1377:. Unlike active swimmers like animals and zooplankton, plants and phytoplankton are usually passive bodies in water and their aggregation are determined by the flow behavior. In windrows, concentrated planktonic organisms color the water and indicate the presence of LC. There has been observation of greater variability in plankton tows collected along the wind direction than samples collected perpendicular to the wind. And one of the reason for such variation could be due to LC that results convergence (high sample) or in between (low sample) zones in alongwind tow. Similarly, such converging effect of LC has also been observed as high chlorophyll zone at about 100 m in
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concentration in either downwelling (due to slow current), upwelling (due to high current) and in between latter two zones (due to intermediate currents). There has been further improvement in such models like the modification of
Stommel's model by Titman & Kilham in order to consider the difference in maximum downwelling and upwelling velocities and by Evans & Taylor that discussed the instability of Stommel's regions due to varying swimming speed with depth which produced spiral trajectories affecting accumulation region.
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At the surface the circulation will set a current from the divergence zone to the convergence zone and the spacing between these zones are of the order of 1–300 m (3–1,000 ft). Below convergence zones narrow jets of downward flow form and the magnitude of the current will be comparable to the horizontal flow. The downward propagation will typically be in the order of meters or tenths of meters and will not penetrate the
28:
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20:
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862:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial u_{i}}{\partial t}}+u_{j}\,\nabla _{j}u_{i}=-2\varepsilon _{ijk}\Omega _{j}(u_{k}^{s}+u_{k})-\nabla _{i}\left({\frac {P}{\rho _{0}}}+{\frac {1}{2}}u_{j}^{s}u_{j}^{s}+u_{j}^{s}u_{j}\right)+\varepsilon _{ijk}u_{j}^{s}\varepsilon _{k\ell m}\,\nabla _{\ell }u_{m}+g_{i}{\frac {\rho }{\rho _{0}}}+\nabla _{j}\nu \,\nabla _{j}u_{i}}
352:
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Moreover, previous studies have shown that organisms and materials can aggregate at different regions within LC like downwelling current in convergent zone, upwelling current in divergent zone, retention zone in LC vortex and region between upwelling and downwelling zones. Similarly, LC are found to
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is less intense and takes place over a wider band under the divergence zone. In wind speeds ranging from 2–12 m/s (6.6–39.4 ft/s) the maximum vertical velocity ranged from 2–10 cm/s (0.79–3.94 in/s) with a ratio of down-welling to wind velocities ranging from −0.0025 to −0.0085.
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at the surface. At the convergence zones, there are commonly concentrations of floating seaweed, foam and debris along these bands. Along these divergent zones, the ocean surface is typically clear of debris since diverging currents force material out of this zone and into adjacent converging zones.
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in downwelling zone of LC and can lose buoyancy after sinking at depth for enough time. Some of the plants that are usually observed floating in water could get submerged during high wind conditions due to downwelling current of LC. Besides, LC could also lead to patchiness of positively buoyant
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Langmuir circulations (LCs), which are counter-rotating cylindrical roll vortices in the upper ocean, have significant role in vertical mixing. Though they are transient and their strength as well as direction depend on wind and wave properties, they facilitate mixing of nutrients and affect the
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in South Wales lake, with greater number appearing in divergent zone. Such distribution of particles and animals can be described using mathematical model developed by
Stommel that suggested area of retention on upwelling zone for sinking particles and on downwelling zone for positively buoyant
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High concentration of surfactants (surface-active substances) produced by phytoplanktons can result higher
Marangoni stress in converging regions in LC. Numerical simulation suggest that such Marangoni stress due to surfactant can increase the size of vortical structures, vertical velocity and
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could become trapped in upwelling zones to a point where animals are stimulated to swim downwards. A more detailed model was later developed by Stavn describing the zooplankton aggregation where the animal orientation, dorsal light reaction and current velocity determined their region of
175:
1002:
1526:. Similarly, medusae were found to aggregate in linear pattern (average spacing of 129 m) parallel with wind in the Bering Sea which could be due to large LCs. Such aggregation can affect the feeding and predation of
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during strong winds that disperse the materials present at the surface. So, the surface effects of LC are more likely to be visible during winds stronger than critical wind speed of 3 m/s but not too strong.
2180:
Ryther, J. H. (1955). Ecology of autotrophic marine dinoflagellates with reference to red water conditions. In: The luminescence of biological systems (Johnson, F. H. (Ed.)), Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., pp. 387-413
2086:
Powell, T. M.; Richerson, P. J.; Dillon, T. M.; Agee, B. A.; Dozier, B. J.; Godden, D. A.; Myrup, L. O. (1975-09-26). "Spatial Scales of
Current Speed and Phytoplankton Biomass Fluctuations in Lake Tahoe".
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surface current in convergent zones due to jet like flow. This faster moving convergent region in water surface can enhance the transport of organisms and materials in the direction of wind.
1841:
Kukulka, T.; Plueddemann, A. J.; Trowbridge, J. H.; Sullivan, P. P. (2009-05-28). "Significance of
Langmuir circulation in upper ocean mixing: Comparison of observations and simulations".
909:
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of the waves stretches and tilts the vorticity of the flow near the surface. The production of vorticity in the upper ocean is balanced by downward (often turbulent) diffusion
347:{\displaystyle \mathrm {La} ={\sqrt {\frac {\nu _{T}^{3}k^{6}}{\sigma a^{2}u_{*}^{2}k^{4}}}}~{\text{ or }}~{\sqrt {\frac {\nu _{T}^{3}\beta ^{6}}{u_{*}^{2}S_{0}\beta ^{3}}}}}
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While plants have passive reaction to LC, animals can react to both the LC, presence of plant/food aggregation and light. One of such observation was the adaptation of
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Titman, David; Kilham, Peter (1976). "Sinking in freshwater phytoplankton: Some ecological implications of cell nutrient status and physical mixing processes1".
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412:
372:
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Botte, Vincenzo; Mansutti, Daniela (August 2012). "A numerical estimate of the plankton-induced sea surface tension effects in a
Langmuir circulation".
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organisms) during blooms. Moreover, the negatively buoyant phytoplankters which would sink slowly in still water has been observed to get retained in
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2765:
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Woodcock, A. H. (1944). A theory of surface water motion deduced from the wind-induced motion of the
Physalia. J. Mar. Res., 5, 196--205.
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Tuite, C. H. (1981). "Standing crop densities and distribution of
Spirulina and benthic diatoms in East African alkaline saline lakes".
470:
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In the open ocean conditions where there may not be a dominant length scale controlling the scale of the
Langmuir cells the concept of
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Furthermore, a broader study on the
Langmuir supercells in which the circulation can reach the seafloor observed the aggregation of
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462:
1981:
Hamner, William M.; Schneider, David (1986). "Regularly spaced rows of medusae in the Bering Sea: Role of Langmuir circulation1".
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due to local wind speed of around 8 to 13 m/s. Such LC could be responsible for transport of carbon biomass from shallow water to
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1412:
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2613:
1907:
Evans, Geoffrey T.; Taylor, F. J. R. (1980). "Phytoplankton accumulation in Langmuir cells1: Phytoplankton in Langmuir cells".
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at the ocean's surface aligned with the wind. These circulations are developed when wind blows steadily over the sea surface.
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1311:, orientation and swimming behavior can aggregate, resulting in patchiness. Indeed, LC can produce significant aggregation of
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3707:
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George, D. G. & Edwards, R. W. (1973). Daphnia distribution within Langmuir circulation. Lirnnol. Oceanogr, 18, 798-800.
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The driving force of these circulations is an interaction of the mean flow with wave averaged flows of the surface waves.
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871:
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466:
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Smayda, T. J. (1970). Suspension and sinking of phytoplankton in the sea. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rer., 8, 353-414.
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997:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \rho }{\partial t}}+u_{j}\,\nabla _{j}\rho =\nabla _{i}\kappa \,\nabla _{i}\rho }
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Stommel, H. (1949). Trajectories of small bodies sinking slowly through convection cells. J. Mar. Res., 8, 24-9.
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concentration and the appearance of foam lines. Similarly, significant differences were observed in catches of
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remixing of water and biological/chemical components in the local region compared to that without surfactant.
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2210:"Potential export of unattached benthic macroalgae to the deep sea through wind-driven Langmuir circulation"
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Nevertheless, high concentration of planktonic organisms within LC can attract birds and fish. Schools of
2339:"Surface Schooling and Feeding Behavior in the White Bass, Roccus Chrysops (Rafinesque), in Lake Mendota"
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Finally, more theoretical and experimental investigations are needed to confirm the significance of LC.
56:
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1990:
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83:; however, it is not yet so clear how strongly they can cause mixing at the base of the mixed layer.
1319:. Theoretically, LC size increases with the wind speed unless limited by density discontinuities by
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2026:"The Horizontal-Vertical Distribution Hypothesis: Langmuir Circulations and Daphnia Distributions1"
1939:"The Horizontal-Vertical Distribution Hypothesis: Langmuir Circulations and Daphnia Distributions1"
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Hutchinson, G. E. (1967). A treatise on Limnology, Vol. 2, New York. John Wiley and Sons, lll5pp.
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2006:
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Series of shallow, slow, counter-rotating vortices at the ocean's surface aligned with the wind
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98:
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Johnson, David L.; Richardson, Philip L. (1977). "On the wind-induced sinking of Sargassum".
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1998:
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were found to reduce dramatically after the occurrence of LC as observed from ocean color
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2100:
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1994:
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Leibovich, S. (1980), "On wave-current interactions theories of Langmuir circulations",
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27:
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The circulation has been observed to be between 0°–20° to the right of the wind in the
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McWilliams, J.; Sullivan, P.; Moeng, C. (1997), "Langmuir turbulence in the ocean",
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2010:
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Craik, A.D.D.; Leibovich, S. (1976), "A Rational model for Langmuir circulations",
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is similar to windrows of positively buoyant particles on water surface due to LC.
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are often concentrated by the strong winds and wave action associated with the
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Dierssen, H. M.; Zimmerman, R. C.; Drake, L. A.; Burdige, D. J. (2009-02-18).
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zone which may be due to suspension created by vertical convection cells.
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the ratio of vorticity diffusion and production defines the Langmuir number
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which also increased food or zooplankter availability in divergent zones.
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where the first definition is for a monochromatic wave field of amplitude
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1435:) during the period of the study. Such aggregation of negatively buoyant
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1316:
1308:
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1807:
Leibovich, S. (1983), "The form and dynamics of Langmuir circulations",
1666:(1978), "An exact theory of nonlinear waves on a Lagrangian-mean flow",
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Moreover, studies in Lake Mendota have shown good correlation between
1323:. But the visibility of surface effects of LC could be limited by the
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18:
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Nees, J. C. (1949). PhD Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
31:
White streaks in this lagoon are due to the Langmuir circulation.
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1432:
43:
can stretch for miles along the surface. The clumps of floating
2475:
1522:
were observed feeding on bubble lines containing concentrated
1381:
which could be due to oblique towing through LC. In addition,
1290:
Higher windward velocity in convergent zones of Langmuir cells
63:
consists of a series of shallow, slow, counter-rotating
1090:
is the Stokes drift velocity of the surface wave field,
1423:. This effect was evident as the concentration of the
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in 1927. Langmuir circulations circulate within the
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2189:
Koppen, W. (1921). Annln Hydrogr. Berl., 49, 170-3.
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414:and the second uses a generic inverse length scale
2148:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology
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3445:North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
3435:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
2337:McNaught, Donald C.; Hasler, Arthur D. (1961).
1356:Distribution of particles within Langmuir cells
2487:
1586:Thorpe, S.A. (2004), "Langmuir circulation",
8:
1581:
1579:
1360:In 1927, Langmuir saw the organized rows of
1307:create regions where organisms of different
71:discovered this phenomenon after observing
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2472:
1515:along the foam track. In contrast, lesser
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100:
1335:PIV vectors of counter rotating vortices
2431:Mathematics and Computers in Simulation
1563:(2nd ed.), Butterworth-Heinemann,
1551:
473:the governing equations can be written
2766:one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
1608:10.1146/annurev.fluid.36.052203.071431
1295:distribution of marine organisms like
1976:
1974:
1932:
1930:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1794:Introduction To Physical Oceanography
7:
3713:
1829:10.1146/annurev.fl.15.010183.002135
1141:is the acceleration due to gravity,
3593:National Oceanographic Data Center
3020:World Ocean Circulation Experiment
2908:Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
2408:10.1111/j.1365-2427.1981.tb01266.x
1457:to windrows containing entangling
1303:of ocean. The wind-generated roll
1043:
982:
968:
952:
928:
920:
904:{\displaystyle \nabla _{i}u_{i}=0}
876:
840:
826:
773:
614:
567:
522:
498:
483:
465:which are an approximation of the
183:
180:
14:
3440:Global Sea Level Observing System
1390:dinoflagellates (including toxic
3723:
3712:
3703:
3702:
2898:Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
2814:
2803:
2459:
1809:Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics
1588:Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics
3628:Ocean thermal energy conversion
3351:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
607:
576:
122:. For a flow driven by a wind
1:
2109:10.1126/science.189.4208.1088
461:. This is exemplified by the
2888:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
2858:Craik–Leibovich vortex force
2614:Luke's variational principle
2443:10.1016/j.matcom.2012.07.014
2214:Geophysical Research Letters
2160:10.1016/0022-0981(77)90095-8
1843:Geophysical Research Letters
1489:when sampling in and out of
1385:get carried from surface to
434:, and Stokes velocity scale
2024:Stavn, Robert Hans (1971).
1937:Stavn, Robert Hans (1971).
1792:Stewart, Robert H. (2002),
1509:were observed feeding upon
3772:
2953:Ocean dynamical thermostat
2801:
2343:Limnology and Oceanography
2286:Limnology and Oceanography
2030:Limnology and Oceanography
1983:Limnology and Oceanography
1943:Limnology and Oceanography
1909:Limnology and Oceanography
1752:Journal of Fluid Mechanics
1710:Journal of Fluid Mechanics
1668:Journal of Fluid Mechanics
1622:Journal of Fluid Mechanics
3698:
3488:Ocean acoustic tomography
3301:Mohorovičić discontinuity
2893:General circulation model
2529:Benjamin–Feir instability
2306:10.4319/lo.1976.21.3.0409
2051:10.4319/lo.1971.16.2.0453
2003:10.4319/lo.1986.31.1.0171
1964:10.4319/lo.1971.16.2.0453
1921:10.4319/lo.1980.25.5.0840
1772:10.1017/S0022112096004375
1730:10.1017/S0022112080000857
1688:10.1017/S0022112078002773
1642:10.1017/S0022112076001420
1534:Effect on surface tension
1494:particles. Actually, the
1467:tend to drift across the
1192:is the reference density,
1185:{\displaystyle \rho _{0}}
1083:{\displaystyle u_{i}^{s}}
463:Craik–Leibovich equations
3618:Ocean surface topography
2993:Thermohaline circulation
2983:Subsurface ocean current
2923:Hydrothermal circulation
2756:Wave–current interaction
2534:Boussinesq approximation
2364:10.4319/lo.1961.6.1.0053
1559:Open University (2001),
471:Boussinesq approximation
115:{\displaystyle \nu _{T}}
3655:Sea surface temperature
3638:Outline of oceanography
2833:Atmospheric circulation
2771:shallow water equations
2761:Waves and shallow water
2654:Significant wave height
1229:{\displaystyle \kappa }
1049:{\displaystyle \Omega }
387:{\displaystyle \sigma }
3650:Sea surface microlayer
3015:Wind generated current
1357:
1336:
1291:
1230:
1208:
1186:
1157:
1135:
1106:
1084:
1056:is planetary rotation,
1050:
1034:is the fluid velocity,
1028:
998:
905:
863:
455:
428:
427:{\displaystyle \beta }
408:
388:
368:
348:
166:
136:
116:
52:
32:
24:
3756:Physical oceanography
3483:Deep scattering layer
3465:World Geodetic System
2973:Princeton Ocean Model
2853:Coriolis–Stokes force
2503:Physical oceanography
1355:
1334:
1289:
1231:
1214:is the viscosity, and
1209:
1187:
1158:
1156:{\displaystyle \rho }
1136:
1134:{\displaystyle g_{i}}
1107:
1085:
1051:
1029:
1027:{\displaystyle u_{i}}
999:
906:
864:
456:
454:{\displaystyle S_{0}}
429:
409:
389:
369:
349:
167:
165:{\displaystyle u_{*}}
137:
135:{\displaystyle \tau }
117:
93:Stokes drift velocity
57:physical oceanography
38:
30:
22:
3503:Underwater acoustics
3063:Perigean spring tide
2928:Langmuir circulation
2639:Rossby-gravity waves
2468:at Wikimedia Commons
2466:Langmuir circulation
2235:10.1029/2008GL036188
1863:10.1029/2009gl037620
1796:(Fall 2002 ed.)
1411:in the sea floor of
1220:
1207:{\displaystyle \nu }
1198:
1169:
1147:
1118:
1096:
1062:
1040:
1011:
914:
872:
477:
438:
418:
398:
378:
358:
176:
149:
126:
99:
61:Langmuir circulation
23:Langmuir circulation
3665:Science On a Sphere
3271:Convergent boundary
2943:Modular Ocean Model
2903:Geostrophic current
2619:Mild-slope equation
2400:1981FrBio..11..345T
2355:1961LimOc...6...53M
2298:1976LimOc..21..409T
2226:2009GeoRL..36.4602D
2101:1975Sci...189.1088P
2095:(4208): 1088–1090.
2042:1971LimOc..16..453S
1995:1986LimOc..31..171H
1955:1971LimOc..16..453S
1855:2009GeoRL..3610603K
1821:1983AnRFM..15..391L
1764:1997JFM...334....1M
1722:1980JFM....99..715L
1680:1978JFM....89..609A
1634:1976JFM....73..401C
1600:2004AnRFM..36...55T
1520:Phoeniconaias minor
1369:while crossing the
1315:during events like
1254:northern hemisphere
1242:Langmuir Turbulence
1236:is the diffusivity.
1079:
754:
705:
687:
672:
593:
319:
292:
248:
208:
3321:Seafloor spreading
3311:Outer trench swell
3276:Divergent boundary
3176:Continental margin
3161:Carbonate platform
3058:Lunitidal interval
2388:Freshwater Biology
1358:
1337:
1292:
1282:Biological effects
1226:
1204:
1182:
1153:
1131:
1102:
1080:
1065:
1046:
1024:
994:
901:
859:
740:
691:
673:
658:
579:
451:
424:
404:
384:
364:
344:
305:
278:
234:
194:
162:
132:
112:
75:of seaweed in the
53:
33:
25:
3738:
3737:
3730:Oceans portal
3690:World Ocean Atlas
3680:Underwater glider
3623:Ocean temperature
3286:Hydrothermal vent
3251:Submarine volcano
3186:Continental shelf
3166:Coastal geography
3156:Bathymetric chart
3038:Amphidromic point
2726:Wave nonlinearity
2584:Infragravity wave
2464:Media related to
2437:(12): 2916–2928.
1561:Ocean Circulation
1447:Effect on animals
1429:satellite imagery
1417:Great Bahama Bank
1260:forming bands of
1105:{\displaystyle P}
935:
820:
656:
643:
505:
407:{\displaystyle k}
394:, and wavenumber
367:{\displaystyle a}
342:
341:
273:
269:
265:
261:
260:
144:friction velocity
142:characterized by
3763:
3728:
3727:
3716:
3715:
3706:
3705:
3645:Pelagic sediment
3583:Marine pollution
3377:Deep ocean water
3246:Submarine canyon
3181:Continental rise
3073:Rule of twelfths
2988:Sverdrup balance
2918:Humboldt Current
2843:Boundary current
2818:
2807:
2624:Radiation stress
2594:Iribarren number
2569:Equatorial waves
2524:Ballantine scale
2519:Airy wave theory
2496:
2489:
2482:
2473:
2463:
2447:
2446:
2426:
2420:
2419:
2383:
2377:
2376:
2366:
2334:
2328:
2327:
2317:
2281:
2275:
2272:
2266:
2263:
2257:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2237:
2205:
2199:
2196:
2190:
2187:
2181:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2143:
2137:
2136:
2083:
2077:
2074:
2065:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2053:
2021:
2015:
2014:
1978:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1934:
1925:
1924:
1904:
1893:
1892:
1874:
1838:
1832:
1831:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1789:
1783:
1782:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1705:
1699:
1698:
1659:
1653:
1652:
1617:
1611:
1610:
1583:
1574:
1573:
1556:
1524:blue-green algae
1348:Effect on plants
1235:
1233:
1232:
1227:
1213:
1211:
1210:
1205:
1191:
1189:
1188:
1183:
1181:
1180:
1162:
1160:
1159:
1154:
1140:
1138:
1137:
1132:
1130:
1129:
1112:is the pressure,
1111:
1109:
1108:
1103:
1089:
1087:
1086:
1081:
1078:
1073:
1055:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1033:
1031:
1030:
1025:
1023:
1022:
1003:
1001:
1000:
995:
990:
989:
976:
975:
960:
959:
949:
948:
936:
934:
926:
918:
910:
908:
907:
902:
894:
893:
884:
883:
868:
866:
865:
860:
858:
857:
848:
847:
834:
833:
821:
819:
818:
806:
804:
803:
791:
790:
781:
780:
770:
769:
753:
748:
739:
738:
720:
716:
715:
714:
704:
699:
686:
681:
671:
666:
657:
649:
644:
642:
641:
629:
622:
621:
606:
605:
592:
587:
575:
574:
565:
564:
540:
539:
530:
529:
519:
518:
506:
504:
496:
495:
494:
481:
460:
458:
457:
452:
450:
449:
433:
431:
430:
425:
413:
411:
410:
405:
393:
391:
390:
385:
373:
371:
370:
365:
353:
351:
350:
345:
343:
340:
339:
338:
329:
328:
318:
313:
303:
302:
301:
291:
286:
276:
275:
271:
270:
267:
263:
262:
259:
258:
257:
247:
242:
233:
232:
219:
218:
217:
207:
202:
192:
191:
186:
171:
169:
168:
163:
161:
160:
141:
139:
138:
133:
121:
119:
118:
113:
111:
110:
3771:
3770:
3766:
3765:
3764:
3762:
3761:
3760:
3741:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3722:
3694:
3533:
3507:
3469:
3450:Sea-level curve
3421:
3360:
3346:Transform fault
3296:Mid-ocean ridge
3262:
3255:
3221:Oceanic plateau
3127:
3113:Tidal resonance
3083:Theory of tides
3024:
2933:Longshore drift
2883:Ekman transport
2819:
2813:
2812:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2799:
2751:Wave turbulence
2684:Trochoidal wave
2609:Longshore drift
2505:
2500:
2456:
2451:
2450:
2428:
2427:
2423:
2385:
2384:
2380:
2336:
2335:
2331:
2283:
2282:
2278:
2273:
2269:
2264:
2260:
2255:
2251:
2207:
2206:
2202:
2197:
2193:
2188:
2184:
2179:
2175:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2085:
2084:
2080:
2075:
2068:
2063:
2059:
2023:
2022:
2018:
1980:
1979:
1972:
1936:
1935:
1928:
1906:
1905:
1896:
1840:
1839:
1835:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1791:
1790:
1786:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1707:
1706:
1702:
1662:Andrews, D.G.;
1661:
1660:
1656:
1619:
1618:
1614:
1585:
1584:
1577:
1571:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1536:
1507:Roccus chrysops
1449:
1350:
1284:
1250:
1218:
1217:
1196:
1195:
1172:
1167:
1166:
1163:is the density,
1145:
1144:
1121:
1116:
1115:
1094:
1093:
1060:
1059:
1038:
1037:
1014:
1009:
1008:
981:
967:
951:
940:
927:
919:
912:
911:
885:
875:
870:
869:
849:
839:
825:
810:
795:
782:
772:
755:
724:
706:
633:
627:
623:
613:
597:
566:
550:
531:
521:
510:
497:
486:
482:
475:
474:
467:Lagrangian mean
441:
436:
435:
416:
415:
396:
395:
376:
375:
356:
355:
330:
320:
304:
293:
277:
249:
224:
220:
209:
193:
174:
173:
152:
147:
146:
124:
123:
102:
97:
96:
89:
69:Irving Langmuir
39:These lines of
17:
12:
11:
5:
3769:
3767:
3759:
3758:
3753:
3743:
3742:
3736:
3735:
3733:
3732:
3720:
3710:
3699:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3670:Stratification
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3641:
3640:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3562:
3560:Color of water
3557:
3555:Benthic lander
3552:
3547:
3541:
3539:
3535:
3534:
3532:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3515:
3513:
3509:
3508:
3506:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3479:
3477:
3471:
3470:
3468:
3467:
3462:
3460:Sea level rise
3457:
3455:Sea level drop
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3431:
3429:
3423:
3422:
3420:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3368:
3366:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3291:Marine geology
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3267:
3265:
3257:
3256:
3254:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3231:Passive margin
3228:
3226:Oceanic trench
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3137:
3135:
3129:
3128:
3126:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3034:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
3001:
3000:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2958:Ocean dynamics
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2848:Coriolis force
2845:
2840:
2835:
2829:
2827:
2821:
2820:
2802:
2800:
2798:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2774:
2773:
2768:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2697:
2696:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2669:Stokes problem
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2604:Kinematic wave
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2515:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2501:
2499:
2498:
2491:
2484:
2476:
2470:
2469:
2455:
2454:External links
2452:
2449:
2448:
2421:
2394:(4): 345–360.
2378:
2329:
2315:2027.42/109909
2292:(3): 409–417.
2276:
2267:
2258:
2249:
2200:
2191:
2182:
2173:
2154:(3): 255–267.
2138:
2078:
2066:
2057:
2036:(2): 453–466.
2016:
1989:(1): 171–176.
1970:
1949:(2): 453–466.
1926:
1915:(5): 840–845.
1894:
1849:(10): L10603.
1833:
1799:
1784:
1742:
1716:(4): 715–724,
1700:
1674:(4): 609–646,
1664:McIntyre, M.E.
1654:
1628:(3): 401–426,
1612:
1575:
1569:
1550:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1535:
1532:
1448:
1445:
1413:shallow waters
1375:Atlantic Ocean
1349:
1346:
1325:breaking waves
1283:
1280:
1249:
1246:
1238:
1237:
1225:
1215:
1203:
1193:
1179:
1175:
1164:
1152:
1142:
1128:
1124:
1113:
1101:
1091:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1057:
1045:
1035:
1021:
1017:
993:
988:
984:
979:
974:
970:
966:
963:
958:
954:
947:
943:
939:
933:
930:
925:
922:
900:
897:
892:
888:
882:
878:
856:
852:
846:
842:
837:
832:
828:
824:
817:
813:
809:
802:
798:
794:
789:
785:
779:
775:
768:
765:
762:
758:
752:
747:
743:
737:
734:
731:
727:
723:
719:
713:
709:
703:
698:
694:
690:
685:
680:
676:
670:
665:
661:
655:
652:
647:
640:
636:
632:
626:
620:
616:
612:
609:
604:
600:
596:
591:
586:
582:
578:
573:
569:
563:
560:
557:
553:
549:
546:
543:
538:
534:
528:
524:
517:
513:
509:
503:
500:
493:
489:
485:
448:
444:
423:
403:
383:
363:
337:
333:
327:
323:
317:
312:
308:
300:
296:
290:
285:
281:
268: or
256:
252:
246:
241:
237:
231:
227:
223:
216:
212:
206:
201:
197:
189:
185:
182:
159:
155:
131:
109:
105:
88:
85:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3768:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3748:
3746:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3719:
3711:
3709:
3701:
3700:
3697:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3639:
3636:
3635:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3578:Marine energy
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3568:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3545:Acidification
3543:
3542:
3540:
3536:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3510:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3498:SOFAR channel
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3480:
3478:
3476:
3472:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3432:
3430:
3428:
3424:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3369:
3367:
3363:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3306:Oceanic crust
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3281:Fracture zone
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3258:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3216:Oceanic basin
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3146:Abyssal plain
3144:
3142:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3134:
3130:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3053:Internal tide
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3031:
3027:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
2999:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2948:Ocean current
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2830:
2828:
2826:
2822:
2817:
2806:
2794:
2791:
2790:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2763:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2746:Wave shoaling
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2706:Ursell number
2704:
2702:
2699:
2695:
2692:
2691:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2589:Internal wave
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2539:Breaking wave
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2497:
2492:
2490:
2485:
2483:
2478:
2477:
2474:
2467:
2462:
2458:
2457:
2453:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2425:
2422:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2382:
2379:
2374:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2333:
2330:
2325:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2277:
2271:
2268:
2262:
2259:
2253:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2220:(4): L04602.
2219:
2215:
2211:
2204:
2201:
2195:
2192:
2186:
2183:
2177:
2174:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2142:
2139:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2082:
2079:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2061:
2058:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1977:
1975:
1971:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1837:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1803:
1800:
1795:
1788:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1704:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1658:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1582:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1570:9780750652780
1566:
1562:
1555:
1552:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1518:
1514:
1513:
1508:
1505:
1500:
1497:
1492:
1488:
1485:
1484:
1479:
1478:
1477:Daphnia pulex
1472:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1461:
1456:
1455:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1354:
1347:
1345:
1343:
1333:
1329:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1299:in the upper
1298:
1288:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1272:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1247:
1245:
1244:is advanced.
1243:
1223:
1216:
1201:
1194:
1177:
1173:
1165:
1150:
1143:
1126:
1122:
1114:
1099:
1092:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1058:
1036:
1019:
1015:
1007:
1006:
1005:
991:
986:
977:
972:
964:
961:
956:
945:
941:
937:
931:
923:
898:
895:
890:
886:
880:
854:
850:
844:
835:
830:
822:
815:
811:
807:
800:
796:
792:
787:
783:
777:
766:
763:
760:
756:
750:
745:
741:
735:
732:
729:
725:
721:
717:
711:
707:
701:
696:
692:
688:
683:
678:
674:
668:
663:
659:
653:
650:
645:
638:
634:
630:
624:
618:
610:
602:
598:
594:
589:
584:
580:
571:
561:
558:
555:
551:
547:
544:
541:
536:
532:
526:
515:
511:
507:
501:
491:
487:
472:
468:
464:
446:
442:
421:
401:
381:
361:
335:
331:
325:
321:
315:
310:
306:
298:
294:
288:
283:
279:
254:
250:
244:
239:
235:
229:
225:
221:
214:
210:
204:
199:
195:
187:
157:
153:
145:
129:
107:
103:
94:
86:
84:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
50:
46:
42:
37:
29:
21:
3751:Oceanography
3685:Water column
3633:Oceanography
3608:Observations
3603:Explorations
3573:Marginal sea
3566:
3524:OSTM/Jason-2
3356:Volcanic arc
3331:Slab suction
3048:Head of tide
2938:Loop Current
2927:
2878:Ekman spiral
2664:Stokes drift
2574:Gravity wave
2549:Cnoidal wave
2434:
2430:
2424:
2391:
2387:
2381:
2349:(1): 53–60.
2346:
2342:
2332:
2289:
2285:
2279:
2270:
2261:
2252:
2217:
2213:
2203:
2194:
2185:
2176:
2151:
2147:
2141:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2060:
2033:
2029:
2019:
1986:
1982:
1946:
1942:
1912:
1908:
1846:
1842:
1836:
1812:
1808:
1802:
1793:
1787:
1755:
1751:
1745:
1713:
1709:
1703:
1671:
1667:
1657:
1625:
1621:
1615:
1591:
1587:
1560:
1554:
1541:
1537:
1519:
1510:
1506:
1501:
1486:
1481:
1475:
1473:
1464:
1458:
1452:
1450:
1405:
1400:
1382:
1371:Sargasso Sea
1366:
1361:
1359:
1340:have higher
1338:
1293:
1251:
1248:Observations
1239:
374:, frequency
90:
77:Sargasso Sea
60:
54:
3675:Thermocline
3392:Mesopelagic
3365:Ocean zones
3336:Slab window
3201:Hydrography
3141:Abyssal fan
3108:Tidal range
3098:Tidal power
3093:Tidal force
2978:Rip current
2913:Gulf Stream
2873:Ekman layer
2863:Downwelling
2838:Baroclinity
2825:Circulation
2721:Wave height
2711:Wave action
2694:megatsunami
2674:Stokes wave
2634:Rossby wave
2599:Kelvin wave
2579:Green's law
1815:: 391–427,
1758:(1): 1–30,
1496:zooplankton
1301:mixed layer
1266:convergence
81:mixed layer
49:Gulf Stream
3745:Categories
3613:Reanalysis
3512:Satellites
3493:Sofar bomb
3341:Subduction
3316:Ridge push
3211:Ocean bank
3191:Contourite
3118:Tide gauge
3103:Tidal race
3088:Tidal bore
3078:Slack tide
3043:Earth tide
2963:Ocean gyre
2783:Wind setup
2778:Wind fetch
2741:Wave setup
2736:Wave radar
2731:Wave power
2629:Rogue wave
2559:Dispersion
1546:References
1517:Flamingoes
1504:White Bass
1437:macroalgae
1415:(~5 m) in
1407:Colpomenia
1403:macroalgae
1379:Lake Tahoe
1321:pycnocline
1271:pycnocline
1262:divergence
3475:Acoustics
3427:Sea level
3326:Slab pull
3263:tectonics
3171:Cold seep
3133:Landforms
3010:Whirlpool
3005:Upwelling
2788:Wind wave
2716:Wave base
2644:Sea state
2564:Edge wave
2554:Cross sea
2416:0046-5070
2373:0024-3590
2324:0024-3590
2244:0094-8276
2168:0022-0981
2117:0036-8075
1881:0094-8276
1872:1912/3380
1594:: 55–79,
1491:foamlines
1460:Sargassum
1441:sea floor
1383:Sargassum
1363:Sargassum
1275:upwelling
1224:κ
1202:ν
1174:ρ
1151:ρ
1044:Ω
992:ρ
983:∇
978:κ
969:∇
962:ρ
953:∇
929:∂
924:ρ
921:∂
877:∇
841:∇
836:ν
827:∇
812:ρ
808:ρ
778:ℓ
774:∇
764:ℓ
757:ε
726:ε
635:ρ
615:∇
611:−
568:Ω
552:ε
545:−
523:∇
499:∂
484:∂
469:. In the
422:β
382:σ
332:β
311:∗
295:β
280:ν
240:∗
222:σ
196:ν
158:∗
130:τ
104:ν
41:sargassum
3708:Category
3660:Seawater
3387:Littoral
3382:Deep sea
3241:Seamount
3123:Tideline
3068:Rip tide
2998:shutdown
2968:Overflow
2701:Undertow
2544:Clapotis
2133:38185886
2125:17800160
1889:55791721
1780:76650016
1738:14996095
1650:18089261
1469:windrows
1465:Physalia
1454:Physalia
1421:deep sea
1396:euphotic
1392:red tide
1342:windward
1317:red tide
1309:buoyancy
1305:vortices
1297:plankton
1256:and the
73:windrows
65:vortices
3718:Commons
3588:Mooring
3538:Related
3529:Jason-3
3519:Jason-1
3402:Pelagic
3397:Oceanic
3372:Benthic
2689:Tsunami
2659:Soliton
2396:Bibcode
2351:Bibcode
2294:Bibcode
2222:Bibcode
2097:Bibcode
2089:Science
2038:Bibcode
2011:6201912
1991:Bibcode
1951:Bibcode
1851:Bibcode
1817:Bibcode
1760:Bibcode
1718:Bibcode
1696:4988274
1676:Bibcode
1630:Bibcode
1596:Bibcode
1528:medusae
1512:Daphnia
1487:hyaline
1483:Daphnia
1387:benthos
1373:in the
1004:where
3407:Photic
3236:Seabed
2649:Seiche
2414:
2371:
2322:
2242:
2166:
2131:
2123:
2115:
2009:
1887:
1879:
1778:
1736:
1694:
1648:
1567:
1367:natans
1273:. The
272:
264:
87:Theory
3598:Ocean
3567:Alvin
3417:Swash
3261:Plate
3206:Knoll
3196:Guyot
3151:Atoll
3030:Tides
2793:model
2679:Swell
2511:Waves
2129:S2CID
2007:S2CID
1885:S2CID
1776:S2CID
1734:S2CID
1692:S2CID
1646:S2CID
1425:algae
1313:algae
1258:helix
45:algae
3565:DSV
3550:Argo
3412:Surf
2868:Eddy
2412:ISSN
2369:ISSN
2320:ISSN
2240:ISSN
2164:ISSN
2121:PMID
2113:ISSN
1877:ISSN
1565:ISBN
1433:NASA
1264:and
2439:doi
2404:doi
2359:doi
2310:hdl
2302:doi
2230:doi
2156:doi
2105:doi
2093:189
2046:doi
1999:doi
1959:doi
1917:doi
1867:hdl
1859:doi
1825:doi
1768:doi
1756:334
1726:doi
1684:doi
1638:doi
1604:doi
1439:on
1409:sp.
55:In
3747::
2435:82
2433:.
2410:.
2402:.
2392:11
2390:.
2367:.
2357:.
2345:.
2341:.
2318:.
2308:.
2300:.
2290:21
2288:.
2238:.
2228:.
2218:36
2216:.
2212:.
2162:.
2152:28
2150:.
2127:.
2119:.
2111:.
2103:.
2091:.
2069:^
2044:.
2034:16
2032:.
2028:.
2005:.
1997:.
1987:31
1985:.
1973:^
1957:.
1947:16
1945:.
1941:.
1929:^
1913:25
1911:.
1897:^
1883:.
1875:.
1865:.
1857:.
1847:36
1845:.
1823:,
1813:15
1811:,
1774:,
1766:,
1754:,
1732:,
1724:,
1714:99
1712:,
1690:,
1682:,
1672:89
1670:,
1644:,
1636:,
1626:73
1624:,
1602:,
1592:36
1590:,
1578:^
1530:.
1463:.
59:,
2495:e
2488:t
2481:v
2445:.
2441::
2418:.
2406::
2398::
2375:.
2361::
2353::
2347:6
2326:.
2312::
2304::
2296::
2246:.
2232::
2224::
2170:.
2158::
2135:.
2107::
2099::
2054:.
2048::
2040::
2013:.
2001::
1993::
1967:.
1961::
1953::
1923:.
1919::
1891:.
1869::
1861::
1853::
1827::
1819::
1770::
1762::
1728::
1720::
1686::
1678::
1640::
1632::
1606::
1598::
1431:(
1178:0
1127:i
1123:g
1100:P
1076:s
1071:i
1067:u
1020:i
1016:u
987:i
973:i
965:=
957:j
946:j
942:u
938:+
932:t
899:0
896:=
891:i
887:u
881:i
855:i
851:u
845:j
831:j
823:+
816:0
801:i
797:g
793:+
788:m
784:u
767:m
761:k
751:s
746:j
742:u
736:k
733:j
730:i
722:+
718:)
712:j
708:u
702:s
697:j
693:u
689:+
684:s
679:j
675:u
669:s
664:j
660:u
654:2
651:1
646:+
639:0
631:P
625:(
619:i
608:)
603:k
599:u
595:+
590:s
585:k
581:u
577:(
572:j
562:k
559:j
556:i
548:2
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537:i
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527:j
516:j
512:u
508:+
502:t
492:i
488:u
447:0
443:S
402:k
362:a
336:3
326:0
322:S
316:2
307:u
299:6
289:3
284:T
255:4
251:k
245:2
236:u
230:2
226:a
215:6
211:k
205:3
200:T
188:=
184:a
181:L
154:u
108:T
51:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
