915:. The maritime air mass moves northward during the summer, producing seasonal precipitation. In late summer, continental air mass dominate again. The average annual precipitation in the Lake Chad area is 330 mm (13 in), with an average annual precipitation of 560 mm (22.0 in) on the south bank and about 250 mm (9.8 in) on the north bank. The highest temperature in the rainy season is 30 °C (86 °F), and the highest temperature rises to more than 32 °C (90 °F) when October and November enter the dry season. The temperature difference between day and night is almost twice that of the rainy season, and the lowest nighttime temperature sometimes drops to 8 °C (46 °F) in December and January. April is usually the hottest month of the year, with temperatures occasionally reaching 40 °C (104 °F) , the lowest water levels appear in June to July, and the highest water levels in November to December, with surface water temperatures ranging from 19 to 32 °C (66 to 90 °F) .
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908:(915 ft) above sea level, it will flow into the north. In the south, there is continuous open water at the mouth of the Chari River, and the western part of the water is covered by reed swamps, and the sand dunes that are not completely submerged in the eastern waters form an archipelago. The average depth of the southern lake basin is between .5 and 2 m (1 ft 8 in and 6 ft 7 in), that of the northern lake basin is between 0 and 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in), and that of the eastern archipelago is between 0 and 2 m (6 ft 7 in).
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inflow of the Chari River and the Logone River from 1970 to 1990 was only 55% of that from 1950 to 1970. Since the 1980s, one-third of the water in the Chari River and the Logone River has been diverted and intercepted by the
Central African Republic located upstream for agricultural irrigation and hydroelectric power generation. The dams built on the upper reaches of the rivers entering the lake changed the time and scope of seasonal floods and disrupted the migration of fish, resulting in a sharp reduction in the populations of
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1135:, and 84 fish species are distributed in the lake. This makes it a rich fishing ground for communities across Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon. The seasonal influx of floods combined with seasonal increases in air temperature leads to decreased salinity, increased turbidity, and increased trophic levels, which catalyzed a surge in the number of phytoplankton and zooplankton, allowing large fish to migrate seasonally within the watershed to feed and breed in the fertile floodplain when floods arrive.
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1237:, sorghum and other crops. Farmers have shifted from planting mainly dry crops, such as wheat, to rice with high water demand, resulting in more serious soil salinization and water eutrophication. The adverse effects of reduced water sources on fishing, farming, and herding outweigh the benefits of new land from the receding waters. The surrounding residents who used to rely on lake water were forced to relocate, causing the economy of the lake area to continuously shrink.
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1249:, the main catches of Lake Chad, and a significant reduction in the catch. At the same time, the conflicts between countries and ethnic groups competing for water and land are also escalating. The four countries along the lake are all facing the problem of extreme poverty, and due to the difficulty in meeting their livelihoods, some local residents have been involved in drug and arms trade. This has been exacerbated by the activity of
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relatively stable stage with a slight increase. From 1995 to 1998, it fluctuated within the range of 1,200 to 4,500 km (460 to 1,740 sq mi). The area once reached 5,075 square kilometres (1,959 sq mi) in 2000, and the average area of surface water from 2013 to 2016 was about 1,876 km (724 sq mi), with the largest area being 2,231 km (861 sq mi) in July 2015.
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shallow inland lake, and the rainfall in the Chad basin is very sensitive to small changes in atmospheric circulation, so the surface area of Lake Chad is greatly affected by climate change. Dry climate due to vegetation loss from overgrazing and deforestation and large-scale irrigation projects that diverted water from the rivers that feed the lake are the main reasons for the shrinkage of Lake Chad. The
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central area of the basin, the thickness of the sedimentary strata is large, and the thickness of the sedimentary center zone reaches over 10,000 m (33,000 ft). The northern part of the basin appears steep in the west and gentle in the east on the profile. Five fault structural zones parallel to the basin‐bounding faults have developed from west to east.
974:, approximately 480 km (300 mi) northeast of Lake Chad, with the deepest point reaching an elevation of only 155 m (509 ft) above sea level. This takes away most of the salinity and maintains the low salinity of Lake Chad. The southwestern waters of Lake Chad being freshwater, and the water in the northeast is only slightly salty.
891:: southern depression, northern depression, central uplift, and eastern slope. The southern depression of the basin is characterized by an asymmetric fault depression composite rift with steep slopes in the east and gentle slopes in the west on the profile, and is distributed in an NNW direction on the plane. There are two large basin‐bounding normal
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1268:, Chad. The commission's tasks include managing Lake Chad and its water resources, protecting the ecosystem, and promoting regional integration, peace, security, and development in the Lake Chad region. The surrounding countries' water replenishment plan for Lake Chad includes the construction of a 2,400 km (1,500 mi)
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produced in the depression on the northeast bank of the lake has long been of significant economic significance. Traditionally, it has been excavated in blocks and transported across the lake to enter the
Nigerian market. Since the drought in the 1970s, the soil that can be planted without irrigation
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grow on the shores of lakes with long floods in the south. The area of permanent vegetation has increased from about 3,800 km (1,500 sq mi) in 2000 to about 5,200 km (2,000 sq mi) in 2020 as water levels have dropped and temperatures have increased. The surrounding dense
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Since 1970, five countries in the southern part of the basin have constructed numerous water conservancy projects in the upper reaches of the Chari River, Logone River, and Yobe River to intercept river water, resulting in a sharp decrease in the amount of water entering the lake. The average annual
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From June 1966 to
January 1973, the area of Lake Chad shrank from 22,772 to 15,400 km (8,792 to 5,946 sq mi), further shrunk to 4,398 km (1,698 sq mi) in 1975, and only 1,756 km (678 sq mi) in February 1994. Since then, the area of Lake Chad has entered a
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in the south of the basin, which is transported to the lake basin through the Chari River and the Logone River. The two contribute 95% of the total inflow of Lake Chad, while the Yobe River only contributes less than 2.5%. The lake seeps through the underground to the lowest point of the Chad Basin,
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in western and central Africa respectively, with a catchment area in excess of 1,000,000 km (390,000 sq mi). It is an important wetland ecosystem in West-Central Africa. The lakeside is rich in reeds and swamps, and the plain along the lake is fertile, making it an important irrigated
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The water volume of most large lakes in Africa depends on rainfall and evaporation, which means that temperature and precipitation are crucial for regulating the water balance of these bodies of water, and any fluctuations can cause significant changes in their water level and area. Lake Chad is a
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There are more than 30 million residents in the Chad Lake Basin. There are more than 70 ethnic groups around the lake, most of whom are distributed on the south bank, where the population density exceeds 100/km (260/sq mi). They rely on the water source of Chad Lake for irrigation, breeding,
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during the rainy season. At the turn of the 20th century the area of Lake Chad shrank briefly, and reached a new high in the middle of the 20th century and overflowed from the Bahr el-Ghazal again. A major drought started in the Sahel region in the late 1960s and caused severe damage in 1972 and
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Lake Chad is divided into north and south parts by a shallow sill called the Great
Barrier, with the bottom of the northern basin at an altitude of 275.3 m (903 ft) and the bottom of the southern basin at 278.2 m (913 ft). When the water level in the south exceeds 279 m
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in the middle. The east and west sides are outward dipping low angle gentle slope areas. The eastern boundary fault is steep with a dip angle of about 55°, while the western fault has a dip angle of about 45°. The overall thickness of the inner layer in the slope area is relatively thin. In the
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1984. It was thought to be related to vegetation loss, global warming, and sea surface temperature anomalies. During this period, Lake Chad shrunk considerably and fluctuated in the range of 2,000 to 5,000 km (770 to 1,930 sq mi) thereafter.
656:, the area of Lake Chad reached 400,000 km (150,000 sq mi). Due to the increasingly arid climate, the lake surface gradually shrank. In the 19th century, Lake Chad still had an area of 28,000 km (11,000 sq mi). However, due to
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Following the growing interest in Africa among
European academic and business communities, the Lake Chad area was extensively described by Europeans in the 19th century. Three scientific expeditions were conducted between 1898 and 1909. During the
851:, which had just gained independence, experienced continuous coups, while Chad also experienced ongoing civil war. The inability of countries along the lake to consider the protection of Lake Chad has led to a series of environmental problems.
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Fishing has traditionally been the most important economic activity for the people of the lake area, which almost ceased during drought periods and only resumed in the mid-1990s. Most fishing products are dried, pickled, or smoked. The
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Mathieu
Schuster; Claude Roquin; Philippe Duringer; Michel Brunet; Matthieu Caugy; Michel Fontugne; Hassan Taïsso Mackaye; Patrick Vignaud; Jean-François Ghienne (2005). "Holocene Lake Mega-Chad palaeoshorelines from space".
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culture known as
Gajiganna had emerged, initially as pastoralists, but, starting around 1500 BC, living in settled hamlets at the side of the lake. The archaeological discovery revealed wild grasses, mostly of the tribe
2323:
Richard Ogutu-Ohwayo; Vianny
Natugonza; Laban Musinguzi; Mark Olokotum; Shamim Naigaga (2016). "Implications of climate variability and change for African lake ecosystems, fisheries productivity, and livelihoods".
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in the strata. This has been called Mega-Chad. The maximum depth of Mega-Chad exceeds 180 m (590 ft) and covers an area of approximately 400,000 km (150,000 sq mi), flowed into the
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in
Nigeria, and the country and Cameroon have established the Lake Chad Ramsar Wetland with a total area of 8,225 km (3,176 sq mi). The wetland plants in the south mainly include
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in the northeast of Lake Chad. At the beginning of the founding of the country, the Kanem people continued to live a nomadic life until the 11th century, when they were
Islamized and settled in
843:. At the beginning of independence, the countries surrounding Lake Chad not only had a poor economic foundation, but also had more complex ethnic, religious, and political conflicts.
757:. One of the oldest domesticated Pearl millet in West Africa was found in the Chad Basin, charred together with wild grasses, and their era can be traced back to 800–1000 cal BC.
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and human water diversion, Lake Chad has been greatly reduced since the mid-1970s, and its area has fluctuated between 2,000 and 5,000 km (770 and 1,930 sq mi).
2260:
Jacques Lemoalle; Jean-Claude Bader; Marc Leblanc; Ahmed Sedick (January 2012). "Recent changes in Lake Chad: Observations, simulations and management options (1973–2011)".
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Churchill Okonkwo; Belay Demoz; Ricardo Sakai; Charles Ichoku; Chigozie Anarado; Jimmy Adegoke; Angelina Amadou; Sanusi Imran Abdullahi; Nir Krakauer (15 December 2015).
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is of great significance in the region. However, the reduction in forest area has had a negative impact on the production of these products, and the explosive growth of
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began importing firearms from North Africa, consolidating its military hegemony. The Bornu Empire declined in the 18th century, and later lost its western region to the
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The entire Chad Basin has 179 species of fish, of which 127 are the same as the Niger River Basin, 85 are the same as the Nile River Basin, 47 are the same as the
1871:
Marlies Klee; Barbara Zach (1999). "The Exploitation of Wild and Domesticated Food Plants at Settlement Mounds in North-East Nigeria (1800 cal BC to Today)".
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in 1884–1885, Africa was divided between the European colonial powers. By the second decade of the 20th century, Lake Chad had been colonized and occupied by
1292: cu yd) of water from the Congo River Basin to the Chari River Basin every year, and use a series of dams along the route to generate electricity.
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region. From the early 1960s to the mid-1980s, the lake water level decreased by 3 m (9.8 ft) compared to the average level from 1900 to 2010.
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807:, the power of the Kanem Empire reached its peak in the 13th century, but as the empire declined in the 14th century, its southwestern vassal state of
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Lake Chad is divided into deeper southern parts and shallower northern parts. The water source of the lake mainly comes from rivers such as the
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788:. After the Arabs conquered North Africa during the 7th and 8th centuries, the Chad Basin became increasingly linked to the Muslim countries.
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sand dunes began to form in the north of the basin. The area of Lake Chad experienced four heydays between 39,000 BC and 300 BC, leaving thick
2488:"Monitoring Recent Fluctuations of the Southern Pool of Lake Chad Using Multiple Remote Sensing Data: Implications for Water Balance Analysis"
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are distributed in the wetlands. At present, most of the large mammals have been hunted to extinction, replaced by a large number of cattle.
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Ogundiran, Akinwumi (2005). "Four Millennia of Cultural History in Nigeria (ca. 2000 B.C.–A.D. 1900): Archaeological Perspectives".
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Leblanc, M.; Favreau, G.; Maley, J.; Nazoumou, Y.; Leduc, C.; Stagnitti, F.; van Oevelen, P. J.; Delclaux, F.; Lemoalle, J. (2006).
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began to rise, causing the power center of the empire to shift to Bornu around 1400. In the second half of the 16th century, the
696:, the basin had abundant water sources. Towards the end of this period the climate became drier. Around 20,000–40,000 years ago,
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agricultural area. The lake is rich in aquatic resources and is one of the important freshwater fish producing areas in Africa.
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Trade and improved agricultural techniques enabled more sophisticated societies. Around 900 AD, the Kanem people who spoke the
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that enter the lake. The water level varies greatly seasonally, and the area of the lake also changes dramatically. During the
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Permanent villages were established to the south of the lake by 500 BC, and major archaeological discoveries include the
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and fertilization has been exposed at the bottom of the lake, and it has been reclaimed as a polder for planting maize,
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2669:(Report). Office of Sustainable Development, Africa Bureau, USAID. p. 3. SD Technical Paper No. 45. Archived from
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2151:[A preliminary study on the tectonic characteristics and hydrocarbon accumulation law of the Lake Chad Basin].
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In 1870, the area of Lake Chad was about 28,000 km (11,000 sq mi). The lake was able to flow out of the
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2455:"Combined effect of El Niño southern oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation on Lake Chad level variability"
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Binh Pham-Duc; Florence Sylvestre; Fabrice Papa; Frédéric Frappart; Camille Bouchez; Jean-Francois Crétaux (2020).
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3110:
3085:
2689:"Fluctuations in the Size of Lake Chad: Consequences on the Livelihoods of the Riverain Peoples in Eastern Niger"
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2185:[Monitoring of water surface change in Lake Chad in Africa based on multi-source remote sensing data].
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880:
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1465:
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2732:"The Effects of Climate Change in the Poorest Countries: Evidence from the Permanent Shrinking of Lake Chad"
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1072:. It is an important wintering ground for European anatididae and wading birds. There are raptors such as
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1950:
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2099:[Lake Chad: From "Cradle of Civilization" to "Heart of Death"]. China Water Resources News.
1253:, an insurgency that has displaced millions of people and disrupted development through the region.
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bedrock covered by more than 3,600 m (11,800 ft) of sedimentary deposits. For most of the
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herds has exacerbated this impact. Cattle are the most important livestock raised, as well as
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during the early 19th century. It was later colonised by European powers in the 20th century.
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Roman D. Zarate; Remi Jedwab; Federico Haslop; Carlos Rodríguez-Castelán (5 September 2023).
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ethnic group also migrated to Lake Chad during this period. Agriculture also emerged in the
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2356:"The effects of changes in the world hydrological cycle on availability of water resources"
2389:"Remote sensing for groundwater modelling in large semiarid areas:Lake Chad Basin, Africa"
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1172:. Gourd is widely planted for making utensils. The collection of forest products such as
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Lake Chad is permanently or seasonally inhabited by hundreds of species of birds such as
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2921:. FAO Interdepartmental Working Group on Biological Diversity for Food and Agriculture.
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The climate of the Lake Chad region is strongly influenced by continental and maritime
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The Inland Waters of Tropical Africa: An Introduction to Tropical Limnology Hardcover
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1655:(in Chinese (China)) (03 ed.). Beijing: Encyclopedia of China Publishing House.
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965:. The water supply of the lake is seasonal. Most of the precipitation comes from the
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provided conditions for the emergence of lakeside fishermen's settlements, and the
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2758:"Water and Food Sustainability in the Riparian Countries of Lake Chad in Africa"
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2521:"Recent surface water extent of Lake Chad from multispectral sensors and GRACE"
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can be observed on the lake at one time. The once common large mammals include
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1748:"Reconstruction of Megalake Chad using Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission data"
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mainly grow in the north where the salinity is high, and the floating plant
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This article is about the lake in Africa. For the lake in Antarctica, see
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Shrinking of Lake Chad over the last 7000 years, with the outline of the
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2219:"Fishing and farming at Lake Chad: Responses to lake-level fluctuations"
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West Africa During the Atlantic Slave Trade: Archaeological Perspectives
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in the mid-2nd century AD, the Romans of the 1st century AD had already
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2296:[The environment, security and vulnerability of Lake Chad].
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animal husbandry and drinking. Local self-sufficient crops include
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on 22 May 1964. The Central African Republic joined in 1996, and
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joined in 2008. The headquarters of the committee is located in
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839:, defining boundaries that are largely intact with the present
2915:
Caterina Batello; Marzio Marzot; Adamou Harouna Touré (2004).
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was severely affected by the droughts of the 1970s and 1980s.
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2035:. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 101-103+188-190+249-256.
2519:
Willibroad Gabila Buma; Sang-Il Lee; Jae Young Seo (2018).
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sometimes covers large areas of open water. Plants such as
953: km (390,000 sq mi), and is injected by the
628:
freshwater lake located at the junction of four countries:
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2664:
Considerations of Wildlife Resources and Land Use in Chad
1913:. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 103.
749:, and wild rice together with the earliest domesticated
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with Lake Chad through their connections with Tunisia,
2756:
Olowoyeye, Oluwatuyi S.; Kanwar, Rameshwar S. (2023).
2610:"The Lake Chad hydrology under current climate change"
1995:
Appiah, Kwame Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (2010).
2948:
BIOsphere and Heritage of Lake Chad (BIOPALT) project
2687:
Luxereau, A.; Genthon, P.; Ambouta, J.-M. K. (2011).
1873:
The Exploitation of Plant Resources in Ancient Africa
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The changing geography of Africa and the Middle East
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unified numerous nomadic tribes and established the
1256:Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria, and Chad established the
780:. By the 5th century AD camels were being used for
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2360:Global climate change and agricultural production
2217:Marie-Thérèse Sarch; Charon Birkett (June 2000).
1752:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
1041:woodland has been converted to open forest with
2300:(in Chinese (China)) (7): 21–23. Archived from
2486:Wengbin Zhu; Jiabao Yan; Shaofeng Jia (2017).
1147:Building a temporary house in Lake Chad region
2988:
2662:Keith, J. O.; Plowes, D. C. H. (March 1997).
1020:Part of the Chad Basin is located within the
895:developed on both sides of the basin, with a
883:. It is an extensional fault depression type
753:in the Lake Chad region, dating to 1200–1000
8:
2896:Chapman, Graham; Baker, Kathleen M. (1992).
2387:Leblanc, M.; Favreau, G.; Tweed, S. (2007).
1715:Geology and Mineral Resources of West Africa
1080:on the lakeshore, and more than one million
82:
67:
52:
887:, which can be divided into four secondary
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2981:
2973:
2881:(1th ed.). Longman Publishing Group.
1823:. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 19–31.
863:Map showing the Chari River drainage basin
40:
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2546:
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1551:. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
2001:. Oxford University Press. p. 254.
1681:Geology and Mineral Resources of Nigeria
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943:The Chad Basin covers an area of about 1
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2358:. In Bazzaz, F.; Sombroek, W. (eds.).
1621:from the original on 24 September 2012
2854:Hughes, R. H.; Hughes, J. S. (1992).
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1941:Johnston, H. H. (1910). "Lake Chad".
1678:Obaje, Nuhu George (12 August 2009).
1583:Hughes, R. H.; Hughes, J. S. (1992).
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2428:United Nations Environment Programme
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1501:from the original on 1 February 2020
688:. The floor of the basin is made of
684:was formed by the depression of the
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986:have affected precipitation in the
784:via the Fezzan, or to the east via
740:region at this time. By 1800 BC, a
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364:2,000 km (770 sq mi)
53:
2831:from the original on 9 August 2019
2821:"Can the vanishing lake be saved?"
2058:"Conference of Berlin (1884–1885)"
1488:"Partie Camerounaise du Lac Tchad"
728:The vast waters formed during the
676:(blue) and in 20th century (green)
25:
2800:from the original on 15 July 2023
2589:from the original on 15 July 2023
1712:Wright, J.B. (30 November 1985).
1659:from the original on 13 June 2023
1555:from the original on 22 July 2019
1468:from the original on 23 June 2018
1435:from the original on 23 June 2018
1402:from the original on 23 June 2018
980:Atlantic multidecadal oscillation
247:
217:
187:
157:
127:
2963:Lake Chad in World Lake Database
1907:Decorse, Christopher R. (2001).
1422:"Partie tchadienne du lac Tchad"
1330:
1316:
1302:
567:Partie Camerounaise du Lac Tchad
246:
239:
216:
209:
186:
179:
156:
149:
126:
119:
102:
3096:Flooded grasslands and savannas
2856:A Directory of African Wetlands
2362:. FAO / John Wiley & Sons.
2326:Journal of Great Lakes Research
2270:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.07.004
2161:10.16539/j.ddgzyckx.2008.03.013
2147:黄先雄; 夏斌; 万志峰; 吕宝凤; 蔡周荣 (2008).
1804:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.02.001
1586:A Directory of African Wetlands
1455:"Lake Chad Wetlands in Nigeria"
367:
359:
2953:The Ups and Downs of Lake Chad
764:. According to the records of
493:Partie tchadienne du lac Tchad
372:2 m (6 ft 7 in)
1:
3161:International lakes of Africa
2918:The Future is an Ancient Lake
2693:Regional Environmental Change
2472:10.1080/23312041.2015.1117829
717:, and finally flows into the
530:Lake Chad Wetlands in Nigeria
268:
2819:Ross, Will (31 March 2018).
2264:. 80–81 (247–254): 247–254.
1764:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.01.003
984:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
3106:Geography of Central Africa
2958:Lake Chad in worldlakes.org
2579:"Lake Chad Flooded Savanna"
2577:Emma Martin; Neil Burgess.
2262:Global and Planetary Change
2200:10.11820/dlkxjz.2013.06.007
1881:10.1007/978-1-4757-6730-8_8
1846:Journal of World Prehistory
1365:, vast swamp in South Sudan
3177:
2943:Lake Chad Basin Commission
2794:Lake Chad Basin Commission
2627:10.1038/s41598-020-62417-w
2338:10.1016/j.jglr.2016.03.004
2127:Lake Chad Basin Commission
1792:Quaternary Science Reviews
1258:Lake Chad Basin Commission
31:
3066:Endorheic lakes of Africa
3010:
2705:10.1007/s10113-011-0267-0
2405:10.1007/s10040-006-0126-0
2064:. ABC-CLIO. p. 139.
1858:10.1007/s10963-006-9003-y
1495:Sites Information Service
1462:Sites Information Service
1429:Sites Information Service
1396:Sites Information Service
1348:, an inland delta in Mali
1015:Lake Chad flooded savanna
591:
587:
550:
513:
476:
113:
101:
48:
3146:Ramsar sites in Cameroon
2424:"Lake Chad: almost gone"
2223:The Geographical Journal
2095:熊正坤; 张瑾 (8 April 2021).
2056:Harlow, Barbara (2003).
1718:. Springer. p. 95.
1684:. Springer. p. 69.
1022:Chad Basin National Park
881:Central African Republic
867:The Chad Basin includes
3156:Ramsar sites in Nigeria
3136:Cameroon–Nigeria border
1998:Encyclopaedia of Africa
1549:Encyclopedia Britannica
2877:Beadle, L. C. (1974).
2430:(UNEP). Archived from
2189:(in Chinese (China)).
2183:"基于多源遥感数据的非洲乍得湖水面变化监测"
2181:刘甜甜; 刘荣高; 葛全胜 (2013).
1354:, former lake in Sudan
1148:
1017:
940:
932:
864:
677:
664:Prehistory and history
621:
276:at the conjunction of
83:
68:
34:Lake Chad (Antarctica)
29:Lake in Central Africa
3151:Ramsar sites in Niger
1653:Encyclopedia of China
1324:Earth sciences portal
1146:
1013:
938:
926:
862:
671:
387:Bogomerom Archipelago
3141:Ramsar sites in Chad
3131:Cameroon–Chad border
3126:Niger–Nigeria border
3101:Ecoregions of Africa
2393:Hydrogeology Journal
2149:"乍得湖盆地构造特征与油气成藏规律初探"
2097:"乍得湖：从"文明摇篮"到"死亡之心""
1798:(16–17): 1821–1827.
1604:. pp. 329–330.
1358:List of drying lakes
841:post-colonial states
730:African humid period
674:African humid period
654:African humid period
170:Show map of Cameroon
3121:Chad–Nigeria border
2968:Lake Chad | UN News
2775:10.3390/su151310009
2434:on 16 December 2008
2029:Kevin Shillington.
1955:1910Natur..84..244J
1817:Kevin Shillington.
1086:red-fronted gazelle
939:Lake Chad 1972–2007
931:for size comparison
805:trans-Saharan trade
782:trans-Saharan trade
706:lacustrine deposits
230:Show map of Nigeria
2614:Scientific Reports
2354:Evans, T. (1996).
1149:
1018:
941:
933:
865:
702:diatomaceous earth
678:
580:Reference no.
543:Reference no.
506:Reference no.
469:Reference no.
260:Show map of Africa
3116:Chad–Niger border
3091:Lakes of Cameroon
3048:
3047:
3035:Tibesti Soda Lake
2869:978-2-88032-949-5
2538:10.3390/s18072082
2505:10.3390/rs9101032
2459:Cogent Geoscience
2071:978-1-57607-335-3
2032:History of Africa
2008:978-0-19-533770-9
1949:(2130): 244–245.
1920:978-0-7185-0247-8
1890:978-1-4419-3316-4
1820:History of Africa
1725:978-0-04-556001-1
1691:978-3-540-92684-9
1346:Inner Niger Delta
1133:Congo River Basin
1062:northern shoveler
972:Bodélé Depression
825:Berlin Conference
770:come into contact
595:
594:
200:Show map of Niger
108:Lake Chad in 2018
16:(Redirected from
3168:
3111:Border tripoints
3086:Lakes of Nigeria
2997:
2990:
2983:
2974:
2932:
2911:
2892:
2873:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2816:
2810:
2809:
2807:
2805:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2777:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2742:
2727:
2721:
2720:
2718:
2716:
2707:. Archived from
2684:
2678:
2677:
2676:on 18 June 2023.
2675:
2668:
2659:
2650:
2649:
2639:
2629:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2594:
2583:www.oneearth.org
2574:
2561:
2560:
2550:
2540:
2516:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2439:
2420:
2409:
2408:
2384:
2378:
2377:
2376:on 18 June 2023.
2372:. Archived from
2351:
2342:
2341:
2320:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2304:on 21 March 2023
2294:"乍得湖的环境、安全及其脆弱性"
2289:
2274:
2273:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2237:. Archived from
2214:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2178:
2165:
2164:
2144:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2133:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2092:
2083:
2082:
2080:
2078:
2053:
2047:
2046:
2026:
2020:
2019:
2017:
2015:
1992:
1983:
1982:
1963:10.1038/084244a0
1938:
1932:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1904:
1895:
1894:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1786:
1780:
1779:
1777:
1775:
1766:. Archived from
1743:
1737:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1664:
1644:
1631:
1630:
1628:
1626:
1620:
1591:
1580:
1565:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1543:Gritzner, J. A.
1540:
1511:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1484:
1478:
1477:
1475:
1473:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1385:
1369:Wildlife of Chad
1340:
1335:
1334:
1326:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1312:
1307:
1306:
1305:
1288:
1287:
1278:
1277:
1272:to transport 100
1243:Alestes baremoze
1218:animal husbandry
1139:Human activities
1110:African elephant
1038:hyparrhenia rufa
949:
948:
899:style fault and
889:structural units
817:Sokoto Caliphate
766:Claudius Ptolemy
762:Sao civilization
607:
321:
320:Primary outflows
299:
261:
250:
249:
243:
231:
220:
219:
213:
201:
190:
189:
183:
171:
160:
159:
153:
141:
140:Show map of Chad
130:
129:
123:
106:
94:
86:
79:
71:
64:
56:
55:
41:
21:
3176:
3175:
3171:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3165:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3044:
3006:
3001:
2939:
2929:
2914:
2908:
2895:
2889:
2876:
2870:
2853:
2850:
2848:Further reading
2845:
2844:
2834:
2832:
2818:
2817:
2813:
2803:
2801:
2788:
2787:
2783:
2768:(13): 10009:2.
2755:
2754:
2750:
2740:
2738:
2729:
2728:
2724:
2714:
2712:
2711:on 14 June 2023
2686:
2685:
2681:
2673:
2666:
2661:
2660:
2653:
2607:
2606:
2602:
2592:
2590:
2576:
2575:
2564:
2518:
2517:
2513:
2485:
2484:
2480:
2452:
2451:
2447:
2437:
2435:
2422:
2421:
2412:
2386:
2385:
2381:
2370:
2353:
2352:
2345:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2307:
2305:
2291:
2290:
2277:
2259:
2258:
2254:
2244:
2242:
2241:on 18 June 2023
2216:
2215:
2208:
2180:
2179:
2168:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2131:
2129:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2106:
2104:
2094:
2093:
2086:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2055:
2054:
2050:
2043:
2028:
2027:
2023:
2013:
2011:
2009:
1994:
1993:
1986:
1940:
1939:
1935:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1906:
1905:
1898:
1891:
1870:
1869:
1865:
1843:
1842:
1838:
1831:
1816:
1815:
1811:
1788:
1787:
1783:
1773:
1771:
1770:on 13 June 2023
1745:
1744:
1740:
1730:
1728:
1726:
1711:
1710:
1706:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1677:
1676:
1672:
1662:
1660:
1646:
1645:
1634:
1624:
1622:
1618:
1612:
1589:
1582:
1581:
1568:
1558:
1556:
1542:
1541:
1514:
1504:
1502:
1486:
1485:
1481:
1471:
1469:
1453:
1452:
1448:
1438:
1436:
1420:
1419:
1415:
1405:
1403:
1387:
1386:
1382:
1377:
1336:
1329:
1322:
1317:
1315:
1308:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1285:
1283:
1275:
1273:
1141:
1026:cyperus papyrus
1008:
967:Adamawa Plateau
946:
944:
921:
857:
793:Kanuri language
666:
575:2 February 2010
559:
522:
485:
448:
435:
335: countries
298:Primary inflows
265:
264:
263:
262:
259:
258:
257:
256:
255:
251:
234:
233:
232:
229:
228:
227:
226:
225:
221:
204:
203:
202:
199:
198:
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196:
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191:
174:
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172:
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168:
167:
166:
165:
161:
144:
143:
142:
139:
138:
137:
136:
135:
131:
109:
97:
88:
73:
58:
37:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3174:
3172:
3164:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3081:Lakes of Niger
3078:
3073:
3071:Shrunken lakes
3068:
3063:
3053:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3043:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3002:
3000:
2999:
2992:
2985:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2938:
2937:External links
2935:
2934:
2933:
2927:
2912:
2906:
2893:
2888:978-0582448520
2887:
2874:
2868:
2849:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2811:
2781:
2762:Sustainability
2748:
2722:
2699:(3): 507–521.
2679:
2651:
2620:(5498): 5498.
2600:
2562:
2511:
2492:Remote Sensing
2478:
2445:
2410:
2379:
2368:
2343:
2332:(3): 498–510.
2315:
2275:
2252:
2229:(2): 156–172.
2206:
2193:(6): 906–912.
2166:
2155:(3): 326–331.
2139:
2114:
2084:
2070:
2048:
2041:
2021:
2007:
1984:
1933:
1919:
1896:
1889:
1863:
1836:
1829:
1809:
1781:
1758:(1–2): 16–27.
1738:
1724:
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1670:
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1342:
1341:
1327:
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1294:
1140:
1137:
1066:Egyptian goose
1007:
1004:
995:Bahr el-Ghazal
920:
917:
856:
853:
719:Atlantic Ocean
686:African Shield
665:
662:
658:climate change
593:
592:
589:
588:
585:
584:
581:
577:
576:
573:
569:
568:
565:
561:
560:
557:Ramsar Wetland
555:
552:
551:
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547:
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539:
536:
532:
531:
528:
524:
523:
520:Ramsar Wetland
518:
515:
514:
511:
510:
507:
503:
502:
501:14 August 2001
499:
495:
494:
491:
487:
486:
483:Ramsar Wetland
481:
478:
477:
474:
473:
470:
466:
465:
462:
458:
457:
454:
450:
449:
446:Ramsar Wetland
444:
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326:Bahr el-Ghazal
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3119:
3117:
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3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3076:Lakes of Chad
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3058:
3056:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3012:
3009:
3005:
3004:Lakes of Chad
2998:
2993:
2991:
2986:
2984:
2979:
2978:
2975:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2940:
2936:
2930:
2928:92-5-105064-3
2924:
2920:
2919:
2913:
2909:
2907:9780203034507
2903:
2900:. Routledge.
2899:
2894:
2890:
2884:
2880:
2875:
2871:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2852:
2851:
2847:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2815:
2812:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2785:
2782:
2776:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2752:
2749:
2737:
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2726:
2723:
2710:
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2680:
2672:
2665:
2658:
2656:
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2647:
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2638:
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2628:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2604:
2601:
2588:
2584:
2580:
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2569:
2567:
2563:
2558:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2515:
2512:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2482:
2479:
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2468:
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2460:
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2433:
2429:
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2411:
2406:
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2371:
2369:92-5-103987-9
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2115:
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2098:
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2067:
2063:
2059:
2052:
2049:
2044:
2042:9781137524812
2038:
2034:
2033:
2025:
2022:
2010:
2004:
2000:
1999:
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1989:
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1070:marabou stork
1067:
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929:British Isles
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672:Lake Chad in
670:
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631:
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566:
564:Official name
558:
549:
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538:30 April 2008
537:
529:
527:Official name
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492:
490:Official name
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453:Official name
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294:
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279:
275:
274:Sahelian zone
272:
242:
212:
182:
152:
122:
112:
105:
100:
92:
85:
81:
77:
70:
66:
62:
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47:
42:
39:
35:
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2793:
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2735:
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2709:the original
2696:
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2671:the original
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2582:
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2432:the original
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2374:the original
2359:
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2325:
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2306:. Retrieved
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2292:袁宣民 (2016).
2261:
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2126:
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2075:. Retrieved
2061:
2051:
2031:
2024:
2012:. Retrieved
1997:
1946:
1942:
1936:
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1768:the original
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1652:
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1585:
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1470:. Retrieved
1458:
1449:
1437:. Retrieved
1425:
1416:
1404:. Retrieved
1392:
1383:
1352:Lake Ptolemy
1338:Water portal
1310:Lakes portal
1289:
1282: m (130
1279:
1255:
1239:
1222:
1150:
1130:
1118:hippopotamus
1094:patas monkey
1090:dama gazelle
1078:booted eagle
1074:steppe eagle
1059:
1019:
1000:
992:
976:
950:
942:
910:
906:
866:
821:
813:Bornu Empire
797:Kanem Empire
790:
774:Tripolitania
759:
751:Pearl millet
734:Nilo-Saharan
727:
721:through the
713:through the
679:
647:
613:
597:
596:
464:17 June 2001
361:Surface area
312:Ngadda River
38:
26:
2531:(7): 2082.
2123:"about-map"
2062:Colonialism
1649:"Lake Chad"
1545:"Lake Chad"
1389:"Lac Tchad"
963:Yobe Rivers
871:, Nigeria,
723:Niger River
711:Benue River
690:Precambrian
650:Chari River
393:Settlements
304:Chari River
3055:Categories
2835:28 January
2790:"About us"
2736:World Bank
2438:5 December
2399:: 97–100.
1852:(2): 138.
1375:References
1251:Boko Haram
1247:Nile perch
1174:gum arabic
1170:vegetables
913:air masses
901:depression
885:rift basin
879:, and the
803:. Through
715:Mayo Kébbi
694:Quaternary
682:Chad Basin
606:بحيرة تشاد
572:Designated
535:Designated
498:Designated
461:Designated
432:, Cameroon
369:Max. depth
308:Yobe River
54:بحيرة تشاد
3061:Lake Chad
2107:1 January
1971:1476-4687
1875:: 81–88.
1266:N'Djamena
1122:sitatunga
919:Hydrology
875:, Niger,
855:Geography
698:eolianite
626:endorheic
622:Lac Tchad
598:Lake Chad
456:Lac Tchad
414:, Nigeria
408:, Nigeria
254:Lake Chad
224:Lake Chad
194:Lake Chad
164:Lake Chad
134:Lake Chad
84:Lac Tchad
44:Lake Chad
18:Lac Tchad
2829:Archived
2798:Archived
2646:32218517
2587:Archived
2557:29958481
2153:大地构造与成矿学
2132:26 March
2101:Archived
1657:Archived
1616:Archived
1553:Archived
1505:25 April
1499:Archived
1472:25 April
1466:Archived
1439:25 April
1433:Archived
1406:25 April
1400:Archived
1296:See also
1186:firewood
1108:, while
982:and the
873:Cameroon
747:Paniceae
642:Cameroon
624:) is an
418:N'guigmi
343:Cameroon
282:Cameroon
270:Location
2804:15 July
2741:8 April
2715:13 June
2637:7099084
2593:15 July
2548:6069056
2525:Sensors
2308:13 June
2245:18 June
1979:8682184
1951:Bibcode
1774:13 June
1663:11 June
1625:14 June
1559:13 June
1214:donkeys
1194:poultry
1182:beeswax
1154:sorghum
1106:caracal
1102:cheetah
1047:baobabs
1043:acacias
1028:, etc.
1006:Ecology
845:Nigeria
837:Germany
829:Britain
742:pottery
630:Nigeria
426:, Niger
420:, Niger
382:Islands
347:Nigeria
286:Nigeria
3025:Fianga
2925:
2904:
2885:
2866:
2644:
2634:
2555:
2545:
2366:
2235:823109
2233:
2187:地理科学进展
2068:
2039:
2005:
1977:
1969:
1943:Nature
1917:
1887:
1827:
1722:
1688:
1608:
1493:Ramsar
1460:Ramsar
1427:Ramsar
1394:Ramsar
1231:cowpea
1226:natron
1216:. The
1212:, and
1210:horses
1206:camels
1190:cattle
1184:, and
1168:, and
1034:pistia
961:, and
959:Logone
897:graben
835:, and
833:France
786:Darfur
778:Fezzan
776:, and
755:cal BC
640:, and
618:French
610:Kanuri
602:Arabic
430:Makary
406:Abadam
402:, Chad
288:, and
91:French
87:
76:Kanuri
72:
61:Arabic
57:
3030:Katam
3020:Fitri
2674:(PDF)
2667:(PDF)
2465:(1).
2231:JSTOR
2077:6 May
2014:6 May
1975:S2CID
1926:6 May
1731:6 May
1697:6 May
1619:(PDF)
1590:(PDF)
1270:canal
1262:Libya
1202:sheep
1198:goats
1178:honey
1166:beans
1158:maize
1114:otter
1051:palms
1030:Reeds
988:Sahel
955:Chari
893:fault
877:Sudan
849:Niger
809:Bornu
801:Njimi
738:Sahel
634:Niger
424:Bosso
351:Niger
333:Basin
290:Niger
3015:Chad
2923:ISBN
2902:ISBN
2883:ISBN
2864:ISBN
2860:IUCN
2837:2019
2806:2023
2743:2024
2717:2023
2642:PMID
2595:2023
2553:PMID
2440:2015
2364:ISBN
2310:2023
2298:世界科学
2247:2023
2134:2024
2109:2024
2079:2013
2066:ISBN
2037:ISBN
2016:2013
2003:ISBN
1967:ISSN
1928:2013
1915:ISBN
1885:ISBN
1825:ISBN
1776:2023
1733:2013
1720:ISBN
1699:2013
1686:ISBN
1665:2023
1627:2023
1606:ISBN
1602:WCMC
1598:UNEP
1594:IUCN
1561:2023
1507:2018
1474:2018
1441:2018
1408:2018
1363:Sudd
1245:and
1235:rice
1124:and
1104:and
1082:ruff
1076:and
1068:and
1053:and
970:the
869:Chad
847:and
704:and
680:The
638:Chad
614:Sádǝ
583:1903
546:1749
509:1134
472:1072
412:Baga
339:Chad
278:Chad
69:Sádǝ
3040:Yoa
2825:BBC
2770:doi
2701:doi
2632:PMC
2622:doi
2543:PMC
2533:doi
2500:doi
2467:doi
2401:doi
2334:doi
2266:doi
2227:166
2195:doi
2157:doi
1959:doi
1877:doi
1854:doi
1800:doi
1760:doi
1756:239
1126:kob
616:,
400:Bol
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