691:. Such a process is normally not described as "language death", because it involves an unbroken chain of normal transmission of the language from one generation to the next, with only minute changes at every single point in the chain. Thus with regard to Latin, for example, there is no point at which Latin "died"; it evolved in different ways in different geographic areas, and its modern forms are now identified by a plethora of different names such as French, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, etc. Language shift can be used to understand the evolution of Latin into the various modern forms. Language shift, which could lead to language death, occurs because of a shift in language behaviour from a speech community. Contact with other languages and cultures causes change in behaviour to the original language which creates language shift.
483:(UN) estimates that more than half of the languages spoken today have fewer than 10,000 speakers and that a quarter have fewer than 1,000 speakers; and that, unless there are some efforts to maintain them, over the next hundred years most of these will become extinct. These figures are often cited as reasons why language revitalization is necessary to preserve linguistic diversity. Culture and identity are also frequently cited reasons for language revitalization, when a language is perceived as a unique "cultural treasure". A community often sees language as a unique part of their culture, connecting them with their ancestors or with the land, making up an essential part of their history and self-image.
27:
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reduced stage of use is generally considered moribund. Half of the spoken languages of the world are not being taught to new generations of children. Once a language is no longer a native language—that is, if no children are being socialized into it as their primary language—the process of transmission is ended and the language itself will not survive past the current generations.
1644:
490:, "language reclamation will become increasingly relevant as people seek to recover their cultural autonomy, empower their spiritual and intellectual sovereignty, and improve wellbeing. There are various ethical, aesthetic, and utilitarian benefits of language revival—for example, historical justice, diversity, and employability, respectively."
445:, there is a theory that argues that "the Hebrew revivalists who wished to speak pure Hebrew failed. The result is a fascinating and multifaceted Israeli language, which is not only multi-layered but also multi-sourced. The revival of a clinically dead language is unlikely without cross-fertilization from the revivalists' mother tongue(s)."
392:, the death of language has consequences for individuals and the communities as a whole. There have been links made between their health (both physically and mentally) and the death of their traditional language. Language is an important part of their identity and as such is linked to their well-being.
211:
Linguicide (also known as language genocide, physical language death, and biological language death): occurs when all or almost all native speakers of that language die because of natural disasters, wars etc. Linguicide usually refers to forced language loss through assimilation or destruction of the
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in the linguistic literature—the language that is being lost generally undergoes changes as speakers make their language more similar to the language to which they are shifting. This process of change has been described by Appel (1983) in two categories, though they are not mutually exclusive. Often
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Change in the land of a speech community: This occurs when members of a speech community leave their traditional lands or communities and move to towns with different languages. For example, in a small isolated community in New Guinea, the young men of the community move to towns for better economic
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Gradual language death: the most common way that languages die. Generally happens when the people speaking that language interact with speakers of a language of higher prestige. This group of people first becomes bilingual, then with newer generations the level of proficiency decreases, and finally
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devoted to the study of ethnolinguistic vitality, Vol. 32.2, 2011, with several authors presenting their own tools for measuring language vitality. A number of other published works on measuring language vitality have been published, prepared by authors with varying situations and applications in
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A language is often declared to be dead even before the last native speaker of the language has died. If there are only a few elderly speakers of a language remaining, and they no longer use that language for communication, then the language is effectively dead. A language that has reached such a
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Radical language death: the disappearance of a language when all speakers of the language cease to speak the language because of threats, pressure, persecution, or colonisation. In the case of radical death, language death is very sudden therefore the speech community skips over the semi-speaker
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Language death is rarely a sudden event, but a slow process of each generation learning less and less of the language until its use is relegated to the domain of traditional use, such as in poetry and song. Typically the transmission of the language from adults to children becomes more and more
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to using other languages. As speakers shift, there are discernible, if subtle, changes in language behavior. These changes in behavior lead to a change of linguistic vitality in the community. There are a variety of systems that have been proposed for measuring the vitality of a language in a
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as extinct." The language vitality for Ainu has weakened because of
Japanese becoming the favoured language for education since the end of the nineteenth century. Education in Japanese heavily impacted the decline in use of the Ainu language because of forced linguistic assimilation.
247:
which may be voluntary or may be forced upon a population. Speakers of some languages, particularly regional or minority languages, may decide to abandon them because of economic or utilitarian reasons, in favor of languages regarded as having greater utility or prestige.
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Cultural contact and clash: Culture contact and clash affects how the community feels about the native language. Cultural, economic and political contact with communities that speak different languages are factors that may alter a community's attitude towards their own
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As of the 2000s, a total of roughly 7,000 natively spoken languages existed worldwide. Most of these are minor languages in danger of extinction; one estimate published in 2004 expected that some 90% of the currently spoken languages will have become extinct by 2050.
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Sivak, L., Westhead, S., Richards, E., Atkinson, S., Richards, J., Dare, H., Zuckermann, G., Gee, G., Wright, M., Rosen, et al. (2019). "Language
Breathes Life" – Barngarla Community Perspectives on the Wellbeing Impact of Reclaiming a Dormant Australian Aboriginal
399:
found that
Indigenous communities in which a majority of members speak the traditional language exhibit low suicide rates while suicide rates were six times higher in groups where less than half of its members communicate in their ancestral language.
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Canada and there was a link found between their traditional language knowledge and the prevalence of diabetes. The greater their knowledge was of their traditional language, the lower the prevalence of diabetes was within their communities.
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620:. This happens when a language in the course of its normal development gradually morphs into something that is then recognized as a separate, different language, leaving the old form with no native speakers. Thus, for example,
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speakers replace elements of their own language with something from the language they are shifting toward. Also, if their heritage language has an element that the new language does not, speakers may drop it.
1979:
1676:
Crystal, David. 2010. "Language
Planning". In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Third Edition, edited by David Crystal, 382–387. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
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Oster, R.T., Grier, A., Lightning, R., Mayan, M.J., & Toth, E.L. (2014). Cultural continuity, traditional
Indigenous language, and diabetes in Alberta First Nations: a mixed methods study.
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aimed at helping preserve languages that are at risk of extinction. Its goal is to compile up-to-date information about endangered languages and share the latest research about them.
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restricted, to the final setting that adults speaking the language will raise children who never acquire fluency. One example of this process reaching its conclusion is that of the
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opportunities. The movement of people puts the native language in danger because more children become bilingual which makes the language harder to pass down to future generations.
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710:
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Harrison, K. David. (2007) When
Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. New York and London: Oxford University Press.
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Language revitalization is an attempt to slow or reverse language death. Revitalization programs are ongoing in many languages, and have had varying degrees of success.
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Top-to-bottom language death: happens when language shift begins in a high-level environment such as the government, but still continues to be used in casual context.
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Bottom-to-top language death: occurs when the language starts to be used for only religious, literary, ceremonial purposes, but not in casual context. (As in
2419:'Stop, Revive, Survive: Lessons from the Hebrew Revival Applicable to the Reclamation, Maintenance, and Empowerment of Aboriginal Languages and Cultures'
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1610:
837:
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Hale, Ken; Krauss, Michael; Watahomigie, Lucille J.; Yamamoto, Akira Y.; Craig, Colette; Jeanne, LaVerne M. et al. (1992). Endangered languages.
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is slowly dying: "The UNESCO Atlas of the World's
Languages in Danger lists Hokkaido Ainu as critically endangered with 15 speakers ... and both
908:
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Reasons for language revitalization vary: they can include physical danger affecting those whose language is dying, economic danger such as the
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1201:
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decreases, eventually resulting in no native or fluent speakers of the variety. Language death can affect any language form, including
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Motamed, Fereydoon; (1974). La métrique diatemporelle: ou des accords de temps revolutifs dans les langues à flexions quantitatives. "
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1025:
971:
792:
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Ehala, Martin. 2009. An evaluation matrix for ethnolinguistic vitality. In
Susanna Pertot, Tom Priestly & Colin Williams (eds.),
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2015:
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998:
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Except in case of linguicide, languages do not suddenly become extinct; they become moribund as the community of speakers gradually
593:
468:
782:
2656:
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Dorian, Nancy C. (September 1978). "Fate of morphological complexity in language death: Evidence from East
Sutherland Gaelic".
571:
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575:
426:
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reported only 7,102 known living languages; and on 23 February 2016, Ethnologue reported only 7,097 known living languages.
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Schilling-Estes, Natalie; & Wolfram, Walt. (1999). Alternative models of dialect death: Dissipation vs. concentration.
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1587:
2500:
758:
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Linguists distinguish between language "death" and the process where a language becomes a "dead language" through normal
539:
The language must be used in new environments and the areas the language is used (both old and new) must be strengthened.
1752:
Länsisalmi, Riikka (October 2016). "Northern Voices: Examining
Language Attitudes in Recent Surveys on Ainu and Saami".
1181:
502:
26:
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Dorian, Nancy C. (1978). The fate of morphological complexity in language death: Evidence from East Sutherland Gaelic.
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852:
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1654:""Think In Navajo": Reflections from the Field on Reversing Navajo Language Shift in Homes, Schools and Communities"
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Languages with a small, geographically isolated population of speakers can die when their speakers are wiped out by
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775:
364:
564:
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The endangered community must possess an ethnic identity that is strong enough to encourage language preservation
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in East Sutherland, Scotland (Dorian: 1978) as fluent speakers still used the historic plural formation, whereas
1824:
2612:
2035:
Campbell, Lyle; & Muntzel, M. (1989). The structural consequences of language death. In N. C. Dorian (Ed.).
1091:
320:
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Joshua James Zwisler, Apples - Journal of Applied Language Studies 15(2), Sep 2021. doi:10.47862/apples.103419
2136:. Studies in the social and cultural foundations of language (No. 7). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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2535:
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802:
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1934:
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Tsunoda, Tasaku. Language Endangerment and Language Revitalization. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter, 2005. Print.
479:. During the past century, it is estimated that more than 2,000 languages have already become extinct. The
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Hallett, D., Chandler, M.J., & Lalonde, C.E. (2007). Aboriginal language knowledge and youth suicide.
822:
641:
373:
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When languages collide: Perspectives on language conflict, language competition, and language coexistence
2276:
Mohan, Peggy; & Zador, Paul. (1986). Discontinuity in a life cycle: The death of Trinidad Bhojpuri.
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The process of language change may also involve the splitting up of a language into a family of several
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244:
146:
112:
108:
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894:
487:
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Theory of language death, and, language decay and contact-induced change: Similarities and differences
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Knowles-Berry, Susan (Winter 1987). "Linguistic decay in Chontal Mayan: the speech of semi-speakers".
2159:
Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations of assistance to threatened languages
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688:
629:
158:
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636:. Dialects of a language can also die, contributing to the overall language death. For example, the
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community. One of the earliest is the GIDS (Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale) proposed by
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The creation and promotion of programs that educate students on the endangered language and culture
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50:
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M. Lynne Landwehr. 2011. Methods of language endangerment research: a perspective from Melanesia.
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The most common process leading to language death is one in which a community of speakers of one
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in 1991. A noteworthy publishing milestone in measuring language vitality is an entire issue of
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2011:
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Akira Yamamoto has identified nine factors that he believes will help prevent language death:
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speakers after it became extinct in everyday use for an extended period, being used only as a
341:
240:
2361:
Sasse, Hans-Jürgen. (1992). Theory of language death. In M. Brenzinger (Ed.) (pp. 7–30).
1946:
Lewis, M. Paul & Gary F. Simons. 2010. Assessing endangerment: Expanding Fishman's GIDS.
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32:
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Language death and language maintenance: Theoretical, practical and descriptive approaches
1994:
Language death: Factual and theoretical explorations with special reference to East Africa
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797:
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461:
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phase where structural changes begin to happen to languages. The languages just disappear.
83:
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Linguistic genocide or linguicide?: A discussion of terminology in forced language loss.
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2358:. Arbeitspapier (No. 12). Köln: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft, Universität zu Köln.
1802:
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1333:
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637:
328:
154:
131:
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Linguistic ecology: Language change and linguistic imperialism in the Pacific region
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2100:
812:
672:
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The language must have written materials that encompass new and traditional content
337:
304:
2467:
International Symposium on "Linguistic Rights in the World: The current situation"
2336:. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University, Center for Excellence in Education.
448:
Other cases of language revitalization which have seen some degree of success are
2080:
Language in danger: The loss of linguistic diversity and the threat to our future
2042:. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University, Center for Excellence in Education.
1643:
1193:
215:
Language attrition: the loss of proficiency in a language at the individual level
2151:(International Journal of the Sociology of Language vol. 12). The Hague: Mouton.
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142:
60:
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In light of our differences: How diversity in nature and culture makes us human
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1243:
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Mark E. Karan (2011): Understanding and forecasting Ethnolinguistic Vitality.
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645:
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170:
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1864:"Tools and techniques for endangered-language assessment and revitalization"
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may be regarded as a "dead language" although it changed and developed into
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1158:
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On biocultural diversity: Linking language, knowledge, and the environment
1987:
Language decline and death in Africa: Causes, consequences, and challenges
1417:
1014:
Hall, Christopher J.; Smith, Patrick H.; Wicaksono, Rachel (11 May 2015).
239:
allegiance to the second language until they cease to use their original,
123:(also called language loss), which describes the loss of proficiency in a
100:, the absorption or replacement of a minor language by a major language.
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2485:
2461:
Globalization & the Myth of Killer Languages: What's Really Going on?
2377:
Linguistic genocide in education—or worldwide diversity and human rights?
1893:
Rights, promotion and integration issues for minority languages in Europe
1285:
How the History of Linguicide Threatens Indigenous Peoples in Asia Today.
1041:
680:
472:
252:
228:
94:, the death of a language from natural or political causes, and, rarely,
68:
2449:
Language endangerment: What have pride & prestige got to do with It?
1390:
153:
and the gradual abandonment of a native language in favour of a foreign
2466:
684:
578: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
404:
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used simple suffixation or did not include any plural formation at all;
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198:
116:
1425:
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The creation of school programs that are both bilingual and bicultural
2481:
CELCE talk: Politics of Language, Politics of Death (by Gerald Roche)
2474:
2134:
Investigating obsolescence: Studies in language contraction and death
1487:
Pine, Aidan; Turin, Mark (29 March 2017). "Language Revitalization".
1449:
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16
498:
430:
396:
1095:
16:
Process in which a language eventually loses its last native speaker
2068:
1226:
Brenzinger, Matthias; Heine, Bernd; Sommer, Gabriele (March 1991).
1017:
Mapping Applied Linguistics: A Guide for Students and Practitioners
169:
recorded 7,358 living languages known in 2001, but on 20 May 2015,
1567:"Welsh was saved from extinction. Cantonese might not be so lucky"
668:
667:, leaving the common parent language "dead". This has happened to
194:
1937:
PLoS.ONE 8(10) Oct. 22.: e77056. doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0077056
515:
There must be a dominant culture that favors linguistic diversity
2489:
2164:
Grenoble, Lenore A.; & Whaley, Lindsay J. (Eds.). (1998).
2028:
Campbell, Lyle. (1994). Language death. In R. E. Asher (Ed.),
547:
2147:
Dressler, Wolfgand & Wodak-Leodolter, Ruth (eds.) (1977)
1611:"Leokī: A Powerful Voice of Hawaiian Language Revitalization"
533:
There must be language materials created that are easy to use
145:), language death has typically resulted from the process of
1719:
Saving Languages: An Introduction to Language Revitalization
1302:"Language Death and Disappearance: Causes and Circumstances"
2269:
Maurais, Jacques; & Morris, Michael A. (Eds.). (2003).
2127:
Language death: The life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect
990:
Living Through Languages: An African Tribute to René Dirven
530:
The endangered speech community must be completely involved
889:
887:
403:
Another study was also conducted on aboriginal peoples in
2312:
Vanishing voices: The extinction of the world's languages
2166:
Endangered languages: Current issues and future prospects
1722:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 20.
1188:(1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. x–xi,
395:
One study conducted on aboriginal youth suicide rates in
1180:
Dorian, Nancy C. (6 July 1989), Dorian, Nancy C. (ed.),
963:
Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning
1982:, Glossa. An Interdisciplinary Journal, vol. 2, num. 2.
1980:"Linguistic sustainability for a multilingual humanity"
2439:
Lost Tongues and the Politics of Language Endangerment
1779:(1 ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 3–24.
185:
and may manifest itself in one of the following ways:
82:
is when the language is no longer known, including by
1919:
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development
1871:
Trace Foundation Lecture Series Proceedings: Preprint
1523:
The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice
942:
940:
938:
930:
Langue et colonialisme: petit traité de glottophagie.
711:
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development
1287:
Patricia Wattimena, Cultural Survival, 11 March 2019
103:
Language death is a process in which the level of a
2602:
2564:
2523:
2221:Hill, Jane. (1983). Language death in Uto-Aztecan.
749:
Directorate of Language Planning and Implementation
2266:. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
2200:. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
1906:International Journal of the Sociology of Language
1586:
950:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 19
433:is the only example of a language's acquiring new
2129:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
1716:Grenoble, Leonore A.; Whaley, Lindsay J. (2005).
2411:. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
2310:Nettle, Daniel; & Romaine, Suzanne. (2000).
719:, Martin Ehala, M. Lynne Landwehr, Mark Karan,
2232:Janse, Mark; & Tol, Sijmen (Eds.). (2003).
2103:(1973). Grammatical change in a dying dialect.
1966:Spoken here: Travels among threatened languages
1777:Routledge Handbook of Japanese Sociolinguistics
527:For native speakers to receive teacher training
2402:Words of the world: The global language system
2347:Robins, R. H.; & Uhlenbeck, E. M. (1991).
1775:. In Heinrich, Patrick; Ohara, Yumiko (eds.).
1521:Hinton, Leanne; & Hale, Ken (eds.). 2001.
1475:International Journal for Equity in Health, 13
1065:"90% Of World's Languages Extinct In 41 Years"
370:style loss, such as the loss of ritual speech;
288:During language loss—sometimes referred to as
2501:
2223:International Journal of American Linguistics
2032:(pp. 1960–1968). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
1588:"The struggle to preserve regional languages"
1042:"Study by language researcher, David Graddol"
960:Byram, Michael; Hu, Adelheid (26 June 2013).
119:. Language death should not be confused with
8:
2030:The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics
2444:Languages don't kill languages; speakers do
1490:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics
1356:. Cambridge University Press. p. 191.
181:Language death is typically the outcome of
2508:
2494:
2486:
2327:English only?: Challenging language policy
2214:Hazaël-Massieux, Marie-Christine. (1999).
2384:Time Takes Its Toll on Old Swiss Language
2049:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1895:, 123–137. Houndmills: PalgraveMacmillan.
1609:Warschauer, Mark; Donaghy, Keola (1997).
594:Learn how and when to remove this message
2300:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2273:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2168:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2097:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1862:Dwyer, Arienne M. (23–24 October 2009).
1493:. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press.
838:List of last known speakers of languages
2082:. New York: Columbia University Press.
883:
616:, a linguistic phenomenon analogous to
384:Consequences for indigenous communities
1975:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1540:"Aboriginal languages deserve revival"
212:identity of a certain group of people.
86:speakers, when it becomes known as an
2618:Farming/language dispersal hypothesis
2023:Language wars and linguistic politics
1996:. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
1345:
1343:
1295:
1293:
1221:
1219:
235:with another language, and gradually
7:
2038:Cantoni-Harvey, Gina (Ed.). (1997).
1999:Brenzinger, Matthais (Ed.). (1998).
1992:Brenzinger, Matthias (Ed.). (1992).
1499:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.8
987:Walt, Christa Van der (1 May 2007).
576:adding citations to reliable sources
2314:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2216:Les créoles: L'indispensable survie
1973:Language change: progress or decay?
1618:Computer Assisted Language Learning
494:Factors that prevent language death
2259:. Columbus: Ohio State University.
2025:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1350:Crystal, David (6 November 2014).
723:, and Paul Lewis and Gary Simons.
14:
2425:Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 111–127.
2423:Australian Journal of Linguistics
2409:Language contact: An introduction
2334:Revitalizing indigenous languages
2298:The ecology of language evolution
2236:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub.
2161:. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
2069:How Do You Learn a Dead Language?
2008:Language Death in the Isle of Man
1852:. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
1823:Tahara, Kaori (5 February 2019).
1773:"Ainu language and Ainu speakers"
1565:Griffiths, James (9 April 2019).
1063:Bilbo Baggins (16 January 2009).
469:exploitation of natural resources
2271:Languages in a globalizing world
2255:Joseph, Brian D. (Ed.). (2003).
2132:Dorian, Nancy C. (Ed.). (1989).
2040:Stabilizing indigenous languages
2003:. Cologne: Rüdiger Köper Verlag.
1978:Bastardas-Boada, Albert (2007).
1642:
1117:Graddol, D. (27 February 2004).
783:International auxiliary language
675:) eventually developed into the
552:
141:–present; following the rise of
42:
25:
2182:. Paris: Editions Odille Jacob.
1825:"The saga of the Ainu language"
1544:The Australian Higher Education
1300:Wurm, Stephen A. (March 1991).
563:needs additional citations for
2404:. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
2375:Skutnab-Kangas, Tove. (2000).
2095:The rise and fall of languages
2001:Endangered languages in Africa
1948:Revue Roumaine de Linguistique
1771:Fukazawa, Mika (5 June 2019).
427:revival of the Hebrew language
1:
2379:Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
1754:Studia Orientalia Electronica
759:Lists of endangered languages
715:mind. These include works by
475:, or cultural danger such as
135:
2417:and Michael Walsh. (2011).
2354:Sasse, Hans-JĂĽrgen. (1990).
2332:Reyhner, Jon (Ed.). (1999).
2325:Phillipson, Robert. (2003).
2303:Mühlhäusler, Peter. (1996).
2262:Maffi, Lusia (Ed.). (2001).
2021:Calvet, Louis-Jean. (1998).
1525:. San Diego: Academic Press.
1194:10.1017/cbo9780511620997.001
1094:. Ethnologue. Archived from
1044:. NBC News. 26 February 2004
503:Endangered Languages Project
2407:Thomason, Sarah G. (2001).
2290:" Open Library OL25631615M.
2180:Halte Ă la mort des langues
2006:Broderick, George. (1999).
1661:Northern Arizona University
1379:Anthropological Linguistics
695:Measuring language vitality
471:, political danger such as
49:The last three speakers of
2695:
2455:Language birth & death
2218:. Paris: Editions Entente.
2064:. Cambridge: Polity Press.
1985:Batibo, Herman M. (2005).
1971:Aitchinson, Jean. (1991).
1318:10.1177/039219219103915302
1244:10.1177/039219219103915303
1228:"Language Death in Africa"
1186:Investigating Obsolescence
928:Calvet, Jean-Louis. 1974.
899:"Stop, revive and survive"
776:Lists of extinct languages
656:
605:
415:
323:loss, such as was seen in
2626:
2400:de Swaan, Abram. (2001).
2125:Dorian, Nancy C. (1981).
2067:Cyr, Christine. (2008). "
1462:Cognitive Development, 22
818:Linguistic discrimination
354:, complex constructions);
190:no native speakers exist.
2613:Father Tongue hypothesis
2382:Slater, Julia. (2010). "
2178:Hagège, Claude. (2000).
2171:Hagège, Claude. (1992).
2093:Dixon, R. M. W. (1997).
2060:Crystal, David. (2004).
2045:Crystal, David. (2000).
1850:Reversing Language Shift
1652:Werito, Vincent (2020).
1630:10.1080/0958822970100405
1563:For Welsh and Hawaiian:
1119:"The Future of Language"
689:New Indo-Aryan languages
340:may become increasingly
2536:Synchrony and diachrony
2531:Comparative Linguistics
2389:2 December 2012 at the
2196:Harmon, David. (2002).
2173:Le souffle de la langue
2078:Dalby, Andrew. (2003).
1989:. Multilingual Matters.
1935:Digital Language Death.
1848:Fishman, Joshua. 1991.
1785:10.4324/9781315213378-1
1143:10.1126/science.1096546
803:Language revitalization
418:Language revitalization
412:Language revitalization
363:loss of word-formation
284:Consequences on grammar
243:. This is a process of
35:script on a clay tablet
2657:Historical linguistics
2517:Historical linguistics
2010:. TĂĽbingen: Niemeyer.
1687:"Endangered Languages"
946:Crystal, David (2000)
823:Linguistic imperialism
441:. Even in the case of
390:Indigenous communities
374:morphological leveling
2672:Cultural assimilation
2175:. Paris: Odile Jacob.
1964:Abley, Mark. (2003).
1550:on 23 September 2009.
1418:10.1353/lan.1978.0024
993:. AFRICAN SUN MeDIA.
687:) developed into the
147:cultural assimilation
109:linguistic competence
2349:Endangered languages
2329:. London: Routledge.
2307:. London: Routledge.
2294:Mufwene, Salikoko S.
1968:. London: Heinemann.
901:, Higher Education,
630:Early Modern English
572:improve this article
379:analogical leveling.
300:undergeneralization;
90:. A related term is
2415:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad
2062:Language revolution
1536:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad
1135:2004Sci...303.1329G
1129:(5662): 1329–1331.
895:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad
848:Native Tongue Title
754:Endangered language
439:liturgical language
297:overgeneralization;
157:, largely those of
80:language extinction
2603:Relationship with
2155:Fishman, Joshua A.
1538:(26 August 2009).
872:(documentary film)
734:Classical language
665:daughter languages
488:Ghil'ad Zuckermann
352:lexical categories
278:Dalmatian language
159:European countries
127:of an individual.
121:language attrition
2677:Extinct languages
2667:Linguistic rights
2639:
2638:
1794:978-1-315-21337-8
1203:978-0-521-32405-2
1098:on 5 October 2001
858:Regional language
853:Prestige language
843:Minority language
833:Linguistic rights
828:Linguistic purism
793:Language movement
744:Cultural hegemony
739:Cultural genocide
683:, which (through
677:Romance languages
671:, which (through
604:
603:
596:
241:heritage language
2684:
2662:Education policy
2652:Sociolinguistics
2589:Syntactic change
2510:
2503:
2496:
2487:
2101:Dorian, Nancy C.
1951:
1944:
1938:
1928:
1922:
1915:
1909:
1902:
1896:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1880:
1878:
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1840:
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1762:
1761:
1749:
1743:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1713:
1707:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1693:. Archived from
1683:
1677:
1674:
1668:
1664:
1658:
1647:
1646:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1615:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1595:. 25 August 2022
1590:
1581:
1579:
1577:
1558:
1552:
1551:
1546:. Archived from
1532:
1526:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1484:
1478:
1471:
1465:
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1004:
984:
978:
977:
957:
951:
944:
933:
926:
920:
919:
918:
916:
907:, archived from
891:
788:Language contact
771:Extinct language
618:pseudoextinction
608:Extinct language
599:
592:
588:
585:
579:
556:
548:
261:natural disaster
140:
137:
113:language variety
105:speech community
88:extinct language
78:. By extension,
46:
29:
2694:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2685:
2683:
2682:
2681:
2642:
2641:
2640:
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2622:
2598:
2584:Semantic change
2579:Language change
2566:Language change
2560:
2519:
2514:
2477:, 24 April 2008
2433:
2428:
2391:Wayback Machine
2351:. Oxford: Berg.
1960:
1958:Further reading
1955:
1954:
1950:55(2). 103–120.
1945:
1941:
1929:
1925:
1916:
1912:
1903:
1899:
1890:
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1710:
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1698:
1697:on 9 April 2014
1685:
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945:
936:
927:
923:
914:
912:
897:(6 June 2012),
893:
892:
885:
880:
875:
863:Rosetta Project
798:Language policy
729:
697:
661:
659:Language change
655:
653:Language change
614:language change
610:
600:
589:
583:
580:
569:
557:
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496:
420:
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386:
325:Scottish Gaelic
286:
269:
179:
138:
84:second-language
57:
56:
55:
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53:
47:
38:
37:
36:
30:
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2576:
2570:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2558:
2553:
2551:Neogrammarians
2548:
2546:Language death
2543:
2538:
2533:
2527:
2525:
2521:
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2515:
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2505:
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2471:United Nations
2464:
2458:
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2432:
2431:External links
2429:
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2149:Language death
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2047:Language death
2043:
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2004:
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1921:32(2) 137–149.
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1729:978-0521016520
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1648:
1624:(4): 349–362.
1607:For Hawaiian:
1605:
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1507:
1479:
1466:
1453:
1439:
1412:(3): 590–609.
1396:
1385:(4): 332–341.
1369:
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1353:Language Death
1339:
1289:
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1265:
1238:(153): 19–44.
1215:
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1027:978-1136836237
1026:
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999:
979:
973:978-1136235535
972:
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948:Language Death
934:
921:
911:on 6 June 2012
904:The Australian
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808:Language shift
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706:Joshua Fishman
696:
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657:Main article:
654:
651:
634:Modern English
626:Middle English
606:Main article:
602:
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560:
558:
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545:
544:Dead languages
542:
541:
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534:
531:
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509:Anthropologist
495:
492:
481:United Nations
435:first language
416:Main article:
413:
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358:relexification
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183:language shift
178:
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151:language shift
139: 1500 CE
125:first language
76:native speaker
67:occurs when a
65:language death
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2557:
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2552:
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2544:
2542:
2541:Protolanguage
2539:
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2372:(3), 486–521.
2371:
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2342:0-9670554-0-7
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2320:0-19-513624-1
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2284:(2), 291–319.
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2250:1-58811-382-5
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2142:0-521-32405-X
2139:
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2122:(3), 590–609.
2121:
2117:
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2088:0-231-12900-9
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2055:0-521-65321-5
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2016:3-484-30395-6
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1962:
1957:
1949:
1943:
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1936:
1932:
1931:András Kornai
1927:
1924:
1920:
1914:
1911:
1908:212: 153–178.
1907:
1901:
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1594:
1593:The Economist
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1508:9780199384655
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1365:
1363:9781316124093
1359:
1355:
1354:
1346:
1344:
1340:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1312:(153): 1–18.
1311:
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1023:
1020:. Routledge.
1019:
1018:
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1000:9781920109707
996:
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975:
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966:. Routledge.
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869:The Linguists
866:
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721:András Kornai
718:
717:Arienne Dwyer
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638:Ainu language
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584:December 2015
577:
573:
567:
566:
561:This section
559:
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501:launched the
500:
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486:According to
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313:changes in
149:leading to
143:colonialism
97:glottophagy
61:linguistics
2646:Categories
2193:(1), 1–42.
2111:, 413–438.
1873:. New York
1760:: 429–267.
1464:, 392–399.
1070:chinaSMACK
878:References
646:Kuril Ainu
315:word order
307:contrasts;
267:Definition
171:Ethnologue
167:Ethnologue
92:linguicide
71:loses its
2229:, 258–27.
1803:197996106
1447:Language.
1434:143011686
1334:143838613
1326:0392-1921
1260:144285294
1252:0392-1921
1182:"Preface"
1151:0036-8075
766:Ethnocide
679:, and to
348:syntactic
335:synthetic
233:bilingual
223:language.
111:in their
51:Magati Ke
2631:Category
2594:Archaism
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2366:Language
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2187:Language
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1877:22 April
1701:20 April
1406:Language
1391:30028108
1306:Diogenes
1232:Diogenes
1167:35904484
1159:14988552
1102:22 March
1048:22 March
727:See also
681:Sanskrit
642:Sakhalin
473:genocide
458:Hawaiian
342:analytic
303:loss of
253:genocide
231:becomes
229:language
117:dialects
69:language
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1635:17 June
1599:18 June
1576:18 June
1209:22 July
1131:Bibcode
1123:Science
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701:shifts
499:Google
462:Navajo
460:, and
454:Basque
443:Hebrew
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397:Canada
237:shifts
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