2259:
be valid, but disabilities imposed on women because of their sex would be invalidated. Deciding when a statute conferred a benefit rather than a disability would be difficult. Second, they argued it was problematic from a sociological standpoint. Legal constructions of difference reinforced cultural stereotypes and limited the definition of the role of women. While there were valid biological differences between men and women, it was thought that these definitions invoked generalities and ignored the capabilities of the individual.
2276:
the power of the
American business lobby grew. US business leaders opposed government support for people not in the labor force and government intervention in the labor force. As the federal government retreated from the private sector, it left the task of caring for workers to employers. In the backdrop of the Cold War, American politicians and the public interpreted this economic success as validation of American ideals of individualism and free enterprise, which provided further justification for the emerging
40:
2300:. The Women's Bureau switched its position on the ERA in 1970. In 1971, Peterson also changed her mind, reasoning that history was moving in this direction. However, some labor feminists, including Wolfgang, remained staunchly opposed and testified against the ERA in Congress. The passage of the ERA in 1972 enabled equal rights feminism to solidify its place as the dominant women's movement in the US.
2048:
2211:, which sought to abolish wage disparity based on sex. Their version of the bill, which was different than what passed in 1963, advocated for equal pay for comparable work in addition to same work because employers often undervalued the contributions of women in roles that women tended to occupy. Labor feminists re-introduced the bill every year until 1963 when the Equal Pay Act was passed.
2160:. The conflict between social feminists and equal rights feminists was exacerbated by their different identities. Social feminists tended to be working-class women of various races whereas equal rights feminists were upper middle-class white women for the most part. Their different experiences impacted the way they believed legislation should work.
2268:
supporters had opposed the language out of a desire for true equality. Labor feminists remained united in their opposition that the ERA would erase protectionist legislation, but split in their approach as it became apparent that they would not be able to achieve expansions of equality without sacrificing some protections. The passage of
2258:
challenged the idea of a legally viable model of promoting equal rights that did not erode those protections already in place for women. First, they argued that this would be problematic from an application standpoint. Legislation that afforded privileges to women that were not available to men would
2139:
social feminists. Labor feminists did not want to end all distinctions based on sex, only those that hurt women. For example, they felt that state laws that put in place wage floors and hour ceilings benefited women. Thus, they continued to advocate for protectionist legislation and special benefits
2275:
The rapidly changing economic and cultural landscape of the 1960s contributed to the successes of equal rights feminists over labor feminists. One of the biggest opponents of comparable pay language had been
American businesses. In the aftermath of World War II, American businesses flourished, and
2253:
Labor feminists supported the Hayden Rider to the ERA, which said that the ERA could not impair any existing benefits conferred to women. Many labor feminists, including
Peterson, believed that legislation could promote equality and special benefits for women and did not see these as incompatible.
2267:
The labor movement remained a powerful presence throughout the 1950s and early 1960s. The passage of the Equal Pay Act in 1963 without the desired comparable pay language represented a significant defeat for labor feminists and shifted the terms of the debate with equal rights feminists. ERA
2239:
published in 1963 expressed a desire for the elimination of gender difference, but not where it would remove protections for working-class women. It was a far-reaching document that offered many comprehensive recommendations focused on not only working women, but minority women as well. It
2244:
was not free of critics and many had contrary opinions on how they viewed the document. Early critics believed it encouraged women to move away from their home responsibilities, but later critics believed that the document focused too much on mothers and not enough on working-class women.
2283:
By the 1970s, there was a decline in labor feminism. Some labor feminists hoped that the movement could regroup around an agenda of equal rights and equal opportunity. A group of labor women helped secure support for the ERA from the
2230:
In 1960, President
Kennedy appointed Peterson the Director of the Women's Bureau, and she became the highest-ranking woman in President Kennedy's administration. In her new position, Peterson helped draft a report for the
2214:
During this time, labor feminists also expanded women's participation in unions. They viewed union organization as an effective way to pressure employers to close the gender wage gap. In 1947, they helped orchestrate
235:
147:
2235:(PCSW). The PCSW had been established by President Kennedy in 1961 to examine the gains of women and role of government in addressing the changing needs of women and their families. Their report
2254:
These feminists located women's rights within a framework of women's service as workers and homemakers, rather than the framework of liberal individualism used by equal rights feminists.
230:
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that emerged in the 1920s, focused on gaining rights in the workplace and unions. Labor feminists advocated for protectionist legislation and special benefits for women, a variant of
162:
152:
269:
1577:
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1408:
2135:
who saw it as undermining many of the gains they had made in the treatment of women workers. The charge was led by labor feminists, who were the successors to
961:
2240:
recommended income guarantees for pregnant and unemployed women, childcare services, better tax policies, and changes to the Social
Security system. However,
2770:
2076:
2227:. The AFL–CIO adopted the CIO position on equal pay, and by the late 1950s, federal equal pay legislation became a priority of the merged organization.
252:
247:
906:
264:
2297:
1386:
79:
2493:
2378:
2100:. They helped pass state laws regulating working conditions for women, expanded women's participation in unions, and organized to oppose the
2025:
1871:
1073:
74:
2272:
in 1963 further undermined their position. Protectionist legislation violated Title VII's prohibitions against discrimination based on sex.
1994:
1924:
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coverage for mothers. Their view was that women had different needs than men and should not be penalized for performing the function of
2004:
1999:
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242:
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By the 1940s, labor feminists began to broaden their advocacy efforts at the national level. Led by prominent labor figures such as
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1944:
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2009:
899:
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2622:
Cavanagh, Barbara K. (1970–1971). "A Little Dearer than his Horse: Legal
Stereotypes and the Feminine Personality".
1902:
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84:
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when 230,000 telephone operators nationwide went on strike against AT&T, cutting off telephone service at the
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2223:. The merger of the AFL and CIO in 1955 created a unified labor movement with greater political and
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For All These Rights. Business, Labor, and the
Shaping of America's Public-Private Welfare State
1304:
69:
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2709:
Kurland, Phillip B. (1970–1971). "The Equal Rights
Amendment: Some Problems of Construction".
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The Other Women's
Movement: Workplace Justice and Social Rights in Modern America
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31:
2635:
Cobble, Dorothy Sue (August 2005). "The
Forgotten American Feminists".
740:
2724:
American Women: The US President's Commission on the Status of Women
2140:
for women. In addition to state wage laws, they sought to expand
2474:"7. Labor Feminists and President Kennedy's Commission on Women"
2359:"7. Labor Feminists and President Kennedy's Commission on Women"
2547:
2545:
2532:
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Bulletin of the Society for the Study of Working Women
2586:
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to advance their social reform agenda. This included
2732:
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2195:for women and men, and social welfare support for
2731:Bonnie G. Smith, ed. (2008). "Social Feminism".
2280:state and opposition toward socialist measures.
2711:Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review
2624:Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review
2521:
2480:, Rutgers University Press, pp. 144–167,
2447:
2365:, Rutgers University Press, pp. 144–167,
2233:Presidential Commission on the Status of Women
2735:Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History
2551:
2179:leader, labor feminists came together at the
2070:
8:
2536:
2217:the largest walkout of women in U.S. history
2131:(ERA). The ERA was bitterly opposed by the
2722:Mead, Margaret; Kaplan, Frances B. (1965).
2459:
2077:
2063:
1890:
1262:
1192:
962:African-American women's suffrage movement
294:
52:
18:
2694:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
907:Discrimination against transgender women
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2017:
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100:
30:
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2298:International Brotherhood of Teamsters
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2123:After gaining the right to vote, the
7:
2472:Cobble, Dorothy Sue (2019-12-31),
2357:Cobble, Dorothy Sue (2019-12-31),
14:
2771:Feminist movements and ideologies
2107:The term was coined by historian
2046:
1578:Democratic Republic of the Congo
917:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
38:
2290:American Federation of Teachers
2203:. In 1945, they introduced the
2667:Kessler-Harris, Alice (2001).
2652:. Princeton University Press.
2092:was a women's movement in the
2010:Women's suffrage organizations
1:
2189:equal pay for comparable work
2648:Cobble, Dorothy Sue (2004).
2316:Social Feminism, Oxford 2008
1995:Suffragists and suffragettes
1925:American feminist literature
2739:. Oxford University Press.
2671:. Oxford University Press.
1235:Views on transgender topics
1225:Views on sexual orientation
2792:
2486:10.36019/9780813549170-009
2371:10.36019/9780813549170-009
2113:The Other Women’s Movement
2263:Decline in labor feminism
2249:Legal debate over the ERA
2026:Women's rights by country
937:Female genital mutilation
2686:Klein, Jennifer (2003).
2185:U.S. Department of Labor
2031:Feminists by nationality
2005:Women's studies journals
2000:Women's rights activists
728:Movements and ideologies
2148:during childbirth, and
1419:International relations
290:Intersectional variants
2776:Working-class feminism
2460:Mead & Kaplan 1965
2129:Equal Rights Amendment
2125:National Woman's Party
2102:Equal Rights Amendment
1945:Conservative feminisms
1200:Bicycling and feminism
1176:Women in the workforce
1144:Violence against women
1119:Sexual objectification
1079:Opposition to feminism
346:Vegetarian ecofeminism
1975:Feminist rhetoricians
1965:Feminist philosophers
1517:Revisionist mythology
1220:Views on prostitution
1205:Criticism of marriage
900:Children's literature
2669:In Pursuit of Equity
1955:Feminist art critics
1930:Feminist comic books
1887:Lists and categories
1566:By continent/country
1397:Pathways perspective
1280:Gender mainstreaming
1215:Views on pornography
1124:Substantive equality
1104:Reproductive justice
1054:Matriarchal religion
912:Diversity (politics)
853:Political lesbianism
163:Other women's rights
2522:Kessler-Harris 2001
2448:Kessler-Harris 2001
2286:United Auto Workers
2053:Feminism portal
1960:Feminist economists
1950:Ecofeminist authors
1755:Trinidad and Tobago
1695:Republic of Ireland
1387:Composition studies
1154:Women's empowerment
1109:Sex workers' rights
1034:Feminist capitalism
1014:Internalized sexism
952:Feminism in culture
65:History of feminism
2552:Cavanagh 1970–1971
2478:No Permanent Waves
2363:No Permanent Waves
2109:Dorothy Sue Cobble
1365:Literary criticism
1230:Views on sexuality
922:Effects on society
890:Complementarianism
870:Women's liberation
625:Religious variants
599:trans-exclusionary
317:Radical lesbianism
16:Branch of feminism
2537:Kurland 1970–1971
2495:978-0-8135-4917-0
2380:978-0-8135-4917-0
2278:corporate welfare
2087:
2086:
2038:
2037:
1557:
1556:
1547:womanist theology
1490:Political ecology
1321:Écriture féminine
1248:
1247:
1139:Triple oppression
1129:Toxic masculinity
1114:Sexual harassment
979:Feminist stripper
957:Feminist movement
518:
517:
449:Africana womanism
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2133:social feminists
2079:
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1990:Feminist parties
1985:Muslim feminists
1980:Jewish feminists
1891:
1872:History of women
1495:Political theory
1263:
1193:
1166:
1159:Women-only space
1044:Likeability trap
932:Female education
746:Anti-pornography
601:
600:
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312:Lesbian of color
295:
172:Women's suffrage
148:Muslim countries
143:Women's suffrage
60:Feminist history
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19:
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2265:
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2165:Esther Peterson
2146:health coverage
2142:maternity leave
2137:Progressive Era
2121:
2098:social feminism
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2047:
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1941:
1888:
1880:
1879:
1878:
1787:Northern Cyprus
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1375:Science fiction
1326:
1305:Women's studies
1270:Feminist method
1260:
1250:
1249:
1244:
1190:
1182:
1181:
1180:
1164:
1074:Oedipus complex
1064:Men in feminism
1029:Language reform
1009:Ideal womanhood
989:Gender equality
984:Formal equality
947:Feminationalism
884:
876:
875:
874:
831:Post-structural
730:
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595:Gender-critical
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544:Femonationalism
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493:Native American
433:
388:Critical theory
350:
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231:Second Republic
159:
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70:Women's history
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12:
11:
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2608:, p. 190.
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2256:Legal scholars
2250:
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2242:American Women
2237:American Women
2225:economic power
2181:Women's Bureau
2171:lobbyist, and
2120:
2119:1920s to 1970s
2117:
2090:Labor feminism
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2020:
2019:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1970:Feminist poets
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1940:
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1937:Feminist songs
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1932:
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1917:
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1913:by nationality
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2205:Equal Pay Act
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2173:Myra Wolfgang
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1867:United States
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1715:Latin America
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1537:Technoscience
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1210:Views on BDSM
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1134:Transmisogyny
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1094:Purplewashing
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1089:Protofeminism
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1004:Honor killing
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778:Individualist
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751:Cyberfeminism
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560:
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552:
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547:
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540:
537:
535:
534:Anti-abortion
532:
531:
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523:
511:
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439:Multicultural
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353:
347:
344:
340:
339:Postgenderism
337:
336:
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334:Transfeminism
332:
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265:United States
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218:Liechtenstein
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45:
41:
37:
36:
33:
29:
25:
21:
20:
2750:. Retrieved
2734:
2723:
2714:
2710:
2689:
2668:
2649:
2640:
2636:
2627:
2623:
2593:, p. 7.
2571:
2559:
2517:
2507:, retrieved
2477:
2467:
2455:
2443:
2431:
2426:, p. 4.
2419:
2414:, p. 7.
2392:, retrieved
2362:
2352:
2347:, p. 6.
2340:
2335:, p. 5.
2311:
2282:
2274:
2266:
2252:
2241:
2236:
2229:
2213:
2201:childrearing
2197:childbearing
2162:
2154:unemployment
2122:
2112:
2106:
2089:
2088:
1817:Saudi Arabia
1613:South Africa
1456:Epistemology
1431:Legal theory
1350:Architecture
1340:Anthropology
1319:
1285:Gynocentrism
1149:War on women
1084:Pro-feminism
1039:Gender-blind
994:Gender quota
967:Art movement
816:
741:Anti-fascist
675:Dianic Wicca
554:Postfeminism
429:Xenofeminism
412:Postcolonial
329:Sex-positive
2606:Cobble 2004
2576:Cobble 2004
2564:Cobble 2004
2436:Cobble 2004
2424:Cobble 2005
2412:Cobble 2005
2345:Cobble 2005
2333:Cobble 2005
2221:White House
2177:trade union
1822:South Korea
1802:Philippines
1782:New Zealand
1777:Netherlands
1500:Pornography
1478:Metaphysics
1392:Criminology
1370:Film theory
1345:Archaeology
1024:Women's Day
826:Libertarian
768:Ecofeminism
685:Ecofeminist
566:Reactionary
559:Neofeminism
500:Multiracial
405:Ecofeminist
400:Materialist
243:Switzerland
223:New Zealand
2765:Categories
2752:2014-08-31
2678:0195158024
2591:Klein 2003
2509:2021-02-26
2394:2021-02-26
2304:References
2296:, and the
2191:, shorter
2158:motherhood
2150:disability
2018:Categories
1920:Literature
1630:Bangladesh
1505:Psychology
1451:Empiricism
1446:Aesthetics
1441:Philosophy
1315:Patriarchy
1300:Matriarchy
1020:Girl's Day
999:Girl power
972:In hip hop
895:Literature
858:Separatist
836:Postmodern
802:Difference
736:Analytical
680:Reclaiming
488:Indigenous
393:Standpoint
322:Separatist
174:by country
2504:242784474
2389:242784474
2270:Title VII
1908:Feminists
1720:Argentina
1680:Indonesia
1670:Hong Kong
1625:Australia
1532:Sociology
1414:Geography
1404:Economics
1295:Male gaze
1290:Kyriarchy
761:Networked
643:Christian
378:Jineology
366:Anarchist
356:Socialist
236:Francoist
188:Australia
134:Timelines
2209:Congress
2193:workdays
2115:(2005).
1903:Articles
1842:Thailand
1797:Pakistan
1767:Malaysia
1750:Paraguay
1740:Honduras
1588:Ethiopia
1542:Theology
1527:Sexology
1522:Sex wars
1436:Pedagogy
1189:Outlooks
1069:Misogyny
942:Femicide
927:Equality
883:Concepts
848:Cultural
807:Equality
788:Stiletto
783:Lipstick
707:Orthodox
670:Neopagan
658:Womanist
638:Buddhist
586:Embedded
581:Imperial
576:Carceral
549:Maternal
510:Womanism
198:Colombia
85:Canadian
75:American
32:Feminism
24:a series
22:Part of
2615:Sources
2183:at the
2169:AFL–CIO
1857:Ukraine
1852:Vietnam
1762:Lebanon
1660:Germany
1650:Finland
1645:Denmark
1620:Albania
1608:Senegal
1603:Nigeria
1510:Therapy
1483:science
1382:Biology
843:Radical
797:Liberal
773:Eugenic
697:Islamic
633:Atheist
481:Lesbian
476:Chicana
469:Ratchet
464:Lesbian
459:Hip hop
383:Marxist
307:Lesbian
183:Austria
80:British
49:History
2743:
2698:
2675:
2656:
2502:
2492:
2387:
2377:
2292:, the
2288:, the
1847:Turkey
1837:Taiwan
1827:Sweden
1812:Russia
1807:Poland
1792:Norway
1745:Mexico
1725:Brazil
1700:Israel
1665:Greece
1655:France
1635:Canada
1573:Africa
1461:Ethics
1258:Theory
1099:Racism
812:Social
702:Jewish
648:Mormon
606:Victim
539:Equity
505:Romani
417:Global
270:states
227:Spain
213:Kuwait
193:Canada
125:Fourth
115:Second
90:German
2500:S2CID
2385:S2CID
2167:, an
1894:Lists
1832:Syria
1772:Nepal
1735:Haiti
1730:Chile
1710:Japan
1705:Italy
1675:India
1640:China
1593:Ghana
1583:Egypt
1059:Media
817:Labor
692:Hindu
663:Asian
611:White
571:State
454:Black
371:Queer
258:Wales
208:Japan
203:India
120:Third
110:First
101:Waves
2741:ISBN
2696:ISBN
2673:ISBN
2654:ISBN
2490:ISBN
2375:ISBN
2199:and
2175:, a
2152:and
1690:Iraq
1685:Iran
1598:Mali
1409:FDPA
1022:and
714:Sikh
2482:doi
2367:doi
2207:in
1355:Art
756:HCI
653:New
597:or
302:Fat
2767::
2713:.
2641:48
2639:.
2626:.
2598:^
2583:^
2544:^
2529:^
2498:,
2488:,
2476:,
2402:^
2383:,
2373:,
2361:,
2323:^
2144:,
2104:.
153:US
26:on
2755:.
2726:.
2717:.
2715:6
2704:.
2681:.
2662:.
2643:.
2630:.
2628:6
2484::
2462:.
2369::
2318:.
2078:e
2071:t
2064:v
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
