311:
been observed between the amount of suckling and the contraceptive effect, such that the combination of feeding on demand rather than on a schedule and feeding only breast milk rather than supplementing the diet with other foods will greatly extend the period of effective contraception. In fact, it was found that among the
Hutterites, more frequent bouts of nursing, in addition to maintenance of feeding in the night hours, led to longer lactational amenorrhea. An additional study that references this phenomenon cross-culturally was completed in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and has similar findings. Mothers who breastfed exclusively longer showed a longer span of lactational amenorrhea, ranging from an average of 5.3 months in mothers who breastfed exclusively for only two months to an average of 9.6 months in mothers who did so for six months. Another factor shown to affect the length of amenorrhea was the mother's age. The older a woman was, the longer period of lactational amenorrhea she demonstrated. The same increase in length was found in
288:
hypothesis states that women with more available energy or caloric/metabolic resources will likely resume ovarian function sooner, because breastfeeding represents a proportionally lower burden on their overall metabolic function. Women with less available energy experience a proportionally higher burden due to breastfeeding and therefore have less surplus metabolic energy to invest in continued reproduction. The metabolic load model is therefore consistent with the nursing intensity hypothesis, in that more intense nursing increases the relative metabolic burden of breastfeeding on the mother. It also takes into account the overall energy supply of the mother in determining whether she has enough caloric/metabolic resources available to her to make reproduction possible. If net energy supply is high enough, a woman will resume ovarian cycling sooner despite still breastfeeding the current infant.
275:. Prolactin and oxytocin trigger the release (letdown) of milk and its ejection from the nipple in a positive feedback loop. It was previously thought that prolactin hormone, which is released by the anterior pituitary in response to the direct nerve stimulation of suckling, was responsible for creating the hormonal pathways necessary to sustain amenorrhea. Now, however, it seems that this relationship is one of correlation not causation as prolactin levels in the blood plasma are simply an indicator of suckling frequency. Suckling, and the subsequent release of prolactin, is not directly responsible for postpartum infecundity. Rather it is one mechanism that increases milk production, thereby increasing the metabolic cost of breastfeeding to mothers, which contributes to sustained infecundity.
336:
after their first menses after the 56 days postpartum time period. Supplementing nutritional intake can lead to an earlier return of menses and ovulation than exclusive breastfeeding. Nursing more frequently for a shorter amount of time was shown to be more successful in prolonging amenorrhea than nursing longer but less frequently. The continuing of breastfeeding, while introducing solids after 6 months, to 12 months were shown to have an efficiency rate of 92.6 – 96.3 percent in pregnancy prevention. Because of this some women find that breastfeeding interferes with fertility even after ovulation has resumed.
427:
practices of mothers. To make sure infants are getting fully enriching breast milk, mothers must take their own nutritional practices seriously, leading to an overall improvement of nutrition. An area in Kenya further provides evidence that there is a substantial link between proper nutrition and LAM, specifically with infants. This exclusive use of breastfeeding has a positive impact on preventing pregnancy as well as reducing child mortality. The promotion of LAM has shown an increase in breast feeding overall, resulting in better prospects of survival for infants.
423:
knowledge is not necessarily evident in other parts of the globe as exemplified in South-Eastern
Hungary with the use of post-partum contraceptives. There is an imbalance of birth control method usage postpartum. LAM makes up nearly double the usage of other contraceptive usages. One of the primary factors influencing choice of contraceptive in this area is level of education. A higher level of education correlates to a bigger chance of utilizing effective contraception methods rather than LAM.
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40:
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durations of the feedings determine how long the mother will continue to be infecund during breastfeeding. However there is variation across different cultures. The
Turkana, Gainj, and Quechua societies all breastfeed on demand until their child is around 2 years old. The timing of returned ovulation for these women is however varied. Because of this, interbirth intervals vary across these three societies.
323:. Furthermore, the closer a woman's behavior is to the Seven Standards (see below) of ecological breastfeeding, the later (on average) her cycles will return. Overall, there are many factors including frequency of nursing, mother's age, parity, and introduction of supplemental foods into the infant's diet among others which can influence return of
419:
methods in various countries and areas of the world. Additionally, the connection between LAM use and infant nutrition and health has been examined in different contexts. Beyond the physiological factors that influence lactational amenorrhea, cross cultural differences can help account for many of the variations in lactational amenorrhea.
335:
Although the first post-partum cycle is sometimes anovulatory (reducing the likelihood of becoming pregnant again before having a post-partum period), subsequent cycles are almost always ovulatory and therefore must be considered fertile. For women exclusively breastfeeding ovulation tends to return
310:
Return of menstruation following childbirth varies widely among individuals. This return does not necessarily mean a woman has begun to ovulate again. The first postpartum ovulatory cycle might occur before the first menses following childbirth or during subsequent cycles. A strong relationship has
426:
Nutrition and health of both the mother and infant are connected to the use of LAM in the international community. By promoting LAM, exclusive breastfeeding for the infant becomes more prominent in order to make LAM as effective as possible. In Egypt, this has been shown to combat poor nutritional
418:
The use of lactational amenorrhea method (LAM) can be seen across the world. It is used in many different societies to varying extents. LAM can be used by itself or in combination with other methods. There are multiple examples of LAM use covered in studies conducted about postpartum birth control
397:
And to take full advantage of LAM, it is best that the baby's face not be covered when feeding. Routinely covering the baby reduces the baby's access to oxygen and visual contact with the mother, which trains the baby to speed up the suckling process and thus reduces the time period, rendering LAM
301:
or estrogen withdrawal and not actual ovulation. Lactational amenorrhea has evolved as a mechanism for preserving the health of the mother. This period of infecundity allows the mother to focus her energy on breastfeeding as well as allow time for her body to heal between births. The frequency and
278:
Suckling as proxy indicator of infecundity rather than a direct, hormonal causal factor is supported in studies contrasting the nursing intensity hypothesis, which says that more intense (prolonged, frequent) breastfeeding will result in a longer period of lactational amenorrhea, and the metabolic
237:
is often associated with amenorrhea, a condition that resembles the physiological situation during lactation (lactational amenorrhea). Mechanical detection of suckling increases prolactin levels in the body to increase milk synthesis. Excess prolactin may inhibit the menstrual cycle directly, by a
422:
In Turkey, exploration of LAM has exposed a distinct lack of knowledge surrounding the connection between lactational amenorrhea and birth control. However, these findings are contrasted with the fact that mothers demonstrated a desire to learn about LAM as a method of contraception. This lack of
254:
Suckling intensity directly correlates with the duration of the amenorrheal period following birth. Suckling intensity has several dynamic components: frequency of suckling, duration of the suckling bout, and duration of suckling in a 24 hour period. It is not clear which of these plays the most
287:
Postpartum ovarian function and the return of fecundity depend heavily on maternal energy availability. This is due to the relatively consistent metabolic costs of milk production across populations, which fluctuate slightly but represent a significant cost to the mother. The metabolic load
296:
Amenorrhea itself is not necessarily an indicator of infecundity, as the return of ovarian cycling is a gradual process and full fecundity may occur before or after first postpartum menses. Additionally, spotting or the appearance of first postpartum menses can be a result of either
255:
critical role in maintaining amenorrhea. Suckling intensity is highly variable across populations. Studies of U.S. and
Scottish women show that at least six bouts per day and 60 minutes of suckling in a 24-hour period will typically sustain amenorrhea. Concurrent studies of
229:
of variable normality. Thus lactation delays the resumption of normal ovarian cyclicity by disrupting but not totally inhibiting, the normal pattern of release of GnRH by the hypothalamus. The mechanism of disruption of GnRH release remains unknown.
331:
of 18 to 30 months between children can often achieve this through breastfeeding alone, though this is not a foolproof method as return of menses is unpredictable and conception can occur in the weeks preceding the first menses.
224:
and follicles either fail to rupture, or become atretic or cystic. Only when lactation declines sufficiently to allow generation of a normal preovulatory LH surge to occur will ovulation take place with the formation of a
259:
women in
Botswana and Gainj women in Papua New Guinea have shown that very frequent, very short suckling bouts of about 3 minutes, 40 to 50 times per day correlate with typical amenorrhea of up to two years postpartum.
1093:
Zinaman MJ, Hughes V, Queenan JT, Labbok MH, Albertson B (March 1992). "Acute prolactin and oxytocin responses and milk yield to infant suckling and artificial methods of expression in lactating women".
1262:Özsoy S, Aksu H, Akdolun Balkaya N, Demirsoy Horta G (1 January 2018). "Knowledge and Opinions of Postpartum Mothers About the Lactational Amenorrhea Method: The Turkish Experience".
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following pregnancy and childbirth and thus the contraceptive benefits of lactational amenorrhea are not always reliable but are evident and variable among women. Couples who desire
385:
Breastfeeding must be the infant's only (or almost only) source of nutrition. Feeding formula, pumping instead of nursing, and feeding solids all reduce the effectiveness of LAM.
1349:"Program considerations for integration of nutrition and family planning: Beliefs around maternal diet and breastfeeding within the context of the nutrition transition in Egypt"
319:. With regard to the use of breastfeeding as a form of contraception, most women who do not breastfeed will resume regular menstrual cycling within 1.5 to 2 months following
279:
load model, which posits that maternal energy availability will be the main factor determining postpartum amenorrhea and the timing of the return of ovarian function.
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production by these follicles. When follicle growth and estradiol secretion does increase to normal, lactation prevents the generation of a normal preovulatory
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760:
Taylor HW, Vázquez-Geffroy M, Samuels SJ, Taylor DM (July 1999). "Continuously recorded suckling behaviour and its effect on lactational amenorrhoea".
1934:
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1223:"The World Health Organization Multinational Study of Breast-feeding and Lactational Amenorrhea. II. Factors associated with the length of amenorrhea"
717:
Gray SJ (January 1994). "Comparison of effects of breast-feeding practices on birth-spacing in three societies: nomadic
Turkana, Gainj, and Quechua".
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The mother must not have had a period after 56 days post-partum (when determining fertility, bleeding prior to 56 days post-partum can be ignored).
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954:"The World Health Organization multinational study of breast-feeding and lactational amenorrhea. III. Pregnancy during breast-feeding"
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606:
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1042:
Trussell J (November 2011). "Contraceptive efficacy". In
Hatcher RA, Trussell J, Nelson AL, Cates W Jr, Kowal D, Policar MS (eds.).
1400:"Maximizing Opportunities: Family Planning and Maternal, Infant, and Young Child Nutrition Integration in Bondo Sub-County, Kenya"
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If not combined with barrier contraceptives, spermicides, hormonal contraceptives, or intrauterine devices, LAM may be considered
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216:(FSH) during lactation are sufficient to induce follicle growth, but the inadequate pulsatile LH signal results in a reduced
201:
136:
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Radwan H, Mussaiger AO, Hachem F (February 2009). "Breast-feeding and lactational amenorrhea in the United Arab
Emirates".
803:
Margulis SW, Altmann J, Ober C (1993). "Sex-biased lactational duration in a human population and its reproductive costs".
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McNeilly AS, Tay CC, Glasier A (February 1994). "Physiological mechanisms underlying lactational amenorrhea".
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Breastfeed exclusively for the first six months of life; don’t use other liquids and solids, not even water.
910:
Labbok MH (December 2015). "Postpartum
Sexuality and the Lactational Amenorrhea Method for Contraception".
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2016:
1633:
1624:
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551:
Johnson RL, Malik I, Berman CM (January 1998). "On the quantification of suckling intensity in primates".
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The infant must breastfeed at least every four hours during the day and at least every six hours at night.
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670:"Interactions between metabolic and reproductive functions in the resumption of postpartum fecundity"
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1177:"Is the lactational amenorrhea method a part of natural family planning? Biology and policy"
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Cooper CM, Ogutu A, Matiri E, Tappis H, Mackenzie D, Pfitzer A, Galloway R (October 2017).
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Phase 1 is the time of exclusive breastfeeding and thus usually lasts six to eight months.
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Shaaban, Mamdouh M. "Contraception with
Progestogens and Progesterone during Lactation."
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suppressive effect on the ovary, or indirectly, by decreasing the release of GnRH.
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Suckling is a pivotal factor in maintaining lactational amenorrhea postpartum.
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Planned Parenthood. "Breastfeeding as Birth Control: Information About LAM."
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When an infant suckles, sensory receptors in the nipple send a signal to the
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For women who follow the suggestions and meet the criteria (listed below),
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Kavle JA, Mehanna S, Khan G, Hassan M, Saleh G, Engmann C (January 2018).
1299:"Choice of contraception at 6-8 weeks postpartum in south-eastern Hungary"
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Avoid any practice that restricts nursing or separates you from your baby.
1988:
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10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199801)105:1<33::AID-AJPA4>3.0.CO;2-E
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816:
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Vanya M, Devosa I, Barabás K, Bártfai G, Kozinszky Z (February 2018).
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The seven standards of ecological breastfeeding: The frequency factor
298:
1306:
The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care
1046:(20th revised ed.). New York: Ardent Media. pp. 779–863.
599:
Dynamics of human reproduction : biology, biometry, demography
1912:
256:
240:
1454:. U.S. National Library of Medicine, Mar. 1987. Web. 21 Nov. 2019
102:
Up to 6 months (longer in some cases, with greater failure rate)
1916:
1482:
1450:
Chao, S. "The Effect of Lactation on Ovulation and Fertility."
381:) is >98% effective during the first six months postpartum.
1138:"Breastfeeding as Birth Control | Information About LAM"
1473:
The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
339:
The Seven Standards: Phase 1 of Ecological Breastfeeding
1461:. Springer, Boston, MA, 01 Jan. 1983. Web. 21 Nov. 2019.
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Nurse frequently day and night, and avoid schedules.
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1457:McGregor, James A. "Lactation and Contraception."
200:by disrupting the pattern of pulsatile release of
1181:American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology
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888:
444:
442:
440:
2080:Extended cycle combined hormonal contraceptive
852:
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196:Breastfeeding delays the resumption of normal
1928:
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355:Sleep with your baby for a daily-nap feeding.
27:Post-partum infertility due to breast feeding
8:
1475:. Pergamon, 17 Jan. 2003. Web. 21 Nov. 2019.
995:"Contraceptive failure in the United States"
414:Cross cultural use of lactational amenorrhea
391:The infant must be less than six months old.
346:Pacify or comfort your baby at your breasts.
192:Hormonal pathways and neuroendocrine control
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158:No external drugs or clinic visits required
73:Failure rates (First six months postpartum)
2006:
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1535:Preventing sexually-transmitted infections
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451:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
349:Don’t use bottles and don’t use pacifiers.
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1423:
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1238:
1152:"The Practice of Natural Family Planning"
1018:
969:
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553:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
527:
517:
632:Reproductive ecology and human evolution
352:Sleep with your baby for night feedings.
175:infertility that occurs when a woman is
436:
204:(GnRH) from the hypothalamus and hence
506:Journal of Human Reproductive Sciences
29:
668:Valeggia C, Ellison PT (2009-07-01).
7:
1540:Over-the-counter oral contraceptives
663:
661:
659:
1525:Comparison of birth control methods
1011:10.1016/j.contraception.2011.01.021
805:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
500:Majumdar A, Mangal NS (July 2013).
267:gland in the brain, which secretes
1902:Male contraceptives in development
912:Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology
471:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1994.tb30394.x
25:
1404:Maternal and Child Health Journal
674:American Journal of Human Biology
283:Lactation and energy availability
1175:Gross, Barbara A. (1991-12-01).
38:
2227:Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
1545:Oral contraceptive formulations
1468:. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Nov. 2019.
634:. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
601:. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
212:. The plasma concentrations of
1353:Maternal & Child Nutrition
1233:(3): 461–471. September 1998.
202:gonadotropin-releasing hormone
1:
1318:10.1080/13625187.2017.1422238
1240:10.1016/s0015-0282(98)00191-5
1193:10.1016/S0002-9378(11)90571-7
1088:Lactational Amenorrhea Method
971:10.1016/s0015-0282(99)00274-5
375:lactational amenorrhea method
179:(not menstruating) and fully
18:Lactational Amenorrhea Method
2248:Menstrual hygiene management
2199:Premenstrual water retention
2173:Polymenorrhea (epimenorrhea)
2138:Menorrhagia (hypermenorrhea)
924:10.1097/grf.0000000000000154
859:Journal of Pediatric Nursing
762:Journal of Biosocial Science
719:Journal of Biosocial Science
214:follicle-stimulating hormone
131:Advantages and disadvantages
1852:Fertility awareness methods
2405:
871:10.1016/j.pedn.2007.09.005
2143:Metropathia haemorrhagica
2053:Billings Ovulation Method
1847:Calendar (rhythm) methods
1416:10.1007/s10995-017-2341-9
774:10.1017/S0021932099002898
731:10.1017/s0021932000021076
37:
2384:Methods of birth control
2358:Sustainable menstruation
2338:Menstruation celebration
1044:Contraceptive technology
519:10.4103/0974-1208.121400
2300:In culture and religion
1762:Emergency Contraception
1452:Clinics in Perinatology
1227:Fertility and Sterility
993:Trussell J (May 2011).
958:Fertility and Sterility
899:. Stillwater, MN: Lulu.
404:natural family planning
44:An infant breastfeeding
2128:Irregular menstruation
2085:Lactational amenorrhea
2048:Calendar-based methods
2017:Basal body temperature
1682:Multi-month injections
1625:Hormonal contraception
1589:Levonorgestrel implant
1555:Long-acting reversible
1264:Breastfeeding Medicine
246:
169:postpartum infertility
165:Lactational amenorrhea
118:Adherence to protocols
68:Ecological method 1971
33:Lactational amenorrhea
2328:Menstrual suppression
2290:Menstrual Hygiene Day
2222:Premenstrual syndrome
1810:Vaginal pH modulation
1787:Low-dose mifepristone
1687:Progestogen-only pill
1581:Contraceptive implant
1276:10.1089/bfm.2017.0046
1108:10.1542/peds.89.3.437
408:Roman Catholic Church
244:
1842:Breastfeeding method
1752:Contraceptive sponge
1636:estrogen–progestogen
1585:Etonogestrel implant
964:(3): 431–440. 1999.
502:"Hyperprolactinemia"
369:Use as birth control
315:women as opposed to
2263:Cloth menstrual pad
2232:Menstrual psychosis
2194:Menstrual synchrony
2043:Fertility awareness
1877:Non-penetrative sex
1869:vaginal intercourse
1834:vaginal intercourse
1654:Contraceptive patch
1649:Extended cycle Pill
1566:Intrauterine device
1530:Male contraceptives
895:Kippley SK (2008).
630:Ellison PT (2001).
463:1994NYASA.709..145M
306:Return of fertility
206:luteinizing hormone
171:, is the temporary
1777:Ulipristal acetate
1765:(Post-intercourse)
1659:Monthly injections
1466:Planned Parenthood
1156:Catholic Education
817:10.1007/bf00172221
686:10.1002/ajhb.20907
265:anterior pituitary
247:
235:hyperprolactinemia
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1951:Events and phases
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1889:
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1717:
1410:(10): 1880–1889.
1366:10.1111/mcn.12469
1053:978-1-59708-004-0
250:Suckling stimulus
162:
161:
16:(Redirected from
2396:
2343:Menstruation hut
2323:Menstrual stigma
2283:Period underwear
2253:Feminine hygiene
2189:Folliculogenesis
2133:Menometrorrhagia
2007:
1963:Follicular phase
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1674:Progestogen-only
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1187:(6): 2014–2019.
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1084:The Reading Room
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597:Wood JW (1994).
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2318:Menstrual leave
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2204:Sexual activity
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2168:Polymenorrhagia
2153:Oligoamenorrhea
2113:Cryptomenorrhea
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2058:Creighton Model
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1998:
1977:
1946:
1944:Menstrual cycle
1941:
1911:
1906:
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1737:Internal condom
1732:External condom
1724:Barrier Methods
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1447:
1445:Further reading
1442:
1441:
1397:
1396:
1392:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1301:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1261:
1260:
1256:
1221:
1220:
1216:
1174:
1173:
1169:
1160:
1158:
1150:
1149:
1145:
1136:
1135:
1131:
1092:
1091:
1081:
1077:
1054:
1041:
1040:
1036:
992:
991:
987:
952:
951:
947:
909:
908:
904:
894:
893:
886:
856:
855:
848:
802:
801:
797:
759:
758:
754:
716:
715:
711:
667:
666:
657:
642:
629:
628:
624:
609:
596:
595:
580:
550:
549:
545:
499:
498:
494:
448:
447:
438:
433:
416:
398:less effective.
371:
308:
294:
285:
252:
194:
189:
99:Duration effect
67:
45:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2402:
2400:
2392:
2391:
2386:
2376:
2375:
2369:
2368:
2366:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2353:Period poverty
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2304:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2293:
2292:
2287:
2286:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2250:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2218:
2216:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2185:
2183:
2182:Related events
2179:
2178:
2176:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2163:Oligoovulation
2160:
2158:Oligomenorrhea
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2099:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2088:
2087:
2082:
2076:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2039:
2037:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2022:Cervical mucus
2019:
2013:
2011:
2004:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1996:
1991:
1985:
1983:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1947:
1942:
1940:
1939:
1932:
1925:
1917:
1908:
1907:
1905:
1904:
1898:
1896:
1892:
1891:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1884:
1879:
1873:
1871:
1863:
1862:
1860:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1838:
1836:
1825:
1821:
1820:
1818:
1817:
1812:
1806:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1795:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1782:Levonorgestrel
1779:
1774:
1768:
1766:
1758:
1757:
1755:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1728:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1716:
1715:
1713:
1712:
1706:
1704:
1698:
1697:
1695:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1678:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1667:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1640:
1638:
1627:
1621:
1620:
1618:
1617:
1611:
1608:Tubal ligation
1604:
1602:
1596:
1595:
1593:
1592:
1578:
1572:
1562:
1560:
1551:
1550:
1548:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1521:
1519:
1518:Related topics
1515:
1514:
1508:
1506:
1505:
1498:
1491:
1483:
1477:
1476:
1469:
1462:
1455:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1439:
1390:
1339:
1289:
1254:
1214:
1167:
1143:
1129:
1090:, which cites:
1075:
1052:
1034:
1005:(5): 397–404.
985:
945:
902:
884:
846:
795:
768:(3): 289–310.
752:
709:
655:
641:978-0202306575
640:
622:
608:978-0202011790
607:
578:
543:
492:
435:
434:
432:
429:
415:
412:
400:
399:
395:
392:
389:
386:
370:
367:
363:
362:
359:
356:
353:
350:
347:
344:
307:
304:
293:
290:
284:
281:
251:
248:
208:(LH) from the
198:ovarian cycles
193:
190:
188:
185:
167:, also called
160:
159:
156:
152:
151:
148:
144:
143:
140:
133:
132:
128:
127:
124:
120:
119:
116:
115:User reminders
112:
111:
108:
104:
103:
100:
96:
95:
91:
90:
87:
83:
82:
79:
75:
74:
70:
69:
64:
60:
59:
56:
52:
51:
47:
46:
43:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2401:
2390:
2389:Breastfeeding
2387:
2385:
2382:
2381:
2379:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2297:
2291:
2288:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2278:Menstrual pad
2276:
2274:
2273:Menstrual cup
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2258:Menstrual pad
2256:
2255:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2214:Mental health
2211:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2186:
2184:
2180:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2123:Hypomenorrhea
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2092:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2073:
2069:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2038:
2034:
2028:
2027:Mittelschmerz
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2008:
2005:
2001:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1980:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1938:
1933:
1931:
1926:
1924:
1919:
1918:
1915:
1903:
1900:
1899:
1897:
1893:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1864:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1829:
1826:
1822:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1799:
1793:
1792:Yuzpe regimen
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1729:
1727:
1725:
1721:
1711:
1708:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1699:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1600:Sterilization
1597:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1567:
1564:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1557:contraception
1552:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1520:
1516:
1511:
1510:Birth control
1504:
1499:
1497:
1492:
1490:
1485:
1484:
1481:
1474:
1470:
1467:
1463:
1460:
1456:
1453:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1394:
1391:
1386:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1359:(1): e12469.
1358:
1354:
1350:
1343:
1340:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1300:
1293:
1290:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1258:
1255:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1218:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1171:
1168:
1157:
1153:
1147:
1144:
1139:
1133:
1130:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1102:(3): 437–40.
1101:
1097:
1089:
1085:
1079:
1076:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1049:
1045:
1038:
1035:
1030:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
999:Contraception
996:
989:
986:
981:
977:
972:
967:
963:
959:
955:
949:
946:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
918:(4): 915–27.
917:
913:
906:
903:
898:
891:
889:
885:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
853:
851:
847:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
799:
796:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
756:
753:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
713:
710:
705:
701:
696:
691:
687:
683:
680:(4): 559–66.
679:
675:
671:
664:
662:
660:
656:
651:
647:
643:
637:
633:
626:
623:
618:
614:
610:
604:
600:
593:
591:
589:
587:
585:
583:
579:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
547:
544:
539:
535:
530:
525:
520:
515:
512:(3): 168–75.
511:
507:
503:
496:
493:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
457:(1): 145–55.
456:
452:
445:
443:
441:
437:
430:
428:
424:
420:
413:
411:
409:
405:
396:
393:
390:
387:
384:
383:
382:
380:
376:
368:
366:
360:
357:
354:
351:
348:
345:
342:
341:
340:
337:
333:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
305:
303:
300:
291:
289:
282:
280:
276:
274:
270:
266:
261:
258:
249:
243:
239:
236:
231:
228:
227:corpus luteum
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
191:
186:
184:
182:
181:breastfeeding
178:
174:
170:
166:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
138:
134:
129:
125:
123:Clinic review
121:
117:
113:
109:
107:Reversibility
105:
101:
97:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
71:
65:
61:
57:
53:
48:
41:
36:
31:
19:
2148:Metrorrhagia
2118:Dysmenorrhea
2084:
1973:Luteal phase
1958:Menstruation
1895:Experimental
1742:Cervical cap
1710:Ormeloxifene
1692:Vaginal ring
1664:Vaginal ring
1570:Hormonal IUD
1472:
1465:
1459:SpringerLink
1458:
1451:
1407:
1403:
1393:
1356:
1352:
1342:
1312:(1): 52–57.
1309:
1305:
1292:
1270:(1): 70–74.
1267:
1263:
1257:
1230:
1226:
1217:
1184:
1180:
1170:
1159:. Retrieved
1155:
1146:
1132:
1099:
1095:
1083:
1078:
1043:
1037:
1002:
998:
988:
961:
957:
948:
915:
911:
905:
896:
862:
858:
808:
804:
798:
765:
761:
755:
725:(1): 69–90.
722:
718:
712:
677:
673:
631:
625:
598:
559:(1): 33–42.
556:
552:
546:
509:
505:
495:
454:
450:
425:
421:
417:
401:
378:
374:
372:
364:
338:
334:
309:
295:
286:
277:
262:
253:
232:
195:
168:
164:
163:
2108:Anovulation
2072:Suppression
1982:Life stages
1815:Nonoxynol-9
1802:Spermicides
865:(1): 62–8.
811:(1): 41–5.
321:parturition
317:primiparous
313:multiparous
292:Infecundity
177:amenorrheic
86:Typical use
78:Perfect use
66:Prehistory;
2378:Categories
2363:Tampon tax
2103:Amenorrhea
1882:Abstinence
1857:Withdrawal
1824:Behavioral
1772:Copper IUD
1575:Copper IUD
1161:2019-07-03
1096:Pediatrics
1082:ReproLine
431:References
233:In women,
187:Physiology
139:protection
58:Behavioral
50:Background
2308:Chhaupadi
2095:Disorders
1994:Menopause
1968:Ovulation
1831:Including
1747:Diaphragm
1644:Oral pill
1614:Vasectomy
1201:0002-9378
1070:781956734
1062:0091-9721
325:fecundity
269:prolactin
218:estradiol
210:pituitary
173:postnatal
63:First use
2313:In Islam
2003:Tracking
1989:Menarche
1866:Avoiding
1634:Combined
1610:(female)
1434:28766091
1385:28597475
1326:29393708
1284:29131679
1124:25751021
1029:21477680
980:10519613
940:37748336
932:26457855
879:19159837
833:12286204
782:10453245
747:28968557
704:19298003
650:45958069
617:28927097
538:24347930
487:11608165
273:oxytocin
222:LH surge
155:Benefits
2241:Hygiene
2036:Systems
1512:methods
1425:5605598
1376:6866077
1334:3785812
1249:9757874
1209:1755461
1116:1741218
1020:3638209
841:2116658
825:4600781
739:8200881
695:3305908
573:9537926
529:3853872
479:8154698
459:Bibcode
406:by the
329:spacing
147:Periods
2348:Niddah
2268:Tampon
1616:(male)
1559:(LARC)
1432:
1422:
1383:
1373:
1332:
1324:
1282:
1247:
1207:
1199:
1122:
1114:
1068:
1060:
1050:
1027:
1017:
978:
938:
930:
877:
839:
831:
823:
790:824766
788:
780:
745:
737:
702:
692:
648:
638:
615:
605:
571:
536:
526:
485:
477:
299:lochia
150:Absent
81:<2%
2010:Signs
1702:SERMs
1330:S2CID
1302:(PDF)
1120:S2CID
936:S2CID
837:S2CID
821:JSTOR
786:S2CID
743:S2CID
483:S2CID
257:!Kung
94:Usage
1430:PMID
1381:PMID
1322:PMID
1280:PMID
1245:PMID
1205:PMID
1197:ISSN
1112:PMID
1066:OCLC
1058:ISSN
1048:ISBN
1025:PMID
976:PMID
928:PMID
875:PMID
829:PMID
778:PMID
735:PMID
700:PMID
646:OCLC
636:ISBN
613:OCLC
603:ISBN
569:PMID
534:PMID
475:PMID
271:and
126:None
55:Type
1420:PMC
1412:doi
1371:PMC
1361:doi
1314:doi
1272:doi
1235:doi
1189:doi
1185:165
1104:doi
1015:PMC
1007:doi
966:doi
920:doi
867:doi
813:doi
770:doi
727:doi
690:PMC
682:doi
561:doi
557:105
524:PMC
514:doi
467:doi
455:709
379:LAM
137:STI
110:Yes
2380::
1587:,
1428:.
1418:.
1408:21
1406:.
1402:.
1379:.
1369:.
1357:14
1355:.
1351:.
1328:.
1320:.
1310:23
1308:.
1304:.
1278:.
1268:13
1266:.
1243:.
1231:70
1229:.
1225:.
1203:.
1195:.
1183:.
1179:.
1154:.
1118:.
1110:.
1100:89
1098:.
1086:.
1064:.
1056:.
1023:.
1013:.
1003:83
1001:.
997:.
974:.
962:72
960:.
956:.
934:.
926:.
916:58
914:.
887:^
873:.
863:24
861:.
849:^
835:.
827:.
819:.
809:32
807:.
784:.
776:.
766:31
764:.
741:.
733:.
723:26
721:.
698:.
688:.
678:21
676:.
672:.
658:^
644:.
611:.
581:^
567:.
555:.
532:.
522:.
508:.
504:.
481:.
473:.
465:.
453:.
439:^
410:.
183:.
142:No
1936:e
1929:t
1922:v
1591:)
1583:(
1577:)
1568:(
1502:e
1495:t
1488:v
1436:.
1414::
1387:.
1363::
1336:.
1316::
1286:.
1274::
1251:.
1237::
1211:.
1191::
1164:.
1140:.
1126:.
1106::
1072:.
1031:.
1009::
982:.
968::
942:.
922::
881:.
869::
843:.
815::
792:.
772::
749:.
729::
706:.
684::
652:.
619:.
575:.
563::
540:.
516::
510:6
489:.
469::
461::
377:(
89:?
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
