had joined the student movement. No longer was the younger generation fighting against conservative family values
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to a political system bent on maintaining control". According to Zolov, the student movement made only six demands, including "freedom of political prisoners, abolition of the riot police, the dismissal of the Mexico City chief of police, and justice against those responsible for repression". The
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did in the United States. They needed to break the bonds of society and find new ways to express themselves. Young men wanted to break out of the mold set by their fathers. So they had to look disheveled and wrinkled, because the older generation of men looked very manicured and put together, and
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This massacre at Tlatelolco "which effectively terminated the protest movement". There was a call for a new counter-movement and new forms of opposition to the authoritarian government. Now, the student movement had turned into La Onda, a new movement focused solely on expressing a deep need for
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Mexico had been selected to host the 1968 Olympic Games, and the PRI were on high alert for student protests. They were not tolerant. Students played a key role in the democratization of the Mexican government; as police abuse became more and more prevalent, students began to feel that political
363:
wanted to perpetuate the teachings of the Revolution and solidify revolutionary ideals into Mexican society. But after the Mexican Revolution the government not only wanted to solidify the Revolution's ideals, it also wanted to improve the government and elevate the status of Mexico to a modern,
442:
Besides student movements, the government also responded severely to labor unions, usually with harsh repression. In the 1930s and 1940s, the PRI used police and military force to suppress labor protests. Later, in 1958â1959, the government responded to the railway workersâ dispute by arresting
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As Mexican society grew more and more inspired by and connected to other foreign countries, the cultural dos and donâts became more similar to those of other countries - especially those of the United States. As rock and roll music and American television and movies arrived in Mexico, the youth
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After the Mexican Revolution, the Mexican government worked for a time to legitimize the acts of the new Constitution and to settle the country into stabilized governance. For a time, Mexico boasted "high levels of popular participation, featured a wide array of opposing political parties, and
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Economic growth after World War II and the stability that ensued led to overall declines in poverty and inequality, but the "opportunities created for the middle sectors did not match their expectations and instead created a large population of upwardly mobile young people whose dreams and
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dressed much more conservatively. Girls had a similar problem, but also had to fight for a new freedom, where they had the same rights and opportunities as men. But both genders were beginning to fight for their rights to express themselves, be original, and be individual.
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argues that "rock was a wedge in the sense that it challenged traditional boundaries of propriety, gender relations, social hierarchies, and the very meaning of national identity" which the Mexican PRI (or the Institutional Revolutionary Party) was struggling to define.
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was "a new spirit, the repudiation of convention and prejudice, the creation of a new morality, the challenging of proper morals, the expansion of consciousness, the systematic revision and critique of the values offered by the West as sacred and perfect."
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and rifle butts. This severe, single-minded way of dealing with social movements did not work to the Mexican government's advantage. After the 1968 Student Movement and resulting massacre, "an alliance of students, peasants, and urban workers in
310:, and an effect of this modernization was a desire for a unifying identity that separate from that of past generations with a Revolutionary identity, and especially from that of their parents and grandparents fought for and brought about the
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The 1968 student movement was the "articulated restlessness and rage for much of the youth of a middle class which had come of age during Mexicoâs acclaimed modernizing 'miracle' and which afterward opened the floodgates of cynicism and
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made its mark on the "new Central-American novel" and other genres. The wave of popular Mexican novels in the 1960s, "emphasized the sentiments of the new urban middle-class adolescent and the influence of United States culture,
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the night before the event. As many bands were hired to participate, a rock festival was organized to promote the auto race â but instead turned into a "Mexican Woodstock" with a huge number of Mexican rock bands such as
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focused on projecting cultural unity, and the youth of Mexico felt it was important to express themselves and their feelings about this rigid modernization and unification through their music and clothing.
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into the Mexican music culture. Throughout the world, rock and roll was spreading and taking root as "a wedge and a mirror for societies caught in the throes of rapid modernization". Eric Zolov, author of
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and with a "Export-Import Bank approved $ 150 million loan to finance transportation, agriculture, and power facilities". Between 1954 and 1971, the Mexican economy stabilized under President
534:. The Rock y Ruedas (Rock and Wheels) festival had originally begun as "nothing more than a series of auto races". The organizers suggested that rock music should be included to have a
397:, but the growth of presidential power under DĂaz was seen as blatantly abusive, inspiring students, peasants, and industrial workers to challenge his absolute authority.
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by 1972". Throughout the time of Mexico's economic stability under the PRI, there were many minor protests to question the moral credibility of the Mexican government.
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498:(Plaza of Three Cultures). The administration made no attempt to establish dialogue. Troops and police opened fire on the Tlatelolco demonstrators and massacred them.
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with rock and roll music, beatnik literature, and daring fashion. Now, the students were unifying and banding together in resentment of an authoritarian government.
976:
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Zolov, Eric (2004). "La Onda Chicana: Mexico's Forgotten Rock Counterculture". In Hernandez, Deborah Pancini; l'Hoeste, HĂ©ctor D. FernĂĄndez; Zolov, Eric (eds.).
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film synonymous with counterculture. Iconic films which gained worldwide attention varied from the women's liberation-oriented ones like JosĂ© AgustĂn's "
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Rock and roll represented a connection between the youth of Mexico, and the trend-setting youth of America. Both countries had modernized rapidly after
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Before the Student Movement of 1968, there were other political movements. One such movement took place between 1964 and 1965. At that time, "
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in the beginning, the movement quickly grew and included other art forms with its followers called "onderos", "macizos" or "
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grew in its wake and expanded to the entire country as well as parts of the US and Central America. By 1969, a new wave of
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music began to emerge, fusing Mexican and foreign music with images of political protest. This movement was called
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numerous workers and union supporters. In 1961, in Mexico City, students gathered to celebrate the newly instated
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tried to control the identity of Mexicoâs citizens, the more the youth of Mexico felt it necessary to fight back.
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As 1968 approached, the president of Mexico gained more and more absolute and monopolizing power. President
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community, and that a student movement just weeks before the Games would be disastrous for Mexico's image.
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matter of time before they were also inspired by the social activism of other modernizing countries.
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796:"Las Ondas de JosĂ© AgustĂn: Remembering La Onda through the literature of JosĂ© AgustĂn and
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1345:. University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press. p. 59.
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In the Shadow of the Mexican Revolution: Contemporary Mexican History, 1910-1989
703:. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. p.
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Schjedahl, Peter (Jun 6, 1971). "Should 'El Topo' Be Elevated To 'El Tops'?".
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administration in Cuba, when the gathering was broken up by police using
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Rockin' Las Américas: The Global Politics of Rock in Latin/o America
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by artists and intellectuals as part of the worldwide waves of the
393:, especially under DĂaz Ordaz, had gone unchallenged prior to the
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783:. Vol. 145. London: The Gale Group. 1994. pp. 185â192.
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eventually led to the worker and student movement of the 1960s.
26:(The Wave) was a multidisciplinary artistic movement created in
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1446:"AvĂĄndaro: The Day That Music Died--Concert of Rock and Wheels"
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Rural Protest and the Making of Democracy in Mexico, 1968-2000
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democracy in Mexico, as well as the need for self-expression.
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Economics: A widening gap between the middle and lower classes
1368:
Plaza of Sacrifices: Gender, Power, and Terror in 1968 Mexico
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succeeded in forming a political movement independent of the
50:". La Onda encompassed artistic productions in the worlds of
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Guevara Niebla, Gilberto. "1968: El Fuego de la esperanza".
1127:. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press. p.
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Mexican society had undergone a tremendous change after the
1370:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. p. 11.
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Mexico's economic situation improved in the 1950s with the
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grew and was inspired to question and challenge authority.
963:
Guaraches de ante azul: Historia del rock mexicano vol. 2
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and strongly addressed social issues of the time such as
1306:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. p. 83.
1003:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. p. 65.
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influenced many Mexican authors and intellectuals, like
166:) which attracted ca. 300,000 people in September 1971.
258:" to Jodorowski's psychedelic avant-garde masterpiece
134:
After the 1968 Mexican student movements ended in the
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Refried Elvis: The Rise of the Mexican Counterculture
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Refried Elvis: The Rise of the Mexican Counterculture
18:
Multidisciplinary artistic movement created in Mexico
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518:, Mexico, took place September 11â12, 1971 in the
1047:Aguilar CamĂn, HĂ©ctor, and Lorenzo Meyer (1993).
464:1968 Student Movement and the Tlatelolco Massacre
295:; a period of modernization pushed by the ruling
1302:Edmonds-Poli, Emily, and David A. Shirk (2009).
999:Edmonds-Poli, Emily, and David A. Shirk (2009).
287:Society from the Mexican Revolution to the 1970s
654:(First ed.). Mexico: Editoriales Diogenes.
117:began with the importation of U.S. and British
1121:Beezley, William H., and W. Dirk Raat (1986).
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1055:. Austin: University of Texas Press. p.
8:
1326:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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1177:"The Mexican Political Economy Since 1945"
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779:"Modern Latin-American Fiction Writers".
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1175:Forman, M., M. Martin, and S. Rivera.
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918:. Cambridge University Press. p.
275:In the realm of hallucinogenic drugs,
543:, El Epilogo, La Division Del Norte,
7:
297:Partido Revolucionario Institucional
158:, culminating in a two-day "Mexican
94:. According to Mexican intellectual
965:. Mexico City, Posada. p. 256.
333:As the decade went by, hippies, or
1530:List of industrial music festivals
516:Festival Rock y Ruedas in AvĂĄndaro
510:Festival Rock y Ruedas de AvĂĄndaro
90:in a country tightly ruled by the
14:
346:Politics: Single-party government
1535:List of jam band music festivals
781:Dictionary of Literary Biography
400:In 1968, Mexico City hosted the
754:. U of Pittsburgh P. pp.
667:La contracultura como protesta
186:, the generation gap, and the
1:
1783:Tuska Open Air Metal Festival
1758:Sauna Open Air Metal Festival
1704:Rock am Ring and Rock im Park
1525:List of heavy metal festivals
1304:Contemporary Mexican Politics
1001:Contemporary Mexican Politics
1945:History of Mexican Americans
887:Huautla en tiempo de hippies
794:Avant-Mier, Roberto (2005).
271:in drug use and spirituality
202:, ecologist Carlos Baca and
1540:List of punk rock festivals
914:A Concise History of Mexico
665:Marroquin, Enrique (1975).
650:Garcia, Parmenides (1972).
524:Avandaro lake and golf club
324:counterculture of the 1960s
256:5 de chocolate y 1 de fresa
32:counterculture of the 1960s
1971:
1935:Mexican literary movements
560:, peace, and unification.
496:Plaza de las Tres Culturas
224:, Jose Emilio Pacheco and
1341:Trevizo, Dolores (2011).
961:Arana, Frederico (1985).
204:Parménides Garcia Saldaña
38:. Pejoratively called as
1789:The Unholy Alliance Tour
1520:List of gothic festivals
1124:Twentieth-Century Mexico
885:Estrada, Alvaro (1996).
826:"Toward a fourth cinema"
800:(rock'n'roll in MĂ©xico)"
522:of Tenantongo, near the
246:, the Gurrola bros. and
910:Hamnett, Brian (1999).
824:Garcia, Sergio (1999).
669:(1st ed.). Mortiz.
1950:History of subcultures
1773:Summer Sanitarium Tour
1515:List of folk festivals
1366:Carey, Elaine (2005).
616:Kenny y los Eléctricos
1753:Rock Never Stops Tour
1673:Magic Circle Festival
1562:Anger Management Tour
842:10.1353/wan.2003.0005
652:En la ruta de la onda
395:1968 student movement
357:Plutarco ElĂas Calles
235:in cinema and theater
40:Literatura de la Onda
1688:Nintendo Fusion Tour
695:Zolov, Eric (1999).
417:Adolfo Ruiz Cortines
402:1968 Summer Olympics
244:Alejandro Jodorowski
1763:Sonisphere Festival
1592:Deconstruction Tour
1228:. pp. 265â266.
475:everyday resistance
421:Adolfo LĂłpez Mateos
136:Tlatelolco massacre
1748:Projekt Revolution
1636:Hard Electric Tour
1612:Fuji Rock Festival
1602:Family Values Tour
576:Mexican rock music
558:passive resistance
386:Gustavo DĂaz Ordaz
312:Mexican Revolution
293:Mexican Revolution
279:s icon was shaman
177:Starting in 1965,
146:movement known as
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1878:Sign of the horns
1582:California Jam II
1464:Refried, page=113
1352:978-0-271-03787-5
1313:978-0-7425-4049-1
1241:Missing or empty
1209:Concise>, p248
1010:978-0-7425-4049-1
804:Chapter&Verse
714:978-0-520-21514-6
586:Rock en tu idioma
314:. The harder the
218:Elena Poniatowska
200:Enrique Marroquin
198:, liberal priest
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1678:Monsters of Rock
1607:Festival Express
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1091:
1085:
1084:
1078:
1070:
1054:
1044:
1038:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1022:
1014:
996:
990:
987:
981:
980:
974:
966:
958:
952:
949:
943:
940:
934:
933:
917:
907:
901:
900:
882:
876:
875:
867:
861:
860:
858:
856:
821:
815:
814:
812:
810:
791:
785:
784:
776:
770:
769:
753:
743:
737:
734:
728:
725:
719:
718:
702:
692:
686:
685:
677:
671:
670:
662:
656:
655:
647:
222:Gabriela Brimmer
96:Carlos MonsivĂĄis
80:artistic freedom
1970:
1969:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1960:
1959:
1930:Hippie movement
1920:
1919:
1918:
1913:
1892:
1816:
1807:Wacken Open Air
1795:Uproar Festival
1683:Montebello Rock
1668:Mayhem Festival
1550:
1544:
1503:
1498:
1468:
1463:
1459:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1434:
1430:
1425:
1421:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1385:
1378:
1365:
1364:
1360:
1353:
1340:
1339:
1335:
1318:
1314:
1301:
1300:
1296:
1291:
1287:
1282:
1278:
1274:Refried, page=2
1273:
1269:
1259:
1258:
1254:
1240:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1217:
1213:
1208:
1204:
1187:
1181:
1179:
1174:
1173:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1143:
1139:
1120:
1119:
1115:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1071:
1067:
1046:
1045:
1041:
1036:
1032:
1015:
1011:
998:
997:
993:
988:
984:
967:
960:
959:
955:
950:
946:
941:
937:
930:
909:
908:
904:
897:
884:
883:
879:
869:
868:
864:
854:
852:
823:
822:
818:
808:
806:
798:La Onda roquera
793:
792:
788:
778:
777:
773:
766:
745:
744:
740:
735:
731:
726:
722:
715:
694:
693:
689:
679:
678:
674:
664:
663:
659:
649:
648:
644:
640:
635:
621:Rostros Ocultos
596:Ritmo Peligroso
591:Rock en espanol
566:
532:State of Mexico
512:
466:
429:
427:Social protests
413:Bracero Program
374:
361:LĂĄzaro CĂĄrdenas
348:
289:
273:
242:had icons like
237:
175:
156:La Onda Chicana
112:
19:
12:
11:
5:
1968:
1966:
1958:
1957:
1955:Counterculture
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1922:
1921:
1915:
1914:
1912:
1911:
1906:
1900:
1898:
1897:Related events
1894:
1893:
1891:
1890:
1885:
1883:Summer of Love
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1824:
1822:
1818:
1817:
1815:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1797:
1792:
1785:
1780:
1778:Taste of Chaos
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1728:
1721:
1714:
1707:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1626:
1621:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1577:California Jam
1574:
1569:
1564:
1558:
1556:
1546:
1545:
1543:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1511:
1509:
1505:
1504:
1501:Rock festivals
1499:
1497:
1496:
1489:
1482:
1474:
1467:
1466:
1457:
1437:
1428:
1419:
1410:
1401:
1392:
1383:
1376:
1358:
1351:
1333:
1312:
1294:
1285:
1276:
1267:
1252:
1220:
1211:
1202:
1167:
1165:Concise, p.255
1158:
1137:
1113:
1111:Concise, p.243
1104:
1102:Concise, p.241
1095:
1086:
1065:
1039:
1030:
1009:
991:
989:Refried, p.102
982:
953:
944:
935:
928:
902:
895:
877:
872:New York Times
862:
816:
786:
771:
764:
738:
729:
720:
713:
687:
672:
657:
641:
639:
636:
634:
633:
631:New York Dolls
628:
623:
618:
613:
608:
606:Ritchie Valens
603:
598:
593:
588:
583:
578:
573:
567:
565:
562:
549:Peace and Love
536:Noche Mexicana
528:Valle de Bravo
511:
508:
465:
462:
428:
425:
373:
370:
353:Ălvaro ObregĂłn
347:
344:
288:
285:
272:
266:
236:
230:
210:Alberto Blanco
174:
168:
111:
105:
68:women's rights
17:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1967:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1940:Modern Mexico
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1873:Crowd surfing
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1790:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1744:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1733:
1729:
1727:
1726:
1722:
1720:
1719:
1715:
1713:
1712:
1708:
1706:
1705:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1693:Provinssirock
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1653:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1631:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1619:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1567:Area Festival
1565:
1563:
1560:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1547:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1512:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1495:
1490:
1488:
1483:
1481:
1476:
1475:
1472:
1461:
1458:
1447:
1441:
1438:
1432:
1429:
1423:
1420:
1417:Concise, p260
1414:
1411:
1408:Concise, p260
1405:
1402:
1399:Concise, p260
1396:
1393:
1390:Concise, p260
1387:
1384:
1379:
1377:0-8263-3544-6
1373:
1369:
1362:
1359:
1354:
1348:
1344:
1337:
1334:
1329:
1323:
1315:
1309:
1305:
1298:
1295:
1292:Aguilar, p165
1289:
1286:
1280:
1277:
1271:
1268:
1263:
1256:
1253:
1248:
1235:
1224:
1221:
1218:Concise, p257
1215:
1212:
1206:
1203:
1198:
1192:
1178:
1171:
1168:
1162:
1159:
1154:
1148:
1140:
1138:0-8032-3868-1
1134:
1130:
1126:
1125:
1117:
1114:
1108:
1105:
1099:
1096:
1093:Aguilar, p184
1090:
1087:
1082:
1076:
1068:
1066:0-292-70446-1
1062:
1058:
1053:
1052:
1043:
1040:
1037:Concise, p240
1034:
1031:
1026:
1020:
1012:
1006:
1002:
995:
992:
986:
983:
978:
972:
964:
957:
954:
948:
945:
939:
936:
931:
929:0-521-61802-9
925:
921:
916:
915:
906:
903:
898:
892:
888:
881:
878:
873:
866:
863:
851:
847:
843:
839:
836:(3): 70â175.
835:
831:
827:
820:
817:
805:
801:
799:
790:
787:
782:
775:
772:
767:
765:9780822972556
761:
757:
752:
751:
742:
739:
733:
730:
724:
721:
716:
710:
706:
701:
700:
691:
688:
683:
676:
673:
668:
661:
658:
653:
646:
643:
637:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
584:
582:
579:
577:
574:
572:
569:
568:
563:
561:
559:
554:
550:
546:
542:
541:Los Dug Dug's
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
509:
507:
503:
499:
497:
491:
487:
483:
479:
476:
470:
463:
461:
459:
455:
450:
446:
440:
438:
437:authoritarian
434:
426:
424:
422:
418:
414:
409:
407:
403:
398:
396:
392:
387:
382:
380:
371:
369:
365:
362:
358:
354:
345:
343:
340:
336:
331:
327:
325:
319:
317:
313:
309:
304:
300:
298:
294:
286:
284:
282:
278:
270:
267:
265:
263:
262:
257:
253:
249:
248:Sergio GarcĂa
245:
241:
234:
231:
229:
227:
223:
219:
215:
214:Gustavo Sainz
211:
207:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
180:
173:in literature
172:
169:
167:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
132:
128:
125:
120:
119:rock and roll
116:
109:
106:
104:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
84:open drug use
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
24:
16:
1909:Concert tour
1904:Rock concert
1868:Stage diving
1853:Pogo (dance)
1842:
1799:
1787:
1730:
1723:
1718:Rock in Roma
1716:
1709:
1702:
1650:
1646:Ilosaarirock
1628:
1616:
1552:
1460:
1449:. Retrieved
1440:
1435:Trevizo, p58
1431:
1426:Trevizo, p57
1422:
1413:
1404:
1395:
1386:
1367:
1361:
1342:
1336:
1303:
1297:
1288:
1283:Refried, 121
1279:
1270:
1261:
1255:
1243:|title=
1223:
1214:
1205:
1180:. Retrieved
1170:
1161:
1123:
1116:
1107:
1098:
1089:
1050:
1042:
1033:
1000:
994:
985:
962:
956:
951:Refried p100
947:
942:Refried, p62
938:
913:
905:
889:. Grijalbo.
886:
880:
871:
865:
853:. Retrieved
833:
829:
819:
807:. Retrieved
803:
797:
789:
780:
774:
749:
741:
736:Refried, p62
732:
727:Refried, p10
723:
698:
690:
684:. p. 5.
681:
675:
666:
660:
651:
645:
611:Azul Violeta
571:Tejano music
535:
513:
504:
500:
492:
488:
484:
480:
471:
467:
445:Fidel Castro
441:
439:government.
430:
410:
399:
383:
379:urbanization
375:
366:
349:
332:
328:
320:
308:World War II
305:
301:
290:
281:MarĂa Sabina
276:
274:
268:
259:
239:
238:
232:
208:
196:JosĂ© AgustĂn
191:
190:movement."
178:
176:
170:
162:" known as (
155:
152:Mexican rock
133:
129:
123:
114:
113:
107:
99:
76:spirituality
44:Margo Glantz
39:
22:
21:
20:
15:
1863:Headbanging
1833:Heavy metal
1812:Warped Tour
1801:Vive Latino
1711:Rock in Rio
1663:Lilith Fair
1630:Good Things
1597:Doomination
1572:Big Day Out
682:Mexico 1967
680:MonsivĂĄis.
581:Latino punk
406:First World
226:Octavio Paz
142:, a native
140:Mexico City
60:visual arts
36:avant-garde
1924:Categories
1732:Ruido Fest
1658:Kuopiorock
1641:H.O.R.D.E.
1555:= ongoing)
1451:2013-12-13
1182:2013-12-13
896:9700506657
855:22 October
830:Wide Angle
809:22 October
638:References
626:Los Saicos
433:DĂaz Ordaz
184:rock music
56:literature
1888:Rivethead
1858:Punk rock
1828:Deadheads
1768:Soundwave
1725:Rock Boat
1624:Gigantour
1587:CrĂŒe Fest
1549:Traveling
1322:cite book
1234:cite book
1147:cite book
1075:cite book
1019:cite book
971:cite book
850:167676295
553:El Ritual
335:jipitecas
250:, making
160:Woodstock
148:jipitecas
88:democracy
48:jipitecas
1738:Ruisrock
1652:Knotfest
1508:Subtypes
1191:cite web
601:Caifanes
564:See also
449:tear gas
277:La Onda'
164:AvĂĄndaro
110:in music
34:and the
1848:Moshing
1843:La Onda
1838:Hippies
1821:Culture
1743:Ozzfest
1553:italics
545:Tequila
389:of the
339:hippies
269:La Onda
261:El Topo
252:Super 8
240:La Onda
233:La Onda
192:La Onda
179:La Onda
171:La Onda
115:La Onda
108:La Onda
100:La Onda
72:ecology
23:La Onda
1698:Qstock
1374:
1349:
1310:
1262:JardĂłn
1135:
1063:
1007:
926:
893:
848:
762:
758:ââ42.
711:
520:hamlet
454:Oaxaca
359:, and
188:hippie
144:hippie
52:cinema
28:Mexico
846:S2CID
64:music
1372:ISBN
1347:ISBN
1328:link
1308:ISBN
1247:help
1197:link
1153:link
1133:ISBN
1081:link
1061:ISBN
1025:link
1005:ISBN
977:link
924:ISBN
891:ISBN
857:2014
811:2014
760:ISBN
709:ISBN
514:The
419:and
212:and
86:and
62:and
1129:219
1057:162
920:240
838:doi
526:in
458:PRI
391:PRI
316:PRI
138:in
92:PRI
42:by
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1013:.
979:)
932:.
899:.
874:.
859:.
840::
813:.
768:.
717:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.