1714:. Lange's theory emphasizes the idea of Pareto efficiency: a situation is Pareto-efficient if there is no way to rearrange things to make any individual better off without making anyone worse off. To achieve Pareto efficiency, a set of conditions must be formulated in stages. This idea of deriving conditions to ensure that consumer preferences are in balance with the maximum amount of goods and services produced is emphasized by Walras. The theorem indicates that a socialist economy based on public ownership could achieve one of the principal economic benefits of capitalism - a rational price system - and was an important theoretical force behind the development of the concept of
1813:
1494:
1785:
2640:
3002:, by Lange, Oskar. 1936. The Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 4, No. 1: "It seems, therefore, convenient to regard the income of consumers as being composed of two parts: one part being the receipts for the labour services performed and the other part being a social dividend constituting the individual's share in the income derived from the capital and the natural resources owned by society."
2745:
1732:
2731:. Because all non-labor factors of production are publicly owned, the rents and profits of these resources belong to the public. The profits would be used to finance a social dividend scheme based on the individuals' share in the income derived from the socially owned capital and natural resources, providing a complementary source of income for workers alongside their salaries and wages.
48:
2628:
1506:
1477:
2840:
governments would be quick to shut down or seize firms that do not align with targets mathematically proposed by the system, thus limiting true economic freedom. Other criticisms include how the Lange model assumes that market data is static and can be 'given' to central planners and that humans are passive and neutral in their preferences.
1706:. The critics argued that any body that owns and consolidates a society's means of production cannot acquire the information needed to calculate general equilibrium prices, and that market-determined prices were essential for the rational allocation of producer goods. The Lange model contains principles proposed by neoclassical economists
1583:. In this model, the state owns non-labor factors of production, and markets allocate final goods and consumer goods. The Lange model states that if all production is performed by a public body such as the state, and there is a functioning price mechanism, this economy will be Pareto-efficient, like a hypothetical
2718:
The central planning board (CPB) has three major functions in the Lange model: First it instructs firms to set price to equal marginal cost, secondly it adjusts prices to attain market-clearing prices for goods and services, and finally, it reinvests the economic profit derived from state enterprises
2709:
Because prices are set by the central planning board "artificially" aiming to achieve planned growth objectives, it is unlikely that supply and demand will be in equilibrium at first. To produce the correct amount of goods and services, the Lange model suggests a trial-and-error method. If there is a
2839:
criticized the Lange model on methodological grounds. According to
Friedman, the model rested on "models of imaginary worlds" rather than "generalizations about the real world", making the claims of the model immune to falsification. He also criticized the model on ethical grounds, pointing out that
2805:
could be better accounted for, thanks to the state's ability to manipulate resource prices. Because the state controls all firms, they could easily factor the cost of an externality into the price of a certain resource. Because decisions are made at higher rather than lower levels, it is argued that
2683:
The Lange model suggests three levels of decision-making. The lowest level contains firms and households, the intermediate level contains industrial ministries, and the highest level is the central planning board. The board sets the initial price of consumer goods arbitrarily and informs the
2828:. Lange believed that his model would reduce cyclical instability because the state would control savings and investment, consequently eliminating a major source of inefficiency, inequality and social instability that arises from violent cyclical shifts under capitalism.
2688:
equals price, P = MC, so as to minimize the cost of production. At the intermediate level, industrial ministries determine the sectoral expansion of industry. Households decide how to allocate income and how much labor to supply by choosing between work and leisure.
2710:
surplus of a particular good, the central planning board lowers the price of that good. Conversely, if there is a shortage of a good, the board raises the price. This process of price adjustments takes place until equilibrium between supply and demand is achieved.
1595:
in order to achieve Pareto efficiency. By contrast, in a capitalist economy, private owners seek to maximize profits, while competitive pressures are relied on to indirectly lower the price, this discourages production with high marginal cost and encourages
2797:
The Lange economic model has a number of theoretical advantages. One advantage is public control over investment. The rate of economic growth would be largely state-determined and a major determinant would be investment ratio.
1623:
where a central planning board allocates investment and capital goods, while markets allocate labor and consumer goods. The planning board simulates a market in capital goods by a trial-and-error process first elaborated by
257:
1305:
3532:
Revisiting the
Socialist Calculation Debate: The role of markets and finance in Hayek's response to Lange's challenge, by Paul Auerbach and Dimitris Sotiropoulos
3087:
2670:
2602:
1536:
2697:
The key institutions of the Lange model include the central planning board (CPB), industrial ministries for each economic sector, and state enterprises
1679:
wrote a series of articles that greatly influenced Lange's thinking. For example, Lerner (1938) caused Lange to re-write his 1936 and 1937 articles on
2955:
Wolf, Thomas. "The
Lessons of Limited Market-Oriented Reform" (1991), The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 5, No. 4 (Autumn, 1991), pp. 45-58
414:
253:
3526:
3489:
1591:. Unlike models of capitalism, the Lange model is based on direct allocation, by directing enterprise managers to set price equal to
3076:
2784:
1771:
347:
2719:
into the economy based on a target rate of growth. The central planning board also distributes social dividends to the population.
1441:
1298:
3580:
2663:
1660:
1529:
1485:
2766:
1753:
1651:
was imposed after World War II, precluding experimentation with Lange-style economy. Some parallels might be drawn with the
2263:
2001:
1648:
1451:
374:
320:
203:
163:
138:
3396:
2762:
1749:
1703:
1608:
1408:
1378:
1353:
1255:
434:
238:
95:
2612:
1832:
1822:
657:
337:
183:
1195:
267:
3560:
3226:
Lange, O 1967 The
Computer and the Market in Socialism, Capitalism, and Economic Growth Feinstein Ed. Reprinted in
2656:
2606:
2136:
2126:
1522:
1310:
1075:
737:
3575:
3570:
3565:
2016:
1633:
1620:
1403:
218:
198:
2585:
2323:
2278:
2131:
1900:
1844:
1285:
342:
233:
3441:
Rosefielde, Steven (1973). "Some
Observations on the Concept of 'Socialism' in Contemporary Economic Theory".
2338:
3099:
2755:
2288:
2096:
2086:
2046:
2036:
1943:
1866:
1742:
1699:
1510:
1461:
1343:
559:
399:
354:
178:
2458:
2303:
2041:
1981:
1938:
1885:
1652:
1561:
1348:
1215:
692:
454:
290:
188:
2273:
1683:, before they were re-published as chapters in a 1938 book. Lerner (1938) influenced Lange's thinking on
2814:
2810:
2592:
2248:
2233:
2091:
2031:
2011:
2006:
1687:
payments. Lerner (1944) also argued that investment in the Lange model would inevitably be politicized.
1205:
967:
742:
722:
687:
599:
529:
504:
2343:
2165:
2116:
2081:
2021:
1986:
1890:
1880:
1827:
1576:
1275:
1175:
1110:
647:
574:
569:
429:
173:
153:
123:
80:
63:
58:
2921:
Yunker, James A. (1995). "Post-Lange Market
Socialism: An Evaluation of Profit-Oriented Proposals".
1664:
2874:
2864:
2698:
2569:
2378:
2238:
2200:
2141:
2066:
2056:
2026:
1953:
1861:
1588:
1572:
1456:
1423:
1383:
1368:
1230:
652:
564:
554:
524:
419:
305:
272:
118:
100:
90:
47:
882:
3585:
3508:
3468:
3429:
3421:
3391:
3338:
3309:
3280:
3251:
3181:
3152:
3107:
2982:
2938:
2684:
producing firms of these prices. The state-owned firms then produce at the level of output where
2597:
2553:
2358:
2195:
2190:
2170:
2121:
2061:
2051:
1996:
1991:
1963:
1958:
1928:
1796:
1597:
1446:
1388:
1220:
1145:
917:
897:
732:
637:
474:
459:
409:
389:
367:
208:
143:
31:
3378:
MacKenzie, DW, 2006 Oscar Lange and the
Impossibility of Economic Calculation, Studia Economicze
3199:
Lange, O 1938 On the
Economic Theory of Socialism B Lippincott ed. University of Minnesota Press
1017:
1007:
3460:
3413:
3122:; Russell Smyth (2004). "Towards a Re-interpretation of the Economics of Feasible Socialism".
3072:
3046:
3042:
3026:
2849:
2488:
2463:
2413:
2373:
2253:
2210:
2146:
2111:
2101:
1933:
1895:
1851:
1656:
1580:
1568:
1338:
1250:
1155:
947:
852:
837:
604:
544:
499:
484:
444:
379:
158:
148:
85:
1643:
The Lange model has never been implemented anywhere, not even in Oskar Lange's home country,
3498:
3452:
3405:
3330:
3301:
3272:
3243:
3173:
3144:
3119:
3034:
2974:
2930:
2903:
2854:
2538:
2483:
2468:
2453:
2438:
2418:
2368:
2348:
2328:
2283:
2156:
2106:
2076:
2071:
1715:
1691:
1680:
1637:
1616:
1498:
1481:
1280:
1200:
1180:
1100:
1095:
1037:
997:
987:
952:
942:
872:
847:
817:
802:
797:
772:
717:
702:
672:
609:
584:
514:
469:
439:
327:
315:
243:
228:
168:
133:
1812:
3480:
3064:
2836:
2813:
and determines entry, Langean socialism can avoid monopolies and the accompanying lack of
2728:
2632:
2543:
2508:
2473:
2408:
2333:
2318:
2205:
2180:
2175:
2151:
1923:
1918:
1707:
1695:
1684:
1625:
1418:
1413:
1358:
1165:
1125:
957:
927:
912:
862:
832:
767:
707:
667:
589:
579:
479:
300:
295:
223:
213:
3544:
3538:
2894:
Hodgson, G. M. (1998). "Socialism against markets? A critique of two recent proposals".
3443:
2869:
2818:
2563:
2548:
2513:
2498:
2478:
2448:
2298:
2268:
2185:
1875:
1871:
1711:
1629:
1612:
1604:
1584:
1564:
1373:
1270:
1265:
1235:
1225:
1150:
1120:
1115:
1105:
992:
972:
932:
902:
842:
782:
757:
697:
384:
193:
3484:
3554:
3512:
3433:
2802:
2685:
2528:
2518:
2493:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2403:
2393:
2363:
2353:
2258:
2161:
1592:
1398:
1393:
1260:
1210:
1190:
1185:
1160:
1135:
1032:
937:
857:
777:
752:
682:
677:
614:
494:
449:
248:
3094:
2934:
2644:
2558:
2503:
2398:
2388:
2383:
2308:
1856:
1784:
1140:
1090:
1085:
1070:
1027:
1012:
982:
907:
892:
867:
827:
787:
762:
727:
642:
3381:
MacKenzie, DW Social
Dividends, Entrepreneurial Discretion, and Bureaucratic Rules
1130:
2859:
2806:
these decisions are less likely to have undesirable environmental consequences.
2744:
2533:
2523:
2313:
1948:
1731:
1676:
1363:
1245:
1080:
1042:
1022:
962:
922:
887:
822:
812:
792:
747:
662:
632:
594:
489:
262:
128:
3456:
2907:
2825:
2443:
2243:
1333:
1240:
977:
807:
509:
464:
3464:
3417:
2293:
2224:
1804:
1328:
1170:
1002:
712:
549:
534:
424:
404:
394:
39:
3535:
Oskar Lange and the
Impossibility of Economic Calculation by D.W. MacKenzie
1575:
and a trial-and-error approach to determining output targets and achieving
17:
2627:
3038:
3503:
3353:
Lerner, A (1972). "The Economics and Politics of Consumer Sovereignty".
1505:
1476:
3527:
Post-Lange Market Socialism: An Evaluation of Profit-Oriented Proposals
3425:
3342:
3313:
3284:
3255:
3185:
3156:
2986:
2942:
2769: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1756: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1060:
539:
519:
3472:
3219:
Lange, O 1957b. Role of Planning in a socialist economy, reprinted in
1644:
1065:
3334:
3305:
3276:
3247:
3177:
3148:
2978:
3409:
2965:
Bator, Francis M. (August 1958). "The Anatomy of Market Failure".
877:
3387:
MacKenzie, DW Trial and Error in the Socialist Calculation Debate
3292:
Lerner, A (1937). "Statics and Dynamics in Socialist Economics".
3321:
Lerner, A (1938). "Theory and Practice in Socialist Economics".
3202:
Lange, O 1940 Letter to FA Hayek, translated by Thadeusz Kowalik
2727:
Apart from setting prices, the central planning board allocates
310:
3011:
Milton Friedman, 'Lange on Price Flexibility and Employment',
2738:
1725:
3212:
Lange, O 1957a Political Economy of Socialism, reprinted in
1788:
A chart to show how the model would hypothetically function.
3234:
Lerner, A (1934). "Economic Theory and Socialist Economy".
3164:
Lange, O (1936). "On the Economic Theory of Socialism I".
1611:, and was expanded by economists like H. D. Dickinson and
3384:
MacKenzie, DW Capital and Income in Democratic Socialism
3366:
Lerner, A (1977). "Marginal Cost Pricing in the 1930s".
3135:
Lange, O (1935). "Marxian Economics and Modern Theory".
1675:
The model is sometimes called the "Lange–Lerner" model.
3394:(1971). "Oskar Lange's Theory of Socialist Planning".
3069:
Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century
3192:
Lange, O 1937 On the Economic Theory of Socialism II
2824:
The model claims to solve another main criticism of
3545:
Trial and Error in the Socialist Calculation Debate
3263:Lerner, A (1936). "A note on Socialist Economics".
3085:Kowalik, Tadeusz (1987). "Lange-Lerner mechanism,"
1667:, although this was not a pure Lange-model system.
2664:
1690:The Lange model was developed in response to
1530:
8:
1632:. The Lange Model is in practice a type of
3088:The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics
2801:Another advantage argued by Lange was that
3539:Capital and Income in Democratic Socialism
3114:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 0-262-19340-X.
2671:
2657:
1791:
1537:
1523:
26:
3502:
2785:Learn how and when to remove this message
1772:Learn how and when to remove this message
3071:. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
1783:
3349:Lerner, A 1944 The Economics of Control
2886:
1803:
1615:. Although Lange and Lerner called it "
38:
3207:Socialism Journal of Political Economy
1306:International socialist organizations
254:To each according to his contribution
7:
3490:The Journal of Economic Perspectives
3228:Economic Theory and Market Socialism
2809:Furthermore, because the state uses
2767:adding citations to reliable sources
1754:adding citations to reliable sources
3124:Cambridge Political Economy Society
3000:On the Economic Theory of Socialism
3485:"The Politics of Market Socialism"
2967:The Quarterly Journal of Economics
25:
2705:Trial-and-error price adjustments
1603:This model was first proposed by
1571:based on public ownership of the
2743:
2638:
2626:
1811:
1730:
1619:", the Lange model is a form of
1504:
1492:
1475:
46:
3230:T Kowalik ed. Edward Elgar pub.
3027:"A Critique of the Lange Model"
2754:needs additional citations for
1913:Concepts, theory and techniques
1741:needs additional citations for
3323:The Review of Economic Studies
3265:The Review of Economic Studies
3236:The Review of Economic Studies
3194:The Review of Economic Studies
3166:The Review of Economic Studies
2935:10.1080/00213624.1995.11505705
1:
1649:Soviet-type economic planning
139:Critique of political economy
3397:Journal of Political Economy
3368:The American Economic Review
3355:The American Economic Review
3013:Essays in Positive Economics
1704:socialist calculation debate
1609:socialist calculation debate
1409:Socialist calculation debate
1379:List of socialist economists
1354:Economic calculation problem
239:Socialist mode of production
96:Socialist calculation debate
3483:; Robert W. Vishny (1994).
3205:Lange, O 1942 Economics of
3067:; Robert C. Stuart (2004).
1549:Neoclassical economic model
3602:
3137:Review of Economic Studies
2923:Journal of Economic Issues
3457:10.1080/09668137308410916
2908:10.1080/03085149800000027
1634:centrally planned economy
1621:centrally planned economy
1404:Socialism and LGBT rights
348:Socialist-oriented market
296:Socialist planned economy
199:Material balance planning
3091:, v. 3, pp. 129–30.
1901:JEL classification codes
343:Socialist market economy
268:Workers' self-management
234:Socialism in one country
81:Age of the Enlightenment
2087:Industrial organization
1944:Computational economics
1700:criticisms of socialism
1344:Criticism of capitalism
355:Participatory economics
189:Labour-time calculation
3581:Neoclassical economics
3100:A Future for Socialism
2714:Central planning board
2699:managed democratically
1939:Experimental economics
1789:
1653:New Economic Mechanism
1349:Criticism of socialism
301:Decentralized planning
204:Peer‑to‑peer economics
3025:Duddy, Craig (2021).
2815:allocative efficiency
2811:marginal cost pricing
1787:
3294:The Economic Journal
3039:10.2139/ssrn.3870418
2763:improve this article
2701:by their employees.
2166:Social choice theory
1750:improve this article
1577:economic equilibrium
1558:Lange–Lerner theorem
1499:Communism portal
1482:Socialism portal
174:Industrial democracy
124:Collective ownership
3504:10.1257/jep.8.2.165
3392:Roberts, Paul Craig
3108:Stiglitz, Joseph E.
2896:Economy and Society
2875:Indicative planning
2865:Socialist economics
2633:Business portal
1954:Operations research
1934:National accounting
1607:in 1936 during the
1589:perfect competition
1573:means of production
1567:for a hypothetical
1384:Market abolitionism
1369:Left-libertarianism
306:Inclusive Democracy
273:Workplace democracy
119:Calculation in kind
101:Socialist economics
91:Revolutions of 1848
3529:by James A. Yunker
3112:Whither Socialism?
1964:Industrial complex
1959:Middle income trap
1790:
1636:and not a type of
1598:economies of scale
1389:Marxist philosophy
209:Production for use
179:Input–output model
144:Economic democracy
3561:Economic planning
3547:by D.W. MacKenzie
3541:by D.W. MacKenzie
2850:Economic planning
2795:
2794:
2787:
2681:
2680:
1782:
1781:
1774:
1657:Goulash Communism
1581:Pareto efficiency
1569:socialist economy
1547:
1546:
1339:Communist society
1311:Socialist parties
570:Saint-Simonianism
159:Equal opportunity
149:Economic planning
86:French Revolution
16:(Redirected from
3593:
3576:Market socialism
3571:Economics models
3566:Economic systems
3516:
3506:
3481:Shleifer, Andrei
3476:
3437:
3375:
3362:
3346:
3317:
3300:(186): 253–270.
3288:
3259:
3189:
3160:
3131:
3115:
3082:
3065:Gregory, Paul R.
3051:
3050:
3022:
3016:
3009:
3003:
2997:
2991:
2990:
2962:
2956:
2953:
2947:
2946:
2918:
2912:
2911:
2891:
2855:Market socialism
2790:
2783:
2779:
2776:
2770:
2747:
2739:
2729:social dividends
2673:
2666:
2659:
2645:Money portal
2643:
2642:
2641:
2631:
2630:
2127:Natural resource
1919:Economic systems
1815:
1792:
1777:
1770:
1766:
1763:
1757:
1734:
1726:
1722:Basic principles
1716:market socialism
1692:Ludwig von Mises
1681:market socialism
1638:market socialism
1617:market socialism
1539:
1532:
1525:
1511:Organized Labour
1509:
1508:
1497:
1496:
1495:
1480:
1479:
1424:Workers' council
1061:Gracchi Brothers
585:Social democracy
328:Market socialism
316:Project Cybersyn
244:Soviet democracy
229:Social ownership
184:Internationalism
164:Free association
134:Common ownership
50:
27:
21:
3601:
3600:
3596:
3595:
3594:
3592:
3591:
3590:
3551:
3550:
3523:
3521:Further reading
3479:
3440:
3390:
3365:
3361:(1–2): 258–266.
3352:
3335:10.2307/2967541
3320:
3306:10.2307/2225526
3291:
3277:10.2307/2967661
3262:
3248:10.2307/2967550
3233:
3178:10.2307/2967660
3163:
3149:10.2307/2967586
3134:
3118:
3106:
3079:
3063:
3060:
3055:
3054:
3024:
3023:
3019:
3010:
3006:
2998:
2994:
2979:10.2307/1882231
2964:
2963:
2959:
2954:
2950:
2920:
2919:
2915:
2893:
2892:
2888:
2883:
2846:
2837:Milton Friedman
2834:
2791:
2780:
2774:
2771:
2760:
2748:
2737:
2725:
2723:Social dividend
2716:
2707:
2695:
2677:
2639:
2637:
2625:
2618:
2617:
2588:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2575:
2339:von Böhm-Bawerk
2227:
2216:
2215:
1977:
1969:
1968:
1924:Economic growth
1914:
1906:
1905:
1847:
1845:classifications
1778:
1767:
1761:
1758:
1747:
1735:
1724:
1708:Vilfredo Pareto
1696:Friedrich Hayek
1685:social dividend
1673:
1626:Vilfredo Pareto
1550:
1543:
1503:
1493:
1491:
1474:
1467:
1466:
1437:
1429:
1428:
1419:Socialist state
1414:Socialist Party
1359:Economic system
1324:
1316:
1315:
1301:
1291:
1290:
1056:
1048:
1047:
628:
620:
619:
435:Democratic road
370:
360:
359:
286:
278:
277:
224:Social dividend
214:Sharing economy
114:
106:
105:
76:
68:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3599:
3597:
3589:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3553:
3552:
3549:
3548:
3542:
3536:
3533:
3530:
3522:
3519:
3518:
3517:
3477:
3444:Soviet Studies
3438:
3410:10.1086/259768
3388:
3385:
3382:
3379:
3376:
3363:
3350:
3347:
3318:
3289:
3260:
3231:
3224:
3217:
3210:
3203:
3200:
3197:
3190:
3161:
3143:(3): 189–201.
3132:
3116:
3104:
3103:, Verso Press.
3092:
3083:
3077:
3059:
3056:
3053:
3052:
3017:
3004:
2992:
2973:(3): 351–379.
2957:
2948:
2929:(3): 683–717.
2913:
2902:(4): 407–433.
2885:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2878:
2877:
2872:
2870:Fred M. Taylor
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2845:
2842:
2833:
2830:
2793:
2792:
2751:
2749:
2742:
2736:
2733:
2724:
2721:
2715:
2712:
2706:
2703:
2694:
2691:
2679:
2678:
2676:
2675:
2668:
2661:
2653:
2650:
2649:
2648:
2647:
2635:
2620:
2619:
2616:
2615:
2610:
2600:
2595:
2589:
2584:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2574:
2573:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2230:
2229:
2228:
2222:
2221:
2218:
2217:
2214:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2132:Organizational
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1978:
1976:By application
1975:
1974:
1971:
1970:
1967:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1836:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1817:
1816:
1808:
1807:
1801:
1800:
1780:
1779:
1738:
1736:
1729:
1723:
1720:
1672:
1669:
1613:Abba P. Lerner
1605:Oskar R. Lange
1585:market economy
1565:economic model
1548:
1545:
1544:
1542:
1541:
1534:
1527:
1519:
1516:
1515:
1514:
1513:
1501:
1489:
1469:
1468:
1465:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1444:
1438:
1435:
1434:
1431:
1430:
1427:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1374:Libertarianism
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1325:
1323:Related topics
1322:
1321:
1318:
1317:
1314:
1313:
1308:
1302:
1297:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1289:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1208:
1203:
1198:
1193:
1188:
1183:
1178:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1057:
1054:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1046:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1015:
1010:
1005:
1000:
995:
990:
985:
980:
975:
970:
965:
960:
955:
950:
945:
940:
935:
930:
925:
920:
915:
910:
905:
900:
895:
890:
885:
880:
875:
870:
865:
860:
855:
850:
845:
840:
835:
830:
825:
820:
815:
810:
805:
800:
795:
790:
785:
780:
775:
770:
765:
760:
755:
750:
745:
740:
735:
730:
725:
720:
715:
710:
705:
700:
695:
690:
685:
680:
675:
670:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
640:
635:
629:
626:
625:
622:
621:
618:
617:
612:
607:
602:
597:
592:
587:
582:
577:
572:
567:
562:
557:
552:
547:
542:
537:
532:
527:
522:
517:
512:
507:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:
477:
472:
467:
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:
382:
377:
371:
366:
365:
362:
361:
358:
357:
352:
351:
350:
345:
340:
335:
325:
324:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
293:
287:
284:
283:
280:
279:
276:
275:
270:
265:
260:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
221:
216:
211:
206:
201:
196:
194:Labour voucher
191:
186:
181:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
146:
141:
136:
131:
126:
121:
115:
112:
111:
108:
107:
104:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
77:
74:
73:
70:
69:
67:
66:
61:
55:
52:
51:
43:
42:
36:
35:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3598:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3558:
3556:
3546:
3543:
3540:
3537:
3534:
3531:
3528:
3525:
3524:
3520:
3514:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3497:(2): 165–76.
3496:
3492:
3491:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3451:(2): 229–43.
3450:
3446:
3445:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3404:(3): 562–77.
3403:
3399:
3398:
3393:
3389:
3386:
3383:
3380:
3377:
3374:(1): 235–243.
3373:
3369:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3351:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3232:
3229:
3225:
3222:
3218:
3215:
3211:
3209:50(2):299-303
3208:
3204:
3201:
3198:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3102:
3101:
3096:
3093:
3090:
3089:
3084:
3080:
3078:0-618-26181-8
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3061:
3057:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3021:
3018:
3014:
3008:
3005:
3001:
2996:
2993:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2961:
2958:
2952:
2949:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2917:
2914:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2890:
2887:
2880:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2847:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2831:
2829:
2827:
2822:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2807:
2804:
2803:externalities
2799:
2789:
2786:
2778:
2768:
2764:
2758:
2757:
2752:This section
2750:
2746:
2741:
2740:
2734:
2732:
2730:
2722:
2720:
2713:
2711:
2704:
2702:
2700:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2686:marginal cost
2674:
2669:
2667:
2662:
2660:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2651:
2646:
2636:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2623:
2622:
2621:
2614:
2611:
2608:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2587:
2582:
2581:
2572:
2571:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2234:de Mandeville
2232:
2231:
2226:
2220:
2219:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2163:
2162:Public choice
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2137:Participation
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2097:Institutional
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2047:Expeditionary
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2037:Environmental
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1867:International
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1849:
1846:
1843:Branches and
1840:
1839:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1820:
1819:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1809:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1793:
1786:
1776:
1773:
1765:
1755:
1751:
1745:
1744:
1739:This section
1737:
1733:
1728:
1727:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1688:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1655:or so-called
1654:
1650:
1646:
1641:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1601:
1599:
1594:
1593:marginal cost
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1540:
1535:
1533:
1528:
1526:
1521:
1520:
1518:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1500:
1490:
1487:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1472:
1471:
1470:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1442:Related lists
1440:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1399:Progressivism
1397:
1395:
1394:Nanosocialism
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1320:
1319:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1300:
1299:Organizations
1295:
1294:
1287:
1286:Ocasio-Cortez
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1206:van der Lubbe
1204:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1052:
1051:
1044:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
994:
991:
989:
986:
984:
981:
979:
976:
974:
971:
969:
966:
964:
961:
959:
956:
954:
951:
949:
946:
944:
941:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
846:
844:
841:
839:
836:
834:
831:
829:
826:
824:
821:
819:
816:
814:
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
789:
786:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
759:
756:
754:
751:
749:
746:
744:
743:Chernyshevsky
741:
739:
736:
734:
731:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
714:
711:
709:
706:
704:
701:
699:
696:
694:
691:
689:
686:
684:
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
631:
630:
627:Intellectuals
624:
623:
616:
613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
601:
598:
596:
593:
591:
588:
586:
583:
581:
578:
576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
560:Revolutionary
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
495:Laissez-faire
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
400:Authoritarian
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
372:
369:
364:
363:
356:
353:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
330:
329:
326:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
298:
297:
294:
292:
289:
288:
282:
281:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
259:
255:
252:
250:
249:Strike action
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
187:
185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
154:Equal liberty
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
125:
122:
120:
117:
116:
110:
109:
102:
99:
97:
94:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
78:
72:
71:
65:
62:
60:
57:
56:
54:
53:
49:
45:
44:
41:
37:
33:
29:
28:
19:
3494:
3488:
3448:
3442:
3401:
3395:
3371:
3367:
3358:
3354:
3326:
3322:
3297:
3293:
3271:(1): 72–76.
3268:
3264:
3242:(1): 51–61.
3239:
3235:
3227:
3220:
3213:
3206:
3196:V4 N 123-142
3193:
3172:(1): 53–71.
3169:
3165:
3140:
3136:
3127:
3123:
3111:
3098:
3095:Roemer, John
3086:
3068:
3030:
3020:
3012:
3007:
2999:
2995:
2970:
2966:
2960:
2951:
2926:
2922:
2916:
2899:
2895:
2889:
2835:
2823:
2819:x-efficiency
2808:
2800:
2796:
2781:
2772:
2761:Please help
2756:verification
2753:
2726:
2717:
2708:
2696:
2693:Institutions
2682:
2603:Publications
2568:
2191:Sociological
2164: /
2062:Geographical
2042:Evolutionary
2017:Digitization
1982:Agricultural
1886:Mathematical
1857:Econometrics
1768:
1759:
1748:Please help
1743:verification
1740:
1689:
1674:
1642:
1602:
1562:neoclassical
1557:
1553:
1551:
455:Evolutionary
375:21st-century
332:
169:Freed market
3329:(1): 71–5.
2860:Marginalism
2775:August 2015
2439:von Neumann
2092:Information
2032:Engineering
2012:Development
2007:Demographic
1949:Game theory
1891:Methodology
1712:LĂ©on Walras
1702:during the
1677:Abba Lerner
1630:LĂ©on Walras
1554:Lange model
1486:WikiProject
1364:French Left
1156:Spiridonova
1055:Politicians
968:Castoriadis
648:Saint-Simon
600:Third World
595:Syndicalism
530:Nationalist
505:Libertarian
470:Free-market
333:Lange model
321:Soviet-type
291:Communalism
263:Vanguardism
219:Spontaneism
129:Cooperative
75:Development
18:Lange Model
3555:Categories
3058:Literature
2881:References
2832:Criticisms
2826:capitalism
2735:Advantages
2598:Economists
2469:Schumacher
2374:Schumpeter
2344:von Wieser
2264:von ThĂĽnen
2225:economists
2201:Statistics
2196:Solidarity
2117:Managerial
2082:Humanistic
2077:Historical
2022:Ecological
1987:Behavioral
1881:Mainstream
1762:March 2013
1457:Socialists
1452:By country
1334:Capitalism
1216:Mitterrand
1181:Gerhardsen
1126:Liebknecht
1111:Markievicz
1038:Varoufakis
988:Fotopoulos
658:Saint-Just
653:Buonarroti
638:Campanella
575:Scientific
510:Marhaenism
465:Fourierism
450:Ecological
430:Democratic
3586:Socialism
3513:152437398
3465:0038-5859
3434:153391920
3418:1537-534X
2514:Greenspan
2479:Samuelson
2459:Galbraith
2429:Tinbergen
2369:von Mises
2364:Heckscher
2324:Edgeworth
2142:Personnel
2102:Knowledge
2067:Happiness
2057:Financial
2027:Education
2002:Democracy
1896:Political
1862:Heterodox
1805:Economics
1329:Anarchism
1251:Gorbachev
1101:Malatesta
1096:Bernstein
873:Pankhurst
853:Pannekoek
843:Luxemburg
798:Plekhanov
773:Carpenter
768:Kropotkin
565:Ricardian
555:Religious
550:Reformism
535:Nkrumaism
525:Municipal
425:Communism
420:Christian
405:Blanquism
395:Anarchism
338:Mutualism
40:Socialism
3110:(1994).
3097:(1994).
2844:See also
2607:journals
2593:Glossary
2544:Stiglitz
2509:Rothbard
2489:Buchanan
2474:Friedman
2464:Koopmans
2454:Leontief
2434:Robinson
2319:Marshall
2223:Notable
2171:Regional
2147:Planning
2122:Monetary
2052:Feminist
1997:Cultural
1992:Business
1797:a series
1795:Part of
1671:Overview
1647:, where
1447:Category
1186:Erlander
1146:Kerensky
1116:Connolly
973:Thompson
958:Bookchin
948:Montseny
898:Vanzetti
863:Einstein
833:Landauer
738:Saltykov
733:Lassalle
693:Proudhon
475:Gandhian
460:Feminist
410:Buddhist
390:Agrarian
368:Variants
32:a series
30:Part of
3426:1830772
3343:2967541
3314:2225526
3285:2967661
3256:2967550
3221:Kowalik
3214:Kowalik
3186:2967660
3157:2967586
3120:Lo, Dic
3047:3870418
2987:1882231
2943:4226984
2613:Schools
2605: (
2564:Piketty
2559:Krugman
2424:Kuznets
2414:Kalecki
2389:Polanyi
2279:Cournot
2274:Bastiat
2259:Ricardo
2249:Malthus
2239:Quesnay
2211:Welfare
2181:Service
1852:Applied
1828:Outline
1823:History
1661:Hungary
1560:) is a
1281:Sánchez
1266:Sankara
1226:Mandela
1211:Kreisky
1201:Allende
1196:Senghor
1191:Douglas
1176:Durruti
1141:Trotsky
1033:Graeber
1013:Hampton
983:Chomsky
928:Marcuse
913:Gramsci
903:Bordiga
893:Polanyi
848:Russell
838:Berkman
828:Goldman
818:Du Bois
788:Kautsky
783:Bellamy
748:Tolstoy
723:Wallace
708:Bakunin
698:Greeley
688:Blanqui
668:Fourier
615:Zionist
605:Utopian
545:Popular
540:Owenism
520:Marxism
500:Liberal
485:Islamic
445:Ethical
440:Digital
415:Chinese
380:African
64:Outline
59:History
3511:
3473:150886
3471:
3463:
3432:
3424:
3416:
3341:
3312:
3283:
3254:
3184:
3155:
3075:
3045:
2985:
2941:
2549:Thaler
2529:Ostrom
2524:Becker
2519:Sowell
2499:Baumol
2404:Myrdal
2399:Sraffa
2394:Frisch
2384:Knight
2379:Keynes
2354:Fisher
2349:Veblen
2334:Pareto
2314:Menger
2309:George
2304:Jevons
2299:Walras
2289:Gossen
2157:Public
2152:Policy
2107:Labour
2072:Health
1929:Market
1663:under
1645:Poland
1587:under
1276:Marcos
1271:Chávez
1261:Corbyn
1236:Manley
1231:DubÄŤek
1221:Nasser
1161:Makhno
1151:Attlee
1136:Martov
1121:Gandhi
1076:Babeuf
1066:Mazdak
1028:Hedges
1008:Ă–calan
993:Newton
953:Sartre
943:Guérin
938:Orwell
888:Korsch
883:Lukács
868:Keller
858:Rocker
803:Ferrer
758:Morris
753:Michel
728:Lavrov
718:Engels
703:Herzen
678:Leroux
610:Yellow
515:Market
490:Jewish
285:Models
3509:S2CID
3469:JSTOR
3430:S2CID
3422:JSTOR
3339:JSTOR
3310:JSTOR
3281:JSTOR
3252:JSTOR
3182:JSTOR
3153:JSTOR
2983:JSTOR
2939:JSTOR
2586:Lists
2554:Hoppe
2539:Lucas
2504:Solow
2494:Arrow
2484:Simon
2449:Lange
2444:Hicks
2419:Röpke
2409:Hayek
2359:Pigou
2329:Clark
2244:Smith
2206:Urban
2186:Socio
2176:Rural
1876:Macro
1872:Micro
1833:Index
1665:Kádár
1462:Songs
1436:Lists
1241:Palme
1091:Bebel
1081:Blanc
1043:Saito
1018:Žižek
998:Wolff
933:James
918:Sacco
908:Serge
878:Volin
823:Gorky
813:Wells
808:Dewey
793:Wilde
778:Sorel
763:Jones
673:Cabet
643:Paine
590:State
580:Sewer
480:Guild
258:needs
113:Ideas
3461:ISSN
3414:ISSN
3223:1994
3216:1994
3130:(6).
3073:ISBN
3043:SSRN
3031:SSRN
2817:and
2570:more
2294:Marx
2284:Mill
2269:List
1710:and
1694:and
1628:and
1579:and
1556:(or
1552:The
1256:Lula
1171:Nagy
1166:Tito
1131:Blum
1106:Debs
1086:Hong
1071:Roux
1023:West
978:Ward
963:Zinn
713:Marx
663:Owen
633:More
385:Arab
311:OGAS
3499:doi
3453:doi
3406:doi
3331:doi
3302:doi
3273:doi
3244:doi
3174:doi
3145:doi
3035:doi
2975:doi
2931:doi
2904:doi
2765:by
2534:Sen
2254:Say
2112:Law
1752:by
1698:'s
1659:in
1246:Che
1003:Ali
923:Day
683:Sue
3557::
3507:.
3493:.
3487:.
3467:.
3459:.
3449:25
3447:.
3428:.
3420:.
3412:.
3402:79
3400:.
3372:67
3370:.
3359:62
3357:.
3337:.
3325:.
3308:.
3298:47
3296:.
3279:.
3267:.
3250:.
3238:.
3180:.
3168:.
3151:.
3139:.
3128:28
3126:.
3041:.
3033:.
3029:.
2981:.
2971:72
2969:.
2937:.
2927:29
2925:.
2900:27
2898:.
2821:.
1874:/
1799:on
1718:.
1640:.
1600:.
34:on
3515:.
3501::
3495:8
3475:.
3455::
3436:.
3408::
3345:.
3333::
3327:6
3316:.
3304::
3287:.
3275::
3269:4
3258:.
3246::
3240:2
3188:.
3176::
3170:4
3159:.
3147::
3141:2
3081:.
3049:.
3037::
3015:.
2989:.
2977::
2945:.
2933::
2910:.
2906::
2788:)
2782:(
2777:)
2773:(
2759:.
2672:e
2665:t
2658:v
2609:)
1775:)
1769:(
1764:)
1760:(
1746:.
1538:e
1531:t
1524:v
1488:)
1484:(
256:/
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
