3611:'the number who died in prisons and labour camps could well amount to 27 million' (p. 338). The proof: 'China's prison and labour camp population was roughly 10 million in any one year under Mao. Descriptions of camp life by inmates, which point to high mortality rates, indicate a probable annual death rate of at least 10 per cent' (p. 338 fn.). So 10m × 10% × 27 = 27 million. Jung Chang accuses Mao of killing x = a × b × c number of people, where a = 'China's prison and labour camp population', b = 'annual death rate', and c = the years of his rule. She does not explain why a = 10 million. Her justification of b = 10 per cent is based on 'descriptions of camp life by inmates'. If we applied this magic formula to Deng Xiao-ping's reign from 1978 to 1989, we get the figure of 12 million deaths, and 14 million for his successor Jiang Ze-min (1990–2003). Jung Chang does not show why Mao was responsible. Apparently she simply blames Mao for every Chinese death of whatever kind.
3539:
were roughly 10 million detainees each year, which equals 1—2 percent of the overall population. Given that the mortality rate was around 5 percent, some 20 million
Chinese must have died during imprisonment, including approximately 4 million in 1959-1962 during the famine caused by the Great Leap Forward (although a return to normal rations took place only in 1964).116 Along with Jean Pasqualini's extraordinary revelations, two recent studies (those of Wu and Domenach) now yield a better general picture of the least-known of the century's three great concentration-camp systems. 115. Wu, Laogai, p. 38. 116. Domenach, Chine, p. 242; Pasqualini, Prisoner of Mao, p. 318.
264:
2433:
not often lead to desirable employment. Inmates who entered the Laogai system with marketable skills were often assigned jobs utilizing these skills within the prison complex. Doctors, for example, were doctors within the Laogai camp often receiving preferential treatment, larger amounts of food, similar to the cadre, and a bed. "Inmates rarely leave with any new skills unless the training fits the camp's enterprising needs." More recently however, programs have been introduced to train prisoners in useful trades.
3446:"There are, according to Wu, an estimated 1,100 of these institutions in which prisoners are compelled to work under conditions, essentially, of slave labor. He estimates that over five decades about 50 million Chinese have been through the Laogai. Today Wu estimates the Laogai population at 6-8 million. Many of them simply perished in the camps, part of a Laogai death toll that by Wu's calculations may have reached 15 million since 1949. Others survived, but remained in legal limbo for the rest of their lives.
2260:(1959–1962), but also because of the harsher rules. Since little food was available, prisoners would scavenge anything they came across while working. Cases were documented of prisoners eating "field mice, crickets, locusts, toads, grapevine worms, grasshoppers, insect larvae and eggs, and venomous snakes". Also, many inmates would steal produce from the fields they worked on, smuggling vegetables back to their barracks. In
38:
2209:(re-education through labor) inmates, Laogai criminals are issued clothing. Depending on the locale and its economic situation, the quality of clothing can vary significantly. Some prisoners may receive black or grey while others wear dark red or blue. Also depending on location, the clothing is available in different thicknesses. Commonly stamped on the uniforms are the Chinese characters for
2374:. Highly contagious, these were also often left untreated until it was too late. Each morning, the cadre of the camp decided who was sick enough to stay in the barracks and miss the day of work. Many prisoners were forced to work when they were ill. Mental illness used to be very common during the Mao era, when prisoners had to spend 2 hours each evening being indoctrinated. The
2420:
meet the standard. Some prisoners excel and are able to do more than what is required of them. They sometimes receive extra or better quality food. It has been argued that this extra food is not worth the extra calories burned to be more productive, so many prisoners choose to do the minimum with minimum effort, thereby saving as much energy as possible.
69:
2504:
mortality rate) to obtain 27 million dead, with no discussion of responsibility or other data. Charlie Hore called this method "guessing". Chang and
Halliday say that inmates were subjected to back-breaking labor in the most hostile wastelands, and that executions and suicides by any means (like diving into a wheat chopper) were commonplace.
2411:
about 6:30 p.m. Upon return it is once again a dinner of cornbread, corn gruel, and vegetable soup. At 7:30 p.m., the 2-hour study period begins... At 9:30 p.m., no matter what the weather, all prisoners gather together outside the barracks for roll call and a speech from the captain. At around 10:00 p.m., everyone goes to bed.
2279:) took control, hunger was rarely used to control prisoners. Early leaders of the CCP realized the power of withholding food from rebellious prisoners and, until recently, this practice was very common. Since the early 1990s, some camps in the coastal regions of Eastern China have improved the quality and amount of food.
2437:
percent of China's rubber-vulcanizing chemicals are produced in a single Laogai camp in
Shengyang ... one of the largest steel-pipe factories in the country is a Laogai camp ... " One camp alone, Ziangride, harvests more than 22,000 metric tons of grain every year. Dulan County prisoners have planted over 400,000 trees.
2436:
While there are many types of Laogai complexes, most enterprises are farms, mines, or factories. There are, according to the
Chinese government, "approximately 200 different kinds of Laogai products that are exported to international markets". "A quarter of China's tea is produced in Laogai camps; 60
2291:
Baths and showers were very rare and often not mentioned at all in memoirs. The only form of washing was the use of a water basin, which was only slightly less rare. This was ineffective because the entire squad used the same water. Basic essentials, such as a toothbrush and toothpaste, toilet paper,
2287:
The living quarters, commonly referred to as barracks in most Laogai literature, were relatively primitive. Most had floors made of cement or wood, but some were of only straw and/or earth. The latrine was a bucket, and no furniture was provided. The prisoners slept on the floor in a space 30 cm
3579:
Hidden away in these camps, the physically weaker, and the spiritually stronger, were worked to death. Many inmates were executed, while others committed suicide by any means, like diving into a wheat-chopper. In all, during his rule, the number who died in prisons and labour camps could well amount
2432:
Career preparation has historically been used to justify forced labor prison systems around the world. In China, although this argument was used, career preparation was minimal until recently. Following release, the skills acquired within the Laogai prison (i.e. ditch-digging or manure-spreading) do
2419:
Quota filling was a big part of the inmates' lives in Laogai camps. Undershooting or overshooting the target productivity governs their quality of life. Not making the number may result in solitary confinement or loss of food privileges. Generally, food rations are cut by 10–20% if a worker fails to
3610:
Twenty-seven million deaths in prisons and labour camps Jung Chang's second large group of Mao's peacetime victims is those who died in
Chinese government custody. The number is actually produced by magic formula. Mao's responsibility is not discussed, merely assumed. During Mao's 27 years of rule,
2230:
Food distribution has varied much through time, similar to its variation across the "over 1,155 documented laogai" camps. One camp near
Beijing distributes between 13.5 and 22.5 kg of food per person per month. This is about average. The food consists of sorghum and corn, which are ground into
3538:
The laogai was a sort of nonplace, a black hole where the light of Maoism blinded tens of millions of people. As a rough indication, Harry Wu calculates that up to the mid-1980s some 50 million people passed through the system.115 Many died there. According to estimates by Jean-Luc
Domenach, there
2175:
that describe the system from the 19(?)0s to the 1990s. Wu spent 19 years, from 1960 to 1979, as a prisoner in these camps, for having criticized the government while he was a young college student. After almost starving to death in the camps, he eventually moved to the United States as a visiting
2427:
Investigators from the Laogai
Research Foundation have confirmed sites where prisoners mine asbestos and other toxic chemicals with no protective gear, work with batteries and battery acid with no protection for their hands, tan hides while standing naked in vats filled 3-feet deep with chemicals
2410:
arrives pulling a handcart with a large tub of vegetable soup, two hunks of cornbread for each prisoner, and a large tube of drinking water ... after about 30 minutes, work is resumed until the company chief announces quitting time in the evening. Generally the prisoners return to the barracks at
2235:
camp also receive 3 ounces of cooking oil per month. Every 2 weeks, the prisoners receive "a special meal of pork broth soup and white-flour steamed buns". Important
Chinese holidays, such as New Year's, National Day, and the Spring Festival, are celebrated with meat dumplings, an exception in an
2440:
The conditions in these camps are considered extremely harsh by most of the world's cultures. However, the
Chinese government considers Laogai to be effective in controlling prisoners and furthering China's economy. According to Mao Zedong, "The Laogai facilities are one of the violent component
2402:
from the kitchen wheels in a cart with tubs of corn gruel and cornbread ... at 7:00 a.m. the company public security cadre (captain) comes in, gathers all the prisoners together, and authorizes any sick prisoners to remain in the barracks. Once at the worksite, the captain delegates production
2503:
that deaths in prisons and labor camps "could well amount to 27 million" during Mao's rule. In 2005, Jin Xiaoding negatively described Chang and Halliday's logic as a "magic formula" that simply multiplies 27 (years of Mao's rule) by 10 million (assumed camp population) by 10% (assumed yearly
2138:
camps were renamed "prisons". However, Chinese criminal law still stipulates that prisoners able to work shall "accept education and reform through labor". The existence of an extensive network of forced-labor camps producing consumer goods for export to Europe and the United States became
2217:
meaning "criminal" and "reform through labor," respectively. Also issued to the prisoners are a pair of shoes made of rubber or plastic. These minimums do not meet the needs of the prisoners, who must purchase underclothes, socks, hats, and jackets with their monthly earnings of 2.5–3
2295:
The sleeping quarters were surrounded on all sides by a wall. This wall is about 20 feet high and topped with electrical fencing. There were also sentry towers on each corner. Outside this wall was 40 feet of empty space, followed by another wall, similar to the first but larger.
2365:
from the lack of oil and fiber. These two were often left untreated and, added to the continuous strain of 12 hours of manual labor, weakened the immune system. Eventually, death followed many of these conditions. Two diseases rampant among the populations of these camps were
3580:
to 27 million.* By the general estimate China's prison and labor camp population was roughly 10 million in any one year under Mao. Descriptions of camp life by inmates, which point to high mortality rates, indicate a probable annual death rate of at least 10 per cent.
2222:(US$ 0.37–US$ 0.44 as of April 11, 2009). Jackets were rare in the Mao era and were commonly made from patches of old blankets rather than from original cloth. Washing clothes was also rare, but clothing supplies in prisons have improved since the mid-Deng-Jiang Era.
2485:
that 20 million deaths resulted from high mortality rates in laogai. Margolin's calculation assume a yearly imprisoned population of 10 million people and a yearly mortality rate of 5%. If camps operated from roughly 1949 to 1980, that yields about 15.5 million
2441:
parts of the state machine. Laogai facilities of all levels are established as tools representing the interests of the proletariat and the people's masses and exercising dictatorship over a minority of hostile elements originating from exploiter classes."
2099:'s export output and gross domestic product. They argue that the use of prison labor for manufacturing is not in itself a violation of human rights, and that most prisoners in Chinese prisons are serving time for what are generally regarded as crimes in
1762:
2243:
or "duty prisoner," delivers the food to the rest of his group in large bowls on a cart. This often involves pushing the cart a great distance to the place where the others are working. Each day prisoners receive gruel, bread, and a watery
2292:
soap, and towels were not provided; prisoners had to spend their wages to acquire them. Prisoners were known to have spread manure, both human and animal, and been required to eat immediately without being able to wash their hands.
2308:
were so numerous that at night they often moved in swarms. This behavior earned them the Laogai nickname of tanks or "tanke". They sucked the blood of the prisoners, leaving little red welts all over their bodies. These
2248:
made from the cheapest vegetables available. Some camps have reported two meals a day, while others allow three. Food is rationed according to rank and productive output, which is believed to provide motivation to work.
2414:
During the night no lights are allowed and no one is allowed to move about. One must remain in one's assigned sleeping place and wait until 5:30 a.m. the next morning before getting up, when the whole cycle begins
2321:
or pesticides were used in the camps. The prisoner Zhang Xianliang wrote that "the parasites on a single inmate's underpants would be as numerous as the words on the front page of a newspaper". He noted
3703:
1883:
2079:
In the 21st century, critics have said that Chinese prisons produce products for sale in foreign countries, with the profits going to the PRC government. Products include everything from
2188:
in Washington, D.C., calling it the first ever United States museum to directly address human rights in China. In 2008, the Laogai Research Foundation estimated that approximately 1,045
2131:. The products manufactured by prison labor in China are of low quality and have become unsalable on the open market in competition with products made by non-imprisoned paid labor.
4143:
1747:
1278:
4877:
3917:
2064:
During the 1950s and 1960s, Chinese prisons, which were similar to organized factories, contained large numbers of people who were considered too critical of the government or "
4737:
3029:
2907:
2711:
1632:
1004:
741:
3874:
1368:
1009:
3744:
2275:
Nutrition in the camps was a big problem, especially during the early 1950s through the 1960s, in the early years of the PRC (People's Republic of China). Before the CCP (
2671:
2610:
4831:
4308:
3670:
3698:
701:
3884:
3593:
4120:
2127:
to local governments, increasing pressure for local governments to supplement their income from elsewhere. At the same time, prisoners usually do not make a good
1056:
4414:
4399:
4096:
1602:
3907:
1752:
4394:
4060:
1083:
2885:
2810:
1829:
581:
3053:
4219:
4114:
3949:
3902:
2832:
1031:
4727:
4409:
3759:
3730:
1802:
1622:
795:
4476:
4371:
3184:
2428:
used for the softening of animal skins, and work in improperly run mining facilities where explosions and other accidents are a common occurrence.
1960:
2922:
4758:
4732:
4722:
4404:
4298:
4148:
1066:
484:
2288:
wide, with 10 people per room. New prisoners were forced to sleep nearest to the latrine while more senior ones slept near the opposite wall.
4209:
4164:
3663:
3531:
1644:
1321:
1093:
4753:
4672:
4214:
4138:
3764:
1836:
1797:
1440:
4606:
3146:
2968:
3821:
3799:
3754:
3708:
1878:
1515:
1175:
1026:
822:
731:
2737:
2378:
that occurred over the amount of time people were imprisoned could be so intense that they were driven to insanity and, in many cases,
4253:
4066:
3954:
3939:
3879:
3835:
3749:
3572:
3021:
1898:
1592:
1346:
2708:
3869:
3603:
3480:
3274:
2696:
2550:
1720:
1597:
1021:
790:
657:
3850:
3382:
1567:
263:
3656:
1851:
1061:
1046:
992:
677:
667:
662:
491:
347:
3232:
3070:
2998:
4424:
4328:
4016:
3944:
3789:
3129:
2948:
2655:
2599:
1846:
1617:
423:
2863:
2472:" at 15,720,000, excluding "all those collectivized, ill-fed and clothed peasants who would be worked to death in the fields".
1757:
4652:
4561:
4471:
4466:
4189:
3922:
3809:
3804:
1316:
1304:
884:
696:
342:
178:
111:
3108:
2313:
itched, and severe cases led to inmates scratching their skin raw, leading to dangerous infections. Another common pest was
3206:
2574:
4867:
3979:
2013:
1979:
1888:
1671:
532:
164:
97:
4679:
4429:
4248:
4199:
4194:
4030:
4001:
3932:
3894:
3826:
3737:
3464:
2759:
2357:
were the most common, due to lack of vitamins. Other health problems caused by the lack of healthy food included severe
2068:". However, many people arrested for political or religious reasons were released in the late 1970s at the start of the
1893:
1737:
1607:
1268:
1036:
1016:
576:
544:
4779:
4364:
4293:
4179:
3840:
2481:
1953:
1903:
1627:
1545:
672:
453:
273:
3713:
3433:
4826:
4821:
4708:
4616:
4303:
4278:
3794:
3679:
2516:
2454:
2206:
2177:
2025:
1812:
1664:
1649:
1540:
736:
406:
24:
4846:
4799:
4601:
4456:
4338:
4333:
4241:
4102:
2268:, around 2,500 out of 3,000 prisoners died of starvation between 1960 and 1962, with some survivors resorting to
2152:
1908:
1807:
1338:
1326:
916:
889:
394:
4816:
4806:
4667:
4461:
4258:
3966:
3845:
3683:
3636:
3523:
1688:
1557:
1110:
899:
384:
285:
3857:
2802:
2600:"Prison slaves: China is the world's factory, but does a dark secret lurk behind this apparent success story?"
2028:, which was the abolished administrative detention system for people who were not criminals but had committed
564:
3050:
3989:
3816:
3405:
By Ian Johnson. "China's Prison Camps Turn to Commerce --- Forced Labor Helps Settle Unexploited Regions. "
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1873:
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1490:
1263:
1041:
985:
968:
399:
4035:
4011:
2836:
2704:
2095:, who both teach at Chinese schools, the products made in laogai camps comprise an insignificant amount of
2036:
were detained in facilities that were separate from those which comprised the general prison system of the
1161:
4357:
4263:
4078:
3927:
3563:
3472:
2499:
2239:
Food is distributed by one person per squad, which consists of about 10 people. This prisoner, called the
2112:
2108:
1946:
1915:
1420:
1073:
921:
645:
611:
606:
4872:
4794:
4789:
4784:
4380:
4283:
4236:
4231:
4226:
3769:
2065:
1782:
1637:
1550:
1535:
1217:
1205:
951:
936:
721:
496:
418:
3176:
3624:
3497:
2926:
2107:
is based not only on the export of products made by forced labor, but also on the claims of detainees
2032:, and was intended to "reform offenders into law-abiding citizens". Persons who were detained in the
4647:
4025:
3984:
3513:
3172:
1920:
1824:
1787:
1715:
1659:
1528:
1485:
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1229:
904:
684:
586:
470:
377:
4571:
4184:
3509:
3437:
2476:
2092:
1408:
1388:
1273:
1258:
1127:
1098:
1088:
978:
926:
894:
691:
549:
517:
512:
465:
322:
4268:
4126:
4040:
3994:
3912:
3648:
3595:
Was Mao Really a Monster?: The Academic Response to Chang and Halliday's "Mao: The Unknown Story"
3501:
3334:
The Great Wall of Confinement: The Chinese Prison Camp Through Contemporary Fiction and Reportage
3267:
The Great Wall of Confinement: The Chinese Prison Camp through Contemporary Fiction and Reportage
2570:
2257:
2140:
2073:
1654:
1500:
1475:
1465:
1430:
1425:
1393:
1358:
1351:
1292:
1285:
1142:
961:
956:
946:
716:
569:
527:
522:
475:
443:
433:
370:
2520:, Lake Laogai is the lake beneath which the intelligence service and secret police known as the
591:
537:
3150:
2192:
facilities were operating in China, and contained an estimated 500,000 to 2 million detainees.
4882:
4531:
3862:
3599:
3568:
3527:
3476:
3280:
3270:
2901:
2663:
2546:
2269:
1742:
1460:
1455:
1398:
1383:
1363:
1185:
1180:
1115:
1078:
911:
877:
706:
559:
448:
327:
4636:
4626:
4323:
4090:
3723:
2729:
2449:
The estimated number of deaths in laogai varies substantially among authors on the subject:
2330:
were also a common threat to the prisoners' health, especially in laogai farms, where human
2048:
2001:
1932:
1510:
1505:
1495:
1470:
1435:
1403:
1373:
1246:
1234:
1212:
1190:
1137:
973:
941:
243:
209:
134:
3908:
Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
2326:
would be so numerous that they would "turn his quilt purplish black with their droppings".
4694:
4657:
4596:
4591:
4556:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4496:
3718:
3468:
3386:
3133:
3057:
2715:
2700:
1841:
1732:
1727:
1480:
1450:
1445:
1168:
1132:
931:
849:
554:
300:
3379:
2784:
2693:
51:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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During the Mao era, food in prisons was very scarce, not only because of a nationwide
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operates a centre for brainwashing dissidents and some of its own civilian agents.
1120:
3517:
3112:
4774:
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4174:
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2009:
2005:
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726:
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2123:
Structural changes following the introduction of market reforms have reduced
4841:
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3284:
2371:
2331:
2317:; some prisoners were known to eat them to supplement their meager diet. No
2128:
2080:
1103:
768:
630:
2833:"The Great Separation: House Church Pastor Expects Death in Chinese Prison"
785:
3441:
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807:
652:
507:
413:
77:
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1676:
758:
438:
255:
68:
2398:
Prisoners are roused from bed at 5:30 a.m., and at 6:00 a.m. the
2139:
classified. Publication of information about China's prison system by
2949:"Chongqing: China allows counsel for reeducation-through-labor cases"
2640:
Chapman, Michael. "Chinese slaves make goods for American malls", .
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2350:
2253:
2088:
1378:
780:
763:
625:
460:
428:
4349:
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635:
621:
596:
67:
3903:
Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR
3409:
Aug. 14, 1998, Eastern edition: A13. ABI/INFORM Global. ProQuest.
2323:
2314:
502:
332:
4353:
3652:
3336:. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2004. Print.
3209:. Laogai Research Foundation. November 13, 2008. Archived from
2181:
31:
2803:"D.C. museum 1st in U.S. to look at Beijing's prison system"
3462:
China’s Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900
2951:. Laogai Research Foundation. April 4, 2007. Archived from
2656:"China's Detention Camps for Muslims Turn to Forced Labor"
2304:
The Laogai camps were infested with many types of pests.
2231:
flour and made into bread or gruel. The prisoners of the
2341:
Along with a poor diet came many diet-related diseases:
3519:
The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression
2390:
Forced labor defines Laogai prison camps, according to
3238:. The Laogai Research Foundation. 2006. Archived from
3076:. The Laogai Research Foundation. 2006. Archived from
2161:
in 2005, and French and Italian dictionaries in 2006.
3207:"Press Release: Laogai Museum Now Open to the Public"
2143:
resulted in its expulsion from China on May 7, 2012.
221:
146:
3549:
3547:
2423:
Working conditions in Laogai camps are substandard:
2040:. Both systems, however, were based on penal labor.
1633:
Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery
4767:
4746:
4707:
4688:
4439:
4387:
4157:
4053:
3965:
3893:
3780:
3691:
3127:
Congratulations! Laogai entered Italian dictionary!
2796:
2794:
2654:Buckley, Chris; Ramzy, Austin (December 16, 2018).
2461:
put the death toll from 1949 to 1997 at 15 million.
215:
208:
203:
191:
177:
163:
158:
140:
133:
128:
110:
96:
85:
3147:"Exposing Laogai: Harry Wu Speaks At AIM Luncheon"
2603:(Part of the series: Slavery: A 21st Century Evil)
2184:located in Washington, DC. In 2008, Wu opened the
4832:Residential Surveillance at a Designated Location
4309:Residential Surveillance at a Designated Location
3380:Howard W. French, "Survivors' Stories From China"
3370:. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, Inc., 1992. Print.
3699:Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
2906:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
2109:being held for political or religious violations
1748:13th Amendment to the United States Constitution
2991:"Uighurs in 'forced labour for Western brands'"
2860:"China's Laborers Pay Price for Market Reforms"
4144:Information operations and information warfare
4121:Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism
2923:Criminal Law of the People's Republic of China
4415:Sichuan Province Prison Administrative Bureau
4400:Chongqing Municipal Administration of Prisons
4365:
3664:
2965:Translated from Chinese, original source was
2888:. Archived from the original on June 25, 2007
1991:
1954:
183:
169:
116:
102:
16:Forced labor for political prisoners in China
8:
3328:
3326:
3324:
3322:
3320:
3318:
3316:
3314:
3269:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
2594:
2592:
2545:. Translated by Slingerland, Ted. Westview.
1753:Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom
4395:Beijing Municipal Administration of Prisons
4061:Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries
3312:
3310:
3308:
3306:
3304:
3302:
3300:
3298:
3296:
3294:
2705:Congressional-Executive Commission on China
4685:
4372:
4358:
4350:
3671:
3657:
3649:
3401:
3399:
3051:"Al Jazeera English to close China bureau"
1961:
1947:
238:
200:
125:
4878:History of the People's Republic of China
4220:List of Hong Kong national security cases
3918:Independent Commission Against Corruption
2801:Buffard, Anne-Laure (November 14, 2008).
2636:
2634:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2176:scholar in 1985. In 1992, Wu created the
4410:Shanghai Municipal Prison Administration
3760:National Defense Mobilization Commission
3598:(1st ed.). Routledge. p. 149.
3592:Benton, Gregor; Chun, Lin, eds. (2010).
1758:Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf
1623:Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery
1603:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90
4477:Beijing Office for Criminal Deportation
3851:People's Procuratorates Judicial Police
3265:Williams, Philip F.; Wu, Yenna (2004).
2533:
2394:, who has characterized the system as:
2151:In 2003, the word "laogai" entered the
250:
4759:Chongqing Juvenile Offender Detachment
4405:Guangdong Prison Administrative Bureau
4299:Picking quarrels and provoking trouble
4097:1983 "Strike Hard" Anti-crime Campaign
3805:provincial Public Security Departments
3567:. London: Jonathan Cape. p. 338.
3362:
3187:from the original on November 17, 2008
2899:
2541:Wu, Hongda Harry; Fang, Lizhi (1992).
2514:In the Nickelodeon animated TV series
82:
3360:
3358:
3356:
3354:
3352:
3350:
3348:
3346:
3344:
3342:
3177:"US museum displays China's 'laogai'"
2577:from the original on October 12, 2007
2111:, such as leadership of unregistered
2091:. According to James D. Seymour and
1645:Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention
1322:Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea
7:
4754:Beijing Juvenile Offender Detachment
3432:Aikman, David (September 29, 1997).
2730:"China's 'reforming' work programme"
2718:of the roundtable session available.
2567:"Reeducation Through Labor in China"
1837:Slave marriages in the United States
1441:Human trafficking in the Middle East
3810:city/county Public Security Bureaus
3332:Williams, Philip F., and Yenna Wu.
2453:In 1997, human rights activist and
1176:Human trafficking in Southeast Asia
4254:Inciting subversion of state power
4067:Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns
3001:from the original on June 17, 2020
2740:from the original on March 4, 2007
2674:from the original on June 21, 2020
1830:last survivors of American slavery
14:
3022:"China Expels Al Jazeera Channel"
2866:from the original on July 6, 2008
2813:from the original on June 9, 2009
2468:puts the number of forced labor "
1992:
791:Field slaves in the United States
658:Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate
76:camps in the 1990s, according to
3032:from the original on May 8, 2012
2613:from the original on May 9, 2012
668:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
663:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate
492:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
262:
36:
4425:Hong Kong Correctional Services
4329:Persecution of Uyghurs in China
4215:Hong Kong national security law
3846:People's Courts Judicial Police
2785:"Richard Anderson, EdD – FABBS"
1618:Committee of Experts on Slavery
1169:East, Southeast, and South Asia
4562:Jiucheng Administration Branch
4190:Central Case Examination Group
3923:Hong Kong Disciplined Services
3418:Wu, Harry, "The Other Gulag",
3060:Al Jazeera English May 8, 2012
2283:Living quarters and sanitation
2103:. The West's criticism of the
2043:Some writers have likened the
1983:
1317:Slave raiding in Easter Island
222:
184:
170:
147:
117:
103:
1:
3980:Commission Against Corruption
3623:Hore, Charlie (Spring 2006).
3020:Michael Wines (May 7, 2012).
2707:. Retrieved on 2008-10-16.
2464:In 1991, political scientist
2167:has written books, including
4430:Correctional Services Bureau
4210:Grid-style social management
4200:Death sentence with reprieve
4195:Civil Servant-Family Pair Up
4031:Correctional Services Bureau
3933:National Security Department
3765:Ministry of National Defense
3738:United Front Work Department
3704:National Security Commission
2644:07/04/97, Vol. 53, Issue 25.
2004:system involving the use of
1608:Temporary Slavery Commission
1269:Slavery in the Mongol Empire
3755:Ministry of Public Security
3709:Central Military Commission
2886:"Chinese Political Prisons"
2482:The Black Book of Communism
1628:Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery
673:Volga Bulgarian slave trade
4899:
4607:Sichuan Provincial Women's
4304:Re-education through labor
3841:Judicial Administrative PP
3750:Ministry of State Security
3422:4/5/1999, Vol. 51, Issue 6
3368:Laogai – The Chinese Gulag
3132:February 13, 2012, at the
2925:(46). 1997. Archived from
2728:Tim Luard (May 11, 2005).
2714:November 11, 2008, at the
2517:Avatar: The Last Airbender
2455:Laogai Research Foundation
2445:Estimated number of deaths
2196:Conditions in Laogai camps
2178:Laogai Research Foundation
2026:re-education through labor
2014:People's Republic of China
1813:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
1650:Anti-Slavery International
1415:North Africa and West Asia
25:re-education through labor
18:
4847:Xinjiang internment camps
4602:Shanghai Detention Center
4339:Holistic security concept
4334:Xinjiang internment camps
4103:Persecution of Falun Gong
2543:Laogai: The Chinese Gulag
2236:otherwise meatless diet.
2155:. It entered the German
2153:Oxford English Dictionary
2083:to industrial engines to
1909:Emancipation Proclamation
1581:Opposition and resistance
1339:Sex trafficking in Europe
1327:Blackbirding in Polynesia
890:Trans-Saharan slave trade
233:
199:
124:
92:
45:This section needs to be
4115:Anti-corruption campaign
3875:State Secrets Protection
3714:People's Liberation Army
3637:Marxist Internet Archive
3524:Harvard University Press
3434:"The Laogai Archipelago"
1689:Compensated emancipation
900:Indian Ocean slave trade
179:Traditional Chinese
112:Traditional Chinese
19:Not to be confused with
4472:Beijing Municipal No. 2
4467:Beijing Municipal No. 1
3790:Supervisory Commissions
3629:International Socialism
2277:Chinese Communist Party
2066:counter-revolutionaries
1613:1926 Slavery Convention
1369:Germany in World War II
986:North and South America
508:Contract of manumission
165:Simplified Chinese
98:Simplified Chinese
4264:Judiciary of Hong Kong
4079:Anti-Rightist Campaign
4002:Public Security Police
3990:Unitary Police Service
3913:PLA Hong Kong Garrison
3564:Mao: The Unknown Story
3473:Transaction Publishers
3467:July 24, 2019, at the
3385:March 1, 2017, at the
3109:"祝贺LAOGAI（劳改）进入意大利语词典"
3107:) (January 19, 2007).
2699:July 25, 2008, at the
2500:Mao: The Unknown Story
2430:
2417:
2386:"Reform through labor"
2113:Chinese House Churches
1094:British Virgin Islands
646:Circassian slave trade
612:Safavid imperial harem
607:Ottoman Imperial Harem
80:
23:, known in English as
4036:Macau Customs Service
3858:People's Armed Police
3770:Taiwan Affairs Office
3175:(November 10, 2008).
2694:Forced Labor in China
2425:
2403:responsibilities ...
2396:
1333:Europe and North Asia
1293:Australia and Oceania
993:Pre-Columbian America
565:Slave raid of Suðuroy
497:Slavery in al-Andalus
419:Black Sea slave trade
348:21st-century jihadism
71:
4868:Penal labor in China
4026:Fire Services Bureau
3985:Macau Security Force
3625:"Mao out of context"
3510:Margolin, Jean-Louis
3407:Wall Street Journal,
3173:Agence France-Presse
3115:on February 13, 2012
3056:May 8, 2012, at the
2967:海涛 (April 4, 2008).
2807:The Washington Times
1998:reform through labor
1788:Indentured servitude
1716:Underground Railroad
1516:United Arab Emirates
905:Zanzibar slave trade
872:By country or region
685:Atlantic slave trade
587:Ma malakat aymanukum
471:Venetian slave trade
195:reform through labor
4747:Juvenile facilities
4249:Internet censorship
3502:Paczkowski, Andrzej
3444:on April 26, 2005.
3438:The Weekly Standard
3213:on January 22, 2009
2477:Jean-Louis Margolin
1874:Slave Route Project
1005:Americas indigenous
895:Red Sea slave trade
885:Contemporary Africa
748:Topics and practice
518:Crimean slave trade
513:Bukhara slave trade
466:Genoese slave trade
343:Contemporary Africa
323:Forced prostitution
4780:Capital punishment
4294:Political offences
4269:Judiciary of Macau
4180:Capital punishment
4127:Operation Fox Hunt
3975:PLA Macau Garrison
3800:Public Security PP
3635:: 110 – via
3514:Courtois, Stéphane
3366:Wu, Hongda Harry.
3125:English summary: "
3026:The New York Times
2971:. Voice of America
2929:on August 29, 2016
2839:on October 6, 2017
2787:. August 30, 2016.
2760:"Curriculum Vitae"
2660:The New York Times
2609:. March 25, 2012.
2607:Al Jazeera English
2571:Human Rights Watch
2509:In popular culture
2489:In 2005, linguist
2258:Great Leap Forward
2141:Al Jazeera English
2074:reform and opening
2072:reforms (known as
2020:is different from
1655:Blockade of Africa
962:Somali slave trade
878:Sub-Saharan Africa
570:Turkish Abductions
528:Khivan slave trade
523:Khazar slave trade
476:Balkan slave trade
434:Prague slave trade
81:
4855:
4854:
4827:National security
4822:Life imprisonment
4738:Shibalihe women's
4703:
4702:
4668:Tai Lam for Women
4462:Beijing Municipal
4347:
4346:
4279:Life imprisonment
4006:Migration Service
3836:State Security PP
3680:National security
3533:978-0-674-07608-2
3498:Panné, Jean-Louis
3233:"Laogai Handbook"
3071:"Laogai Handbook"
2997:. March 2, 2020.
2969:"中国重庆允许律师代理劳动教养案"
2955:on April 30, 2009
2406:At lunchtime the
2300:Disease and pests
2180:, a human rights
2119:Market reform era
1971:
1970:
1921:Freedmen's Bureau
1743:Third Servile War
1738:International law
1305:Human trafficking
1067:Human trafficking
742:Thirteen colonies
560:Sack of Baltimore
328:Human trafficking
237:
236:
229:
228:
210:Standard Mandarin
154:
153:
135:Standard Mandarin
66:
65:
4890:
4686:
4617:Shanghai Women's
4381:Prisons in China
4374:
4367:
4360:
4351:
4324:Two-faced person
4091:Shadian incident
4044:
4020:
3998:
3880:Cyberspace Admin
3724:Maritime Militia
3673:
3666:
3659:
3650:
3641:
3640:
3620:
3614:
3613:
3589:
3583:
3582:
3551:
3542:
3541:
3512:(October 1999).
3490:
3484:
3455:
3449:
3448:
3440:. Archived from
3429:
3423:
3420:National Review,
3416:
3410:
3403:
3394:
3377:
3371:
3364:
3337:
3330:
3289:
3288:
3262:
3256:
3254:
3252:
3250:
3244:
3237:
3229:
3223:
3222:
3220:
3218:
3203:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3192:
3181:The Taipei Times
3169:
3163:
3162:
3160:
3158:
3153:on June 10, 2007
3149:. Archived from
3143:
3137:
3124:
3122:
3120:
3111:. Archived from
3100:
3094:
3092:
3090:
3088:
3082:
3075:
3067:
3061:
3048:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3037:
3017:
3011:
3010:
3008:
3006:
2987:
2981:
2980:
2978:
2976:
2964:
2962:
2960:
2945:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2934:
2919:
2913:
2911:
2905:
2897:
2895:
2893:
2882:
2876:
2875:
2873:
2871:
2855:
2849:
2848:
2846:
2844:
2835:. Archived from
2829:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2818:
2798:
2789:
2788:
2781:
2775:
2774:
2772:
2770:
2764:www.columbia.edu
2756:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2725:
2719:
2690:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2679:
2651:
2645:
2638:
2623:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2604:
2596:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2563:
2557:
2556:
2538:
2093:Richard Anderson
2002:criminal justice
1995:
1994:
1985:
1963:
1956:
1949:
1933:Emancipation Day
1766:
1733:Slave Trade Acts
424:Byzantine Empire
266:
239:
225:
224:
201:
187:
186:
173:
172:
150:
149:
126:
120:
119:
106:
105:
83:
61:
58:
52:
40:
39:
32:
4898:
4897:
4893:
4892:
4891:
4889:
4888:
4887:
4858:
4857:
4856:
4851:
4817:Law enforcement
4807:Judicial system
4763:
4742:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4699:
4684:
4639:
4457:Beijing Women's
4435:
4383:
4378:
4348:
4343:
4259:Judicial system
4153:
4049:
4038:
4014:
4012:Judicial Police
3992:
3961:
3889:
3817:Internet police
3795:People's Police
3776:
3687:
3684:law enforcement
3677:
3646:
3644:
3622:
3621:
3617:
3606:
3591:
3590:
3586:
3575:
3553:
3552:
3545:
3534:
3526:. p. 498.
3506:Bartosek, Karel
3492:
3491:
3487:
3469:Wayback Machine
3456:
3452:
3431:
3430:
3426:
3417:
3413:
3404:
3397:
3393:August 25, 2009
3391:New York Times,
3387:Wayback Machine
3378:
3374:
3365:
3340:
3331:
3292:
3277:
3264:
3263:
3259:
3248:
3246:
3245:on May 27, 2008
3242:
3235:
3231:
3230:
3226:
3216:
3214:
3205:
3204:
3200:
3190:
3188:
3171:
3170:
3166:
3156:
3154:
3145:
3144:
3140:
3134:Wayback Machine
3118:
3116:
3102:
3101:
3097:
3086:
3084:
3083:on May 27, 2008
3080:
3073:
3069:
3068:
3064:
3058:Wayback Machine
3049:
3045:
3035:
3033:
3019:
3018:
3014:
3004:
3002:
2989:
2988:
2984:
2974:
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2930:
2921:
2920:
2916:
2898:
2891:
2889:
2884:
2883:
2879:
2869:
2867:
2858:Philip P. Pan.
2857:
2856:
2852:
2842:
2840:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2816:
2814:
2800:
2799:
2792:
2783:
2782:
2778:
2768:
2766:
2758:
2757:
2753:
2743:
2741:
2727:
2726:
2722:
2716:Wayback Machine
2709:Full transcript
2701:Wayback Machine
2691:
2687:
2677:
2675:
2653:
2652:
2648:
2639:
2626:
2616:
2614:
2602:
2598:
2597:
2590:
2580:
2578:
2565:
2564:
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2553:
2540:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2511:
2447:
2388:
2302:
2285:
2228:
2203:
2198:
2149:
2121:
2062:
2057:
1996:), which means
1967:
1938:
1937:
1842:Slave narrative
1798:Fugitive slaves
1778:
1770:
1769:
1760:
1728:Slave rebellion
1583:
1573:
1572:
1531:
1521:
1520:
1343:United Kingdom
1279:Yankee princess
873:
865:
864:
592:Avret Pazarları
538:Avret Pazarları
407:Medieval Europe
373:
363:
362:
301:Forced marriage
276:
192:Literal meaning
62:
56:
53:
50:
41:
37:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4896:
4894:
4886:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4860:
4859:
4853:
4852:
4850:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4837:Soft detention
4834:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4804:
4803:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4782:
4777:
4771:
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4701:
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4698:
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4690:
4683:
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4677:
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4362:
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4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4314:Soft detention
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4289:PLA Unit 61398
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
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4245:
4244:
4239:
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4222:
4212:
4207:
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4177:
4172:
4167:
4165:2011 crackdown
4161:
4159:
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4146:
4141:
4136:
4130:
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4118:
4112:
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4073:Sufan movement
4070:
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4057:
4055:
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4050:
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3792:
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3757:
3752:
3742:
3741:
3740:
3735:
3734:
3733:
3728:
3727:
3726:
3716:
3706:
3695:
3693:
3689:
3688:
3678:
3676:
3675:
3668:
3661:
3653:
3643:
3642:
3615:
3604:
3584:
3574:978-0224071260
3573:
3543:
3532:
3494:Werth, Nicolas
3485:
3450:
3424:
3411:
3395:
3372:
3338:
3290:
3275:
3257:
3224:
3198:
3164:
3138:
3095:
3062:
3043:
3012:
2982:
2940:
2914:
2877:
2850:
2824:
2790:
2776:
2751:
2720:
2685:
2646:
2624:
2588:
2558:
2551:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2510:
2507:
2506:
2505:
2493:and historian
2487:
2473:
2466:Rudolph Rummel
2462:
2446:
2443:
2387:
2384:
2301:
2298:
2284:
2281:
2246:vegetable soup
2227:
2224:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2148:
2145:
2120:
2117:
2097:mainland China
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2030:minor offenses
1988:láodòng gǎizào
1969:
1968:
1966:
1965:
1958:
1951:
1943:
1940:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1930:
1929:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1849:
1839:
1834:
1833:
1832:
1827:
1820:List of slaves
1817:
1816:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1779:
1776:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1768:
1767:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1724:
1723:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1702:
1701:
1691:
1686:
1685:
1684:
1679:
1669:
1668:
1667:
1662:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1641:
1640:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1584:
1579:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1571:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1554:
1553:
1548:
1538:
1532:
1527:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1417:
1416:
1412:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1364:Dutch Republic
1361:
1356:
1355:
1354:
1349:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1308:
1307:
1296:
1295:
1289:
1288:
1283:
1282:
1281:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1255:
1254:
1244:
1243:
1242:
1232:
1227:
1226:
1225:
1220:
1210:
1209:
1208:
1203:
1198:
1188:
1183:
1178:
1172:
1171:
1165:
1164:
1159:
1152:
1151:
1150:
1145:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1124:
1123:
1113:
1108:
1107:
1106:
1101:
1096:
1091:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1070:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1014:
1013:
1012:
1002:
1001:
1000:
989:
988:
982:
981:
976:
971:
966:
965:
964:
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
924:
919:
914:
909:
908:
907:
897:
892:
887:
881:
880:
874:
871:
870:
867:
866:
863:
862:
857:
852:
847:
842:
836:
835:
831:
830:
825:
823:Child soldiers
820:
815:
810:
805:
800:
799:
798:
788:
783:
778:
773:
772:
771:
766:
761:
750:
749:
745:
744:
739:
734:
732:Spanish Empire
729:
724:
719:
714:
712:Middle Passage
709:
704:
699:
694:
688:
687:
681:
680:
675:
670:
665:
660:
655:
650:
649:
648:
643:
638:
633:
628:
619:
614:
609:
604:
599:
594:
589:
584:
574:
573:
572:
567:
562:
557:
552:
542:
541:
540:
533:Ottoman Empire
530:
525:
520:
515:
510:
505:
500:
494:
488:
487:
481:
480:
479:
478:
468:
463:
458:
457:
456:
451:
446:
436:
431:
426:
421:
416:
410:
409:
403:
402:
397:
392:
387:
381:
380:
374:
369:
368:
365:
364:
361:
360:
355:
353:Sexual slavery
350:
345:
340:
335:
330:
325:
320:
319:
318:
313:
311:Child marriage
308:
298:
293:
288:
286:Child soldiers
283:
277:
272:
271:
268:
267:
259:
258:
248:
247:
235:
234:
231:
230:
227:
226:
223:láodòng gǎizào
219:
213:
212:
206:
205:
204:Transcriptions
197:
196:
193:
189:
188:
181:
175:
174:
167:
161:
160:
156:
155:
152:
151:
144:
138:
137:
131:
130:
129:Transcriptions
122:
121:
114:
108:
107:
100:
94:
93:
90:
89:
64:
63:
44:
42:
35:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4895:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4865:
4863:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4788:
4787:
4786:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4772:
4770:
4766:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4751:
4749:
4745:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4720:
4718:
4714:
4706:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4687:
4681:
4678:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4650:
4649:
4646:
4645:
4644:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4444:
4442:
4438:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4422:
4421:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4392:
4390:
4388:Organizations
4386:
4382:
4375:
4370:
4368:
4363:
4361:
4356:
4355:
4352:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4229:
4228:
4225:
4221:
4218:
4217:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4162:
4160:
4156:
4150:
4149:United States
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4134:
4133:709 crackdown
4131:
4128:
4125:
4122:
4119:
4116:
4113:
4110:
4107:
4104:
4101:
4098:
4095:
4092:
4089:
4086:
4083:
4080:
4077:
4074:
4071:
4068:
4065:
4062:
4059:
4058:
4056:
4052:
4042:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4018:
4013:
4010:
4007:
4003:
4000:
3999:
3996:
3991:
3988:
3987:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3972:
3970:
3968:
3964:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3934:
3931:
3930:
3929:
3926:
3925:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3900:
3898:
3896:
3892:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3864:
3861:
3860:
3859:
3856:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3828:
3825:
3824:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3811:
3808:
3807:
3806:
3803:
3802:
3801:
3798:
3797:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3787:
3785:
3783:
3779:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3747:
3746:
3745:State Council
3743:
3739:
3736:
3732:
3729:
3725:
3722:
3721:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3711:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3701:
3700:
3697:
3696:
3694:
3690:
3685:
3681:
3674:
3669:
3667:
3662:
3660:
3655:
3654:
3651:
3647:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3619:
3616:
3612:
3607:
3605:9780415493307
3601:
3597:
3596:
3588:
3585:
3581:
3576:
3570:
3566:
3565:
3560:
3559:Halliday, Jon
3556:
3550:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3535:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3489:
3486:
3482:
3481:0-88738-417-X
3478:
3474:
3471:
3470:
3466:
3463:
3459:
3458:Rummel, R. J.
3454:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3428:
3425:
3421:
3415:
3412:
3408:
3402:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3381:
3376:
3373:
3369:
3363:
3361:
3359:
3357:
3355:
3353:
3351:
3349:
3347:
3345:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3329:
3327:
3325:
3323:
3321:
3319:
3317:
3315:
3313:
3311:
3309:
3307:
3305:
3303:
3301:
3299:
3297:
3295:
3291:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3276:0-520-22779-4
3272:
3268:
3261:
3258:
3241:
3234:
3228:
3225:
3212:
3208:
3202:
3199:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3168:
3165:
3152:
3148:
3142:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3128:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3099:
3096:
3079:
3072:
3066:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3052:
3047:
3044:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3016:
3013:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2986:
2983:
2970:
2954:
2950:
2944:
2941:
2928:
2924:
2918:
2915:
2909:
2903:
2887:
2881:
2878:
2865:
2861:
2854:
2851:
2838:
2834:
2828:
2825:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2797:
2795:
2791:
2786:
2780:
2777:
2765:
2761:
2755:
2752:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2724:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2695:
2689:
2686:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2650:
2647:
2643:
2642:Human Events,
2637:
2635:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2625:
2612:
2608:
2601:
2595:
2593:
2589:
2576:
2573:. June 1998.
2572:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2554:
2552:0-813-31769-X
2548:
2544:
2537:
2534:
2528:
2523:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2512:
2508:
2502:
2501:
2497:estimated in
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2483:
2479:estimated in
2478:
2474:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2444:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2421:
2416:
2412:
2409:
2404:
2401:
2395:
2393:
2385:
2383:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2339:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2307:
2299:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2250:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2234:
2225:
2223:
2221:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2200:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2187:
2186:Laogai Museum
2183:
2179:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2160:
2159:
2154:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2130:
2126:
2118:
2116:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2070:Deng Xiaoping
2067:
2059:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2041:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1989:
1986:), short for
1981:
1977:
1976:
1964:
1959:
1957:
1952:
1950:
1945:
1944:
1942:
1941:
1934:
1931:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1910:
1907:
1906:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1876:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1864:Slave catcher
1862:
1860:
1857:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1822:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1800:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1793:Forced labour
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1764:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1744:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1722:
1719:
1718:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1700:
1697:
1696:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1674:
1673:
1670:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1657:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1639:
1638:Abolitionists
1636:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1590:
1589:
1586:
1585:
1582:
1577:
1576:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1543:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1530:
1525:
1524:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1418:
1414:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1336:
1332:
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1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1306:
1303:
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1301:
1298:
1297:
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1287:
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1277:
1276:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1253:
1250:
1249:
1248:
1245:
1241:
1240:comfort women
1238:
1237:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1224:
1223:Chukri System
1221:
1219:
1216:
1215:
1214:
1211:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1194:
1193:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1146:
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1141:
1140:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1122:
1119:
1118:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1111:Latin America
1109:
1105:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1086:
1085:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1062:interregional
1060:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1047:prison labour
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1019:
1018:
1017:United States
1015:
1011:
1008:
1007:
1006:
1003:
999:
996:
995:
994:
991:
990:
987:
984:
983:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
963:
960:
959:
958:
955:
953:
950:
948:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
933:
930:
928:
925:
923:
920:
918:
915:
913:
910:
906:
903:
902:
901:
898:
896:
893:
891:
888:
886:
883:
882:
879:
876:
875:
869:
868:
861:
858:
856:
853:
851:
848:
846:
843:
841:
838:
837:
833:
832:
829:
828:White slavery
826:
824:
821:
819:
818:Slave raiding
816:
814:
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
797:
794:
793:
792:
789:
787:
786:Corvée labour
784:
782:
779:
777:
774:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
756:
755:
752:
751:
747:
746:
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733:
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723:
720:
718:
715:
713:
710:
708:
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703:
700:
698:
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693:
690:
689:
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679:
676:
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671:
669:
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664:
661:
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651:
647:
644:
642:
639:
637:
634:
632:
629:
627:
623:
620:
618:
615:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
602:Abbasid harem
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
579:
578:
575:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
547:
546:
545:Barbary Coast
543:
539:
536:
535:
534:
531:
529:
526:
524:
521:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
504:
501:
498:
495:
493:
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486:
483:
482:
477:
474:
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469:
467:
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459:
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437:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
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412:
411:
408:
405:
404:
401:
398:
396:
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391:
388:
386:
383:
382:
379:
376:
375:
372:
367:
366:
359:
356:
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351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
303:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
278:
275:
270:
269:
265:
261:
260:
257:
253:
252:Forced labour
249:
245:
241:
240:
232:
220:
218:
214:
211:
207:
202:
198:
194:
190:
182:
180:
176:
168:
166:
162:
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143:
139:
136:
132:
127:
123:
115:
113:
109:
101:
99:
95:
91:
88:
84:
79:
75:
72:Locations of
70:
60:
48:
43:
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33:
30:
26:
22:
4873:Maoist China
4811:
4785:Human rights
4768:Other topics
4709:Re-education
4642:
4419:
4284:Penal system
4273:
4227:Human rights
4205:Great Cannon
4158:Other topics
4109:6521 Project
4005:
3645:
3632:
3628:
3618:
3609:
3594:
3587:
3578:
3562:
3537:
3518:
3488:
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3453:
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3442:the original
3427:
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3414:
3406:
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3375:
3367:
3333:
3266:
3260:
3247:. Retrieved
3240:the original
3227:
3217:December 12,
3215:. Retrieved
3211:the original
3201:
3191:December 12,
3189:. Retrieved
3180:
3167:
3155:. Retrieved
3151:the original
3141:
3119:December 12,
3117:. Retrieved
3113:the original
3098:
3085:. Retrieved
3078:the original
3065:
3046:
3034:. Retrieved
3025:
3015:
3003:. Retrieved
2994:
2985:
2973:. Retrieved
2957:. Retrieved
2953:the original
2943:
2931:. Retrieved
2927:the original
2917:
2890:. Retrieved
2880:
2868:. Retrieved
2853:
2841:. Retrieved
2837:the original
2827:
2817:December 12,
2815:. Retrieved
2806:
2779:
2767:. Retrieved
2763:
2754:
2742:. Retrieved
2733:
2723:
2688:
2676:. Retrieved
2659:
2649:
2641:
2615:. Retrieved
2606:
2579:. Retrieved
2561:
2542:
2536:
2515:
2498:
2495:Jon Halliday
2480:
2448:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2413:
2407:
2405:
2399:
2397:
2389:
2376:brainwashing
2368:tuberculosis
2363:constipation
2340:
2334:was used as
2303:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2274:
2251:
2240:
2238:
2229:
2214:
2210:
2204:
2189:
2172:
2169:Troublemaker
2168:
2163:
2156:
2150:
2135:
2134:In 1994 the
2133:
2122:
2104:
2078:
2063:
2044:
2042:
2037:
2033:
2021:
2017:
2010:prison farms
1997:
1987:
1974:
1973:
1972:
1869:Slave patrol
1706:Freedom suit
1682:Sierra Leone
1672:Colonization
1588:Abolitionism
1568:Baháʼí Faith
1541:Christianity
1491:Saudi Arabia
1347:Penal Labour
1312:Blackbirding
1218:Debt bondage
1206:penal system
1200:
1032:Contemporary
1022:Field slaves
1010:U.S. Natives
969:South Africa
840:Galley slave
813:Slave market
803:House slaves
776:Blackbirding
754:Conscription
678:21st century
641:Umm al-walad
485:Muslim world
454:Emancipation
358:Wage slavery
338:Penal labour
316:Wife selling
306:Bride buying
291:Conscription
281:Child Labour
274:Contemporary
217:Hanyu Pinyin
142:Hanyu Pinyin
86:
73:
54:
46:
29:
20:
4775:Black jails
4697:(Hong Kong)
4673:Tai Tam Gap
4175:Black jails
4039: [
4015: [
4004:(including
3993: [
3955:Immigration
3885:Urban Admin
3863:Coast Guard
3822:Immigration
3555:Chang, Jung
3483:pp. 214–215
3249:October 18,
3087:October 18,
2959:October 22,
2581:October 12,
2319:insecticide
2270:cannibalism
2256:during the
2125:tax revenue
2006:penal labor
1884:court cases
1761: [
1711:Slave Power
1699:Manumission
1546:Catholicism
1421:Afghanistan
1162:Puerto Rico
1074:The Bahamas
1052:Slave codes
855:Shanghaiing
845:Impressment
737:Slave Coast
617:Qajar harem
577:Concubinage
550:slave trade
4862:Categories
4532:Liangxiang
4185:Censorship
4170:610 Office
4085:Red August
4054:Operations
3945:Correction
3827:Inspection
3157:August 20,
2892:August 20,
2870:August 20,
2843:August 20,
2744:August 20,
2529:References
2491:Jung Chang
2336:fertilizer
2328:Roundworms
2262:Jiabiangou
2147:Modern era
2060:Maoist era
1899:J.Q. Adams
1889:Washington
1859:Slave name
1808:convention
1783:Common law
1156:Encomienda
952:Seychelles
937:Mauritania
860:Slave ship
727:Panyarring
722:New France
371:Historical
4842:Shuanggui
4800:Hong Kong
4648:Hong Kong
4637:Yongchuan
4627:Tilanqiao
4572:Ma'anshan
4319:Shuanggui
4242:Hong Kong
4099:(1983–87)
4081:(1957–59)
4075:(1955–57)
4069:(1951–52)
4063:(1950–53)
3895:Hong Kong
2668:0362-4331
2475:In 1997,
2470:democides
2372:hepatitis
2332:excrement
2129:workforce
2087:dug from
2081:green tea
1894:Jefferson
1551:Mormonism
1486:Palestine
1300:Australia
1230:Indonesia
1121:Lei Áurea
1104:Code Noir
1084:Caribbean
1057:Treatment
796:Treatment
769:Devshirme
631:Odalisque
449:In Russia
390:Babylonia
378:Antiquity
159:Full name
57:June 2023
4883:Xinjiang
4728:Masanjia
4695:Victoria
4658:Shek Pik
4597:Qincheng
4592:Qingshan
4557:Jinzhong
4547:Jiaoling
4542:Jiangmen
4537:Lianping
4497:Dongguan
3782:Mainland
3692:National
3686:in China
3561:(2005).
3475:, 1991.
3465:Archived
3383:Archived
3285:53369503
3185:Archived
3130:Archived
3105:Harry Wu
3093:p. 25–6.
3054:Archived
3030:Archived
3005:June 21,
2999:Archived
2995:BBC News
2975:April 4,
2902:cite web
2864:Archived
2811:Archived
2769:June 19,
2738:Archived
2734:BBC News
2712:Archived
2697:Archived
2678:June 21,
2672:Archived
2611:Archived
2575:Archived
2459:Harry Wu
2457:creator
2392:Harry Wu
2359:diarrhea
2355:pellagra
2343:beriberi
2306:Bed bugs
2201:Clothing
2165:Harry Wu
2101:the West
1926:Iron bit
1916:40 acres
1879:breeding
1694:Freedman
1529:Religion
1389:Portugal
1274:Thailand
1264:Maldives
1259:Malaysia
1252:Kwalliso
1196:Booi Aha
1148:Restavek
1128:Colombia
1099:Trinidad
1089:Barbados
979:Zanzibar
927:Ethiopia
808:Saqaliba
702:Database
653:Saqaliba
414:Ancillae
244:a series
242:Part of
78:Harry Wu
4711:through
4663:Stanley
4622:Shushan
4582:Pingshi
4567:Jiulong
4552:Jieyang
4527:Lujiang
4522:Lanzhou
4517:Gaoming
4502:Drapchi
4492:Chishan
4440:Prisons
4432:(Macau)
4129:(2014–)
4123:(2014–)
4117:(2012–)
3950:Customs
3870:Customs
3719:Militia
3516:(ed.).
2933:June 2,
2380:suicide
2233:Beijing
2215:lao gai
2207:Laojiao
2205:Unlike
2173:Laogai,
2055:History
2049:slavery
2034:láojiào
2022:láojiào
2016:(PRC).
2012:in the
2000:, is a
1980:Chinese
1904:Lincoln
1777:Related
1677:Liberia
1563:Judaism
1501:Tunisia
1476:Morocco
1466:Lebanon
1431:Bahrain
1426:Algeria
1394:Romania
1359:Denmark
1352:Slavery
1286:Vietnam
957:Somalia
947:Nigeria
922:Comoros
850:Pirates
759:Ghilman
692:Bristol
582:history
555:pirates
444:History
333:Peonage
256:slavery
47:updated
21:laojiao
4812:Laogai
4733:Wanjia
4723:Daqing
4689:Closed
4643:SARs:
4612:Suzhou
4587:Qingpu
4512:Foshan
4507:Fuyang
4487:Chaohu
4482:Bengbu
4447:Anqing
4420:SARs:
4274:Laogai
4139:Abroad
4135:(2015)
4111:(2009)
4105:(1999)
4093:(1975)
4087:(1966)
3928:Police
3602:
3571:
3530:
3479:
3283:
3273:
3036:May 8,
2666:
2617:May 8,
2549:
2522:Dai Li
2415:again.
2408:zhiban
2400:zhiban
2353:, and
2351:scurvy
2254:famine
2241:zhiban
2190:laogai
2136:laogai
2105:laogai
2045:láogǎi
2038:láogǎi
2018:Láogǎi
1982::
1975:Laogai
1825:owners
1461:Kuwait
1456:Jordan
1409:Sweden
1399:Russia
1384:Poland
1379:Norway
1201:Laogai
1186:Brunei
1181:Bhutan
1143:revolt
1116:Brazil
1079:Canada
1042:partus
1027:female
912:Angola
781:Coolie
764:Mamluk
717:Nantes
697:Brazil
626:Cariye
461:Thrall
429:Kholop
395:Greece
148:láogǎi
87:Laogai
74:laogai
4795:Macao
4790:Tibet
4716:camps
4713:labor
4680:Macau
4653:Lo Wu
4577:Panyu
4452:Baihu
4237:Macao
4232:Tibet
4043:]
4019:]
3997:]
3967:Macau
3255:p. 6.
3243:(PDF)
3236:(PDF)
3103:吴弘达 (
3081:(PDF)
3074:(PDF)
2486:dead.
2347:edema
2324:fleas
2311:welts
2266:Gansu
2158:Duden
2089:mines
2024:, or
1852:songs
1847:films
1765:]
1721:songs
1558:Islam
1536:Bible
1511:Yemen
1506:Qatar
1496:Syria
1471:Libya
1436:Egypt
1404:Spain
1374:Malta
1247:Korea
1235:Japan
1213:India
1191:China
1138:Haiti
998:Aztec
974:Sudan
942:Niger
834:Naval
707:Dutch
636:Qiyan
622:Jarya
597:Harem
439:Serfs
385:Egypt
4632:Wuhu
3940:Fire
3731:NDMC
3682:and
3600:ISBN
3569:ISBN
3528:ISBN
3477:ISBN
3281:OCLC
3271:ISBN
3251:2008
3219:2008
3193:2008
3159:2008
3121:2008
3089:2008
3038:2012
3007:2020
2977:2007
2961:2008
2935:2016
2908:link
2894:2008
2872:2008
2845:2008
2819:2008
2771:2023
2746:2008
2703:."
2680:2020
2664:ISSN
2619:2012
2583:2008
2547:ISBN
2370:and
2315:lice
2226:Food
2220:yuan
2213:and
2171:and
2085:coal
2008:and
1993:劳动改造
1803:laws
1665:U.S.
1660:U.K.
1598:U.S.
1593:U.K.
1481:Oman
1451:Iraq
1446:Iran
1133:Cuba
1037:maps
932:Mali
917:Chad
503:Baqt
400:Rome
296:Debt
254:and
185:勞動改造
171:劳动改造
2912:().
2361:or
2211:fan
2182:NGO
2076:).
2047:to
4864::
4041:zh
4017:zh
3995:zh
3631:.
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3608:.
3577:.
3557:;
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2115:.
2051:.
1984:劳改
1763:fa
246:on
118:勞改
104:劳改
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