Observable universe

2409: 1927: 1791: 988: 1056: 2481: 2531: 2377: 1708: 2465: 38: 2135:) gas. These sheets appear to collapse into filaments, which can feed galaxies as they grow where filaments either cross or are dense. An early direct evidence for this cosmic web of gas was the 2019 detection, by astronomers from the RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research in Japan and Durham University in the U.K., of light from the brightest part of this web, surrounding and illuminated by a cluster of forming galaxies, acting as cosmic flashlights for intercluster medium hydrogen fluorescence via Lyman-alpha emissions. 1130: 2423: 2349: 2728:, given as 4.220 billion parsecs (13.76 billion light-years), whereas the current comoving radius of the observable universe is calculated on p. 7 to be 3.38 times the Hubble radius. The number of galaxies in a sphere of a given comoving radius is proportional to the cube of the radius, so as shown on p. 8 the ratio between the number of galaxies observable in the future visibility limit to the number of galaxies observable today would be (4.50/3.38) = 2.36. 2395: 2506: 2112: 2166:(compared to how they would be if there were no cluster). On the near side, objects are redshifted. Thus, the environment of the cluster looks somewhat pinched if using redshifts to measure distance. The opposite effect is observed on galaxies already within a cluster: the galaxies have some random motion around the cluster center, and when these random motions are converted to redshifts, the cluster appears elongated. This creates a " 2045: 2363: 2451: 2437: 932: 1040:

only 500 million years after the Big Bang. Because of the universe's expansion, there may be some later age at which a signal sent from the same galaxy can never reach the Earth at any point in the infinite future, so, for example, we might never see what the galaxy looked like 10 billion years after the Big Bang, even though it remains at the same comoving distance less than that of the observable universe.

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makes the comment "And actually, in the far future, everything we now see, except for our local galaxy and a region of galaxies will have disappeared. The entire universe will disappear before our very eyes, and it's one of my arguments for actually funding cosmology. We've got to do it while we have

3140:

Lauer, Tod R.; Postman, Marc; Weaver, Harold A.; Spencer, John R.; Stern, S. Alan; Buie, Marc W.; Durda, Daniel D.; Lisse, Carey M.; Poppe, A. R.; Binzel, Richard P.; Britt, Daniel T.; Buratti, Bonnie J.; Cheng, Andrew F.; Grundy, W. M.; Horányi, Mihaly; Kavelaars, J. J.; Linscott, Ivan R.; McKinnon,

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of 8.2, which indicates that the collapsing star that caused it exploded when the universe was only 630 million years old. The burst happened approximately 13 billion years ago, so a distance of about 13 billion light-years was widely quoted in the media, or sometimes a more precise figure of 13.035

1230:

years after the Big Bang, which occurred around 13.8 billion years ago. This radiation was emitted by matter that has, in the intervening time, mostly condensed into galaxies, and those galaxies are now calculated to be about 46 billion light-years from Earth. To estimate the distance to that matter

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whose distance from the Earth changes over time. For example, the current distance to this horizon is about 16 billion light-years, meaning that a signal from an event happening at present can eventually reach the Earth if the event is less than 16 billion light-years away, but the signal will never

1039:

due to ongoing expansion, so much so that they will seem to disappear from view and become invisible. A galaxy at a given comoving distance is defined to lie within the "observable universe" if we can receive signals emitted by the galaxy at any age in its history, say, a signal sent from the galaxy

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to have had enough time to reach Earth or space-based instruments, and therefore lie outside the observable universe. In the future, light from distant galaxies will have had more time to travel, so one might expect that additional regions will become observable. Regions distant from observers (such

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of 19 billion parsecs (62 billion light-years), assuming the universe will keep expanding forever, which implies the number of galaxies that can ever be theoretically observed in the infinite future is only larger than the number currently observable by a factor of 2.36 (ignoring redshift effects).

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Lauer, T. R.; Postman, M.; Spencer, J. R.; Weaver, H. A.; Stern, S. A.; Gladstone, G. R.; Binzel, R. P.; Britt, D. T.; Buie, M. W.; Buratti, B. J.; Cheng, A. F.; Grundy, W. M.; Horányi, M.; Kavelaars, J. J.; Linscott, I. R.; Lisse, C. M.; McKinnon, W. B.; McNutt, R. L.; Moore, J. M.; Núñez, J. I.;

1022:) so that the expansion rate of the universe continues to accelerate, there is a "future visibility limit" beyond which objects will never enter the observable universe at any time in the future because light emitted by objects outside that limit could never reach the Earth. Note that, because the 5200:

This first detection of the cosmic web structure in Lyα emission in typical filamentary environments, namely outside massive structures typical of web nodes, is a milestone in the long search for the cosmic web signature at high z. This has been possible because of the unprecedented faint surface

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from the Earth, although many credible theories require a total universe much larger than the observable universe. No evidence exists to suggest that the boundary of the observable universe constitutes a boundary on the universe as a whole, nor do any of the mainstream cosmological models propose

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than the observable universe. In this case, what we take to be very distant galaxies may actually be duplicate images of nearby galaxies, formed by light that has circumnavigated the universe. It is difficult to test this hypothesis experimentally because different images of a galaxy would show

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The space before this cosmic event horizon can be called "reachable universe", that is all galaxies closer than that could be reached if we left for them today, at the speed of light; all galaxies beyond that are unreachable. Simple observation will show the future visibility limit (62 billion

5151:

Bacon, R.; Mary, D.; Garel, T.; Blaizot, J.; Maseda, M.; Schaye, J.; Wisotzki, L.; Conseil, S.; Brinchmann, J.; Leclercq, F.; Abril-Melgarejo, V.; Boogaard, L.; Bouché, N. F.; Contini, T.; Feltre, A.; Guiderdoni, B.; Herenz, C.; Kollatschny, W.; Kusakabe, H.; Matthee, J.; Michel-Dansac, L.;

1907:', a cold region in the microwave sky that is highly improbable under the currently favored cosmological model. This supervoid could cause the cold spot, but to do so it would have to be improbably big, possibly a billion light-years across, almost as big as the Giant Void mentioned above. 1878:

long and 200 million light-years wide, but only 15 million light-years thick. The existence of this structure escaped notice for so long because it requires locating the position of galaxies in three dimensions, which involves combining location information about the galaxies with distance

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different eras in its history, and consequently might appear quite different. Bielewicz et al. claim to establish a lower bound of 27.9 gigaparsecs (91 billion light-years) on the diameter of the last scattering surface. This value is based on matching-circle analysis of the

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galaxy clusters were the largest structures in existence, and that they were distributed more or less uniformly throughout the universe in every direction. However, since the early 1980s, more and more structures have been discovered. In 1983, Adrian Webster identified the

1426:(which are about 74% of all atoms in the Milky Way by mass), the estimated total number of atoms in the observable universe is obtained by dividing the mass of ordinary matter by the mass of a hydrogen atom. The result is approximately 10 hydrogen atoms, also known as the 2138:

In 2021, an international team, headed by Roland Bacon from the Centre de Recherche Astrophysique de Lyon (France), reported the first observation of diffuse extended Lyman-alpha emission from redshift 3.1 to 4.5 that traced several cosmic web filaments on scales of

1725: 1093:, if it is assumed that inflation began about 10 seconds after the Big Bang and that the pre-inflation size of the universe was approximately equal to the speed of light times its age, that would suggest that at present the entire universe's size is at least 1068:

Both popular and professional research articles in cosmology often use the term "universe" to mean "observable universe". This can be justified on the grounds that we can never know anything by direct observation about any part of the universe that is

2512: 3141:

William B.; Moore, Jeffrey M.; Núñez, J. I.; Olkin, Catherine B.; Parker, Joel W.; Porter, Simon B.; Reuter, Dennis C.; Robbins, Stuart J.; Schenk, Paul; Showalter, Mark R.; Singer, Kelsi N.; Verbiscer, Anne J.; Young, Leslie A. (11 January 2021).

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The limit of observability in the universe is set by cosmological horizons which limit—based on various physical constraints—the extent to which information can be obtained about various events in the universe. The most famous horizon is the

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that the universe has any physical boundary in the first place. However, some models propose it could be finite but unbounded, like a higher-dimensional analogue of the 2D surface of a sphere that is finite in area but has no edge.

4321:"There may be more Earth-like planets than grains of sand on all our beaches – New research contends that the Milky Way alone is flush with billions of potentially habitable planets – and that's just one sliver of the universe" 1454:. This quoted value for the mass of ordinary matter in the universe can be estimated based on critical density. The calculations are for the observable universe only as the volume of the whole is unknown and may be infinite. 383:

from 5 to 10 will only be observable up to an age of 4–6 billion years. In addition, light emitted by objects currently situated beyond a certain comoving distance (currently about 19 billion parsecs) will never reach Earth.

5638:– Note, this map only gives a rough cosmographical estimate of the expected distribution of superclusters within the observable universe; very little actual mapping has been done beyond a distance of one billion light-years. 2161:

The large-scale structure of the universe also looks different if only redshift is used to measure distances to galaxies. For example, galaxies behind a galaxy cluster are attracted to it and fall towards it, and so are

2706:

prevents nearby objects in the same local region from moving faster than the speed of light with respect to each other, but there is no such constraint for distant objects when the space between them is expanding; see

2196:. This indicates that they are receding from us and from each other, but the variations in their redshift are sufficient to reveal the existence of a concentration of mass equivalent to tens of thousands of galaxies. 2737:

This does not mean "unbounded" in the mathematical sense; a finite universe would have an upper bound on the distance between two points. Rather, it means that there is no boundary past which there is nothing. See

1854:, the galaxy filament in which the Milky Way resides. It is about 1 billion light-years across. That same year, an unusually large region with a much lower than average distribution of galaxies was discovered, the 1930:

Computer simulated image of an area of space more than 50 million light-years across, presenting a possible large-scale distribution of light sources in the universe—precise relative contributions of galaxies and

1026:

is decreasing with time, there can be cases where a galaxy that is receding from Earth only slightly faster than light emits a signal that eventually reaches Earth. This future visibility limit is calculated at a

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measuring two billion light-years at its widest point, which was the largest known structure in the universe at the time of its announcement. In April 2003, another large-scale structure was discovered, the

1561: 1381:

The observable universe contains as many as an estimated 2 trillion galaxies and, overall, as many as an estimated 10 stars – more stars (and, potentially, Earth-like planets) than all the

1232: 533: 3912: 1644:. To convert this density to mass we must multiply by volume, a value based on the radius of the "observable universe". Since the universe has been expanding for 13.8 billion years, the 1724: 4048:

Bennett, C. L.; Larson, D.; Weiland, J. L.; Jarosik, N.; et al. (1 October 2013). "Nine-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Final Maps and Results".

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consisting of 5 quasars. The discovery was the first identification of a large-scale structure, and has expanded the information about the known grouping of matter in the universe.

1298: 339:(about 45.7 billion light-years). The comoving distance to the edge of the observable universe is about 14.3 billion parsecs (about 46.6 billion light-years), about 2% larger. The 4963: 1954:, was discovered, which was measured to be four billion light-years across, the largest known structure in the universe at that time. In November 2013, astronomers discovered the 5152:

Nanayakkara, T.; Richard, J.; Roth, M.; Schmidt, K. B.; Steinmetz, M.; Tresse, L.; Urrutia, T.; Verhamme, A.; Weilbacher, P. M.; Zabl, J.; and Zoutendijk, S. L. (18 March 2021).

2492: 2487: 4231: 1495: 904: 4358: 5533: 5213: 312:, beyond which nothing can be detected, as the signals could not have reached us yet. Sometimes astrophysicists distinguish between the observable universe and the 3055:

Olkin, C. B.; Parker, J. W.; Porter, S. B.; Reuter, D. C.; Robbins, S. J.; Schenk, P. M.; Showalter, M. R.; Singer, K. N.; Verbiscer, A. J.; Young, L. A. (2022).

3671: 2241: 2210:. In its vicinity there is a preponderance of large old galaxies, many of which are colliding with their neighbours, or radiating large amounts of radio waves. 5711: 4330: 293:

region centered on the observer. Every location in the universe has its own observable universe, which may or may not overlap with the one centered on Earth.

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can make an image appear to originate in a different direction from its real source, when foreground objects curve surrounding spacetime (as predicted by

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A logarithmic map of the observable universe. From left to right, spacecraft and celestial bodies are arranged according to their proximity to the Earth.

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Bielewicz, P.; Banday, A. J.; Gorski, K. M. (2013). Auge, E.; Dumarchez, J.; Tran Thanh Van, J. (eds.). "Constraints on the Topology of the Universe".

1778:. Larger than this (at scales between 30 and 200 megaparsecs), there seems to be no continued structure, a phenomenon that has been referred to as the 4137: 2154:) and deflect passing light rays. Rather usefully, strong gravitational lensing can sometimes magnify distant galaxies, making them easier to detect. 5294: 4198: 1973:; a crescent-shaped string of galaxies that span 3.3 billion light years in length, located 9.2 billion light years from Earth in the constellation 1613:, or about 5 hydrogen atoms per cubic metre. This density includes four significant types of energy/mass: ordinary matter (4.8%), neutrinos (0.1%), 1222:), not distances at the time the light was emitted. For example, the cosmic microwave background radiation that we see right now was emitted at the 3696: 1955: 6011: 1341:

has a present distance of 46 billion light-years, then the distance would have been only about 42 million light-years at the time of decoupling.

4993: 4167: 1438:

The mass of the observable universe is often quoted as 10 kg. In this context, mass refers to ordinary (baryonic) matter and includes the

1008: 5907: 2225: 1851: 1052:

light-years) is exactly equal to the reachable limit (16 billion light-years) added to the current visibility limit (46 billion light-years).

998:

The universe's size is unknown, and it may be infinite in extent. Some parts of the universe are too far away for the light emitted since the

42:

Visualization of the observable universe. The scale is such that the fine grains represent collections of large numbers of superclusters. The

5897: 5228: 4270: 4128:"How many galaxies are there in the universe? – Do astronomers know how many galaxies exist? How many can we see in the observable Universe?" 332: 3933: 1920: 1304: 708: 2408: 374:, will eventually appear to freeze in time, while emitting progressively redder and fainter light. For instance, objects with the current 2056:—more than 1.5 million galaxies, and the Point Source Catalog (PSC)—nearly 0.5 billion Milky Way stars. The galaxies are color-coded by ' 5781: 4971: 1926: 1636:

like radiation rather than like matter. The density of ordinary matter, as measured by Planck, is 4.8% of the total critical density or

2199:

The Great Attractor, discovered in 1986, lies at a distance of between 150 million and 250 million light-years in the direction of the

1790: 4842: 4775: 4730: 4692: 4562: 4535: 4495: 4025: 3991: 3789: 3498: 2775: 1409: 1035:

In principle, more galaxies will become observable in the future; in practice, an increasing number of galaxies will become extremely

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This is when hydrogen atoms were formed from protons and electrons and the universe became transparent to electromagnetic radiation.

2313:. Additional horizons are associated with the possible future extent of observations, larger than the particle horizon owing to the 917: 5704: 2181: 3488: 2077: 967: 304:

or other information from an object, or whether there is anything to be detected. It refers to the physical limit created by the

4387: 1503: 3604: 2616: 1081:

within the observable universe represent only a minuscule fraction of the galaxies in the universe. According to the theory of

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Constellations grouped in galactic quadrants (N/S, 1–4) and their approximate divisions vis-a-vis celestial quadrants (NQ/SQ)

912: 626: 356: 347:

and the diameter of the observable universe, the total mass of ordinary matter in the universe can be calculated to be about

1917:

The largest structures in the universe are larger than expected. Are these actual structures or random density fluctuations?

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Some caution is required in describing structures on a cosmic scale because they are often different from how they appear.

1389:. As mentioned earlier, the estimated number of galaxies was reduced in 2021 to several hundred billion based on data from 1055: 3024: 2708: 2326: 2275: 2271: 1966: 1645: 1633: 1157: 555: 478: 4320: 5697: 2658: 1356:, 13.8 billion light years. This is the distance that a photon emitted shortly after the Big Bang, such as one from the 5342:

Meszaros, Attila; et al. (2009). "Impact on cosmology of the celestial anisotropy of the short gamma-ray bursts".

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The Fermi-LAT Collaboration (30 November 2018). "A gamma-ray determination of the Universe's star formation history".

2318: 1357: 960: 936: 483: 1830:, creating a vast foam-like structure sometimes called the "cosmic web". Prior to 1989, it was commonly assumed that 5153: 2530: 5952: 4941:

Horvath, I.; Hakkila, J.; Bagoly, Z. (2013). "The largest structure of the Universe, defined by Gamma-Ray Bursts".

2628: 2600: 2581: 2322: 2168: 2155: 2069: 702: 682: 490: 435: 3934:"Seven-Year Wilson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Sky Maps, Systematic Errors, and Basic Results" 1707: 1462:

Critical density is the energy density for which the universe is flat. If there is no dark energy, it is also the

5881: 4127: 2061: 1751: 1365: 1223: 528: 321: 268: 256: 4888:

Horváth, I.; Hakkila, Jon; Bagoly, Z. (2014). "Possible structure in the GRB sky distribution at redshift two".

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affects the motion of galaxies over a region hundreds of millions of light-years across. These galaxies are all

1887: 5746: 3720: 2464: 2073: 1978: 1900: 1629: 1244: 697: 462: 37: 1136:

image of a region of the observable universe (equivalent sky area size shown in bottom left corner), near the

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Mureika, J. R. & Dyer, C. C. (2004). "Review: Multifractal Analysis of Packed Swiss Cheese Cosmologies".

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Krauss, Lawrence M.; Scherrer, Robert J. (2007). "The Return of a Static Universe and the End of Cosmology".

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and the Big Bang's invisible plasma on the edge. Celestial bodies appear enlarged to appreciate their shapes.

5133: 3582: 3352: 2376: 1798:

The organization of structure arguably begins at the stellar level, though most cosmologists rarely address

1133: 665: 545: 2685:

Multiply percentage of ordinary matter given by Planck below, with total energy density given by WMAP below

1253: 5857: 5011: 2010: 1571: 1324: 275:

in the observable universe. That number was reduced in 2021 to several hundred billion based on data from

4190: 3870: 3849:

Mota, B.; Reboucas, M. J.; Tavakol, R. (1 July 2010). "Observable circles-in-the-sky in flat universes".

5806: 5527: 5207: 4226: 2943: 2456: 2200: 1943:, a collection of galaxies and enormous gas bubbles that measures about 200 million light-years across. 1397: 1345: 1184: 1019: 870: 672: 614: 1950:, measuring about 2.5 billion light-years across. On January 11, 2013, another large quasar group, the 2143:(comoving mega-parsecs), in filamentary environments outside massive structures typical of web nodes. 2032:

to the extent that the smooth distribution of the universe is visually apparent. It was not until the

1712: 1473: 5873: 5560: 5541:

Labini, F. Sylos; Montuori, M. & Pietronero, L. (1998). "Scale-invariance of galaxy clustering".

5499: 5452: 5405: 5361: 5175: 5090: 5043: 4907: 4800: 4597: 4434: 4067: 3831: 3744: 3636: 3545: 3453: 3400: 3313: 3239: 3164: 3078: 2987: 2909: 2856: 2299: 2221: 1466:

for which the expansion of the universe is poised between continued expansion and collapse. From the

1443: 883: 855: 677: 5246: 4354:"Using the inclinations of Kepler systems to prioritize new Titius–Bode-based exoplanet predictions" 4159: 2422: 5601:

NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day: The Sloan Great Wall: Largest Known Structure? (7 November 2007)

4511: 2622: 2310: 2247: 1736: 1467: 1439: 1349: 1165: 1149: 1070: 815: 775: 745: 692: 648: 540: 430: 344: 260: 17: 5934: 5922: 3959: 3578: 2232:

long and 150 million light-years across in which, he claimed, the Local Supercluster is embedded.

343:

of the observable universe is therefore estimated to be about 46.5 billion light-years. Using the

5990: 5978: 5902: 5800: 5610: 5576: 5550: 5515: 5489: 5468: 5442: 5421: 5395: 5351: 5191: 5165: 5114: 5059: 5033: 4942: 4923: 4897: 4824: 4613: 4587: 4424: 4415: 4367: 4083: 4057: 3850: 3821: 3652: 3626: 3561: 3535: 3469: 3443: 3390: 3357: 3255: 3229: 3190: 3154: 3068: 3005: 2977: 2925: 2899: 2872: 2846: 2703: 2442: 2314: 2151: 2147: 2131:, which are interpreted as indicating the existence of huge thin sheets of intergalactic (mostly 2120: 1940: 1891: 1840: 992: 896: 835: 805: 770: 740: 687: 631: 400: 370:

As the universe's expansion is accelerating, all currently observable objects, outside the local

317: 236: 43: 5024:

Jarrett, T. H. (2004). "Large Scale Structure in the Local Universe: The 2MASS Galaxy Catalog".

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Future of an expanding universe#Galaxies outside the Local Supercluster are no longer detectable

2348: 2286:

argues against using this measure. The proper distance for a redshift of 8.2 would be about 9.2

2107:). The map is projected with an equal area Aitoff in the Galactic system (Milky Way at center)." 2048:"Panoramic view of the entire near-infrared sky reveals the distribution of galaxies beyond the 1090: 1059:

The reachable Universe as a function of time and distance, in context of the expanding Universe.

4487: 4481: 2158:

by the intervening universe in general also subtly changes the observed large-scale structure.

1997:(roughly 300 million light-years) where the lumpiness seen in the large-scale structure of the 335:(CMBR) was emitted, which represents the radius of the visible universe, is about 14.0 billion 5720: 5665: 5106: 4816: 4771: 4726: 4688: 4558: 4552: 4531: 4491: 4462: 4266: 4021: 3987: 3981: 3785: 3600: 3494: 3416: 3381: 2771: 2740: 2646: 2537: 2335: 2081: 1219: 1028: 865: 328: 308:

itself. No signal can travel faster than light, hence there is a maximum distance, called the

5615: 5201:

brightness of 5 × 10−20 erg s−1 cm−2 arcsec−2 achieved by 140 h MUSE observations on the VLT.

4722: 4015: 2765: 5926: 5568: 5507: 5460: 5413: 5183: 5179: 5098: 5051: 4915: 4911: 4808: 4656: 4605: 4601: 4527:

Parallel Worlds: A Journey Through Creation, Higher Dimensions, and the Future of the Cosmos

4452: 4442: 4377: 4258: 4132: 4075: 3752: 3644: 3553: 3461: 3408: 3321: 3247: 3182: 3172: 3086: 2995: 2917: 2864: 2860: 2720:

The comoving distance of the future visibility limit is calculated on p. 8 of Gott et al.'s

2569: 2565: 2386: 2306: 2283: 2111: 1896: 1827: 1739:

of the local universe, showing large-scale structure of clusters of galaxies and dark matter

1614: 1427: 1082: 948: 760: 750: 735: 586: 455: 309: 4353: 3513: 2394: 5078: 2664: 2382: 2255: 2185: 2140: 2044: 2033: 2025: 1959: 1958:, an even bigger structure twice as large as the former. It was defined by the mapping of 1871: 1863: 1859: 1823: 1775: 1767: 1743: 1588: 1188: 875: 810: 795: 780: 765: 755: 619: 5464: 3057:"Anomalous Flux in the Cosmic Optical Background Detected with New Horizons Observations" 2279: 2193: 1023: 1004: 516: 5564: 5503: 5456: 5409: 5365: 5094: 5047: 4804: 4438: 4071: 3891: 3835: 3748: 3640: 3549: 3457: 3404: 3317: 3243: 3168: 3082: 2991: 2913: 2890:

Fixsen, D. J. (30 November 2009). "The Temperature of the Cosmic Microwave Background".

2362: 5605: 5318: 4457: 4410: 3774: 3348: 3029: 2557: 2450: 2251: 2217: 1847: 1831: 1815: 1625: 1353: 860: 820: 305: 5572: 5386:; et al. (2005). "Morphology Of The Galaxy Distribution From Wavelet Denoising". 4287: 3325: 2921: 2837:

Planck Collaboration (2020). "Planck 2018 results. VI. Cosmological parameters".

2436: 6000: 5594: 5580: 5195: 5118: 4715: 4617: 4087: 4079: 3565: 3194: 3110: 3000: 2958: 2929: 2876: 2725: 2640: 2207: 2124: 1970: 1904: 1755: 1423: 1044: 845: 830: 730: 166: 5472: 5425: 5063: 4927: 4828: 3273: 3213:

Gott III, J. Richard; Mario Jurić; David Schlegel; Fiona Hoyle; et al. (2005).

3009: 2815: 5966: 5938: 5753: 5739: 5519: 5383: 4746: 4102: 3656: 3586: 3473: 3304:

Lineweaver, Charles; Davis, Tamara M. (2005). "Misconceptions about the Big Bang".

3259: 2637: – A possible non-random component of the peculiar velocity of galaxy clusters 2541: 2368: 2021: 1819: 1811: 1799: 1771: 1391: 850: 825: 800: 785: 641: 371: 277: 264: 5635: 5270:"New Gamma-Ray Burst Smashes Cosmic Distance Record | Science Mission Directorate" 5187: 4919: 4717:

The Extravagant Universe: Exploding Stars, Dark Energy and the Accelerating Cosmos

4631: 4609: 4578:

Planck collaboration (2013). "Planck 2013 results. XVI. Cosmological parameters".

2868: 2845:. page A6 (see PDF page 15, Table 2: "Age/Gyr", last column). 2002: 1886:

Two years later, astronomers Roger G. Clowes and Luis E. Campusano discovered the

1112:

If the universe is finite but unbounded, it is also possible that the universe is

4812: 4765: 4682: 4525: 4262: 3214: 2721: 5865: 5849: 5794: 5788: 5670: 5295:"More Observations of GRB 090423, the Most Distant Known Object in the Universe" 2561: 2549: 2428: 2287: 1867: 1836: 1618: 1451: 1447: 1368:, this distance does not correspond to the true distance at any moment in time. 1012: 1003:

as us) are expanding away faster than the speed of light, at rates estimated by

598: 591: 286: 248: 219: 213: 4447: 3648: 3465: 3177: 3142: 3091: 3056: 1605:= 67.15 kilometres per second per megaparsec. This gives a critical density of 5889: 5813: 5760: 5641: 3948:(see p. 39 for a table of best estimates for various cosmological parameters). 3557: 2652: 2577: 2553: 2309:

which sets a limit on the precise distance that can be seen due to the finite

2259: 2229: 2214: 1994: 1875: 1855: 1747: 1168: 840: 300:

in this sense does not refer to the capability of modern technology to detect

255:

or its space-based telescopes and exploratory probes at the present time; the

101: 72: 1175:

10 m) in any direction. The observable universe is thus a sphere with a

5774: 5767: 5611:

Forming Galaxies Captured In The Young Universe By Hubble, VLT & Spitzer

5251: 5154:"The MUSE Extremely Deep Field: The cosmic web in emission at high redshift" 5102: 3412: 2634: 2414: 2400: 2204: 2163: 2049: 2006: 1763: 1733: 1361: 1235:, which is used to model the expanding universe, if we receive light with a 1086: 790: 5625: 5600: 5247:"James Webb Space Telescope finds 2 of the most distant galaxies ever seen" 5110: 4820: 4466: 4382: 3420: 1974: 1307:

combined with other measurements give the redshift of photon decoupling as

1231:

at the time the light was emitted, we may first note that according to the

2036:

of the 1990s were completed that this scale could accurately be observed.

991:

Observable Universe as a function of time and distance, in context of the

5827: 5620: 5555: 5494: 5400: 5038: 4994:"A Structure In Deep Space Is So Giant It's Challenging Standard Physics" 4871: 3631: 3617:

Loeb, Abraham (2002). "The Long-Term Future of Extragalactic Astronomy".

3448: 3234: 3186: 2339: 2263: 2189: 2132: 2057: 1998: 1951: 1899:. In August 2007, a possible supervoid was detected in the constellation 1880: 1759: 1236: 1176: 1145: 1036: 999: 523: 425: 418: 379: 375: 282: 240: 46:—home of Milky Way—is marked at the center, but is too small to be seen. 5636:

The Universe Within 14 Billion Light Years – NASA Atlas of the Universe

3776:

The inflationary universe: the quest for a new theory of cosmic origins

3672:"How Much Of The Unobservable Universe Will We Someday Be Able To See?" 3115: 2545: 2014: 1463: 5447: 408: 5682: 3434:

Loeb, Abraham (2002). "Long-term future of extragalactic astronomy".

2982: 2573: 2128: 2029: 1932: 1807: 1794:

Map of the cosmic web generated from a slime mould-inspired algorithm

1715:, are the nodes of the cosmic web that permeates the entire Universe. 1338: 1161: 1160:

from Earth to the edge of the observable universe is about 14.26 giga

1144:, consisting of billions of stars. The light from the smallest, most 1141: 1137: 1078: 340: 336: 290: 272: 244: 207: 204: 191: 149: 97: 92: 68: 63: 5689: 5630: 5055: 4352:

Bovaird, T. T.; Lineweaver, C. H.; Jacobsen, S. K. (13 March 2015).

1758:) have yielded much information on the content and character of the 5961: 5621:

Inflation and the Cosmic Microwave Background by Charles Lineweaver

5511: 5480:

Gott, III, J. R.; et al. (May 2005). "A Map of the Universe".

5417: 5170: 4429: 3757: 3732: 3395: 3251: 3159: 3111:"NOIRLab Scientist Finds the Universe to be Brighter than Expected" 3073: 2851: 2590: 1909: 5732: 5659: 5356: 4947: 4902: 4592: 4372: 4160:"New Horizons spacecraft answers the question: How dark is space?" 4062: 3855: 3826: 3540: 2904: 2354: 2321:, and associated horizons with the surface of last scattering for 2110: 2053: 2043: 1947: 1925: 1789: 1718: 1706: 1386: 1128: 1054: 986: 301: 252: 5655: 3697:"94% of the universe's galaxies are permanently beyond our reach" 2282:

and in defining the size of the observable universe. Cosmologist

285:, the distance to the edge of the observable universe is roughly 4325: 2797: 2596: 1803: 1762:'s structure. The organization of structure appears to follow a 1382: 1118: 5693: 5650: 2490:

A diagram of the Earth's location in the observable universe. (

1598:, as given by the European Space Agency's Planck Telescope, is 1648:(radius) is now about 46.6 billion light-years. Thus, volume ( 4791:

Geller, M. J.; Huchra, J. P. (1989). "Mapping the universe".

2172:"—the illusion of a long chain of galaxies pointed at Earth. 5229:"Massive Clusters of Galaxies Defy Concepts of the Universe" 4747:"Map of the Cosmic Web Generated from Slime Mould Algorithm" 4253:

Marov, Mikhail Ya. (2015). "The Structure of the Universe".

3733:"Dynamics of the universe and spontaneous symmetry breaking" 3143:"New Horizons Observations of the Cosmic Optical Background" 2250:

identified (as of August of 2024) is a galaxy classified as

2099:) and red are the most distant sources that 2MASS resolves ( 1323:, which implies that the scale factor at the time of photon 1337:. So if the matter that originally emitted the oldest CMBR 316:

universe. The former includes signals since the end of the

271:. Initially, it was estimated that there may be 2 trillion 3338:

See the "Mass of ordinary matter" section in this article.

1858:, which measures 1.3 billion light-years across. Based on 1556:{\displaystyle \rho _{\text{c}}={\frac {3H^{2}}{8\pi G}},} 289:

in every direction. That is, the observable universe is a

5597:– Max Planck Institute of Astrophysics, Garching, Germany 3514:

Is the universe expanding faster than the speed of light?

1993:

is an observational scale discovered at roughly 100

1247:

at the time the light was originally emitted is given by

2224:'s Institute of Astronomy identified what he called the 1179:

of about 28.5 gigaparsecs (93 billion light-years or 8.8

4843:"Biggest void in space is 1 billion light years across" 4770:(International ed.). Pearson. pp. 1173–1174. 2076:

surveys (and from various observations compiled by the

1628:

particles, they are listed separately because they are

1191:), this size corresponds to a comoving volume of about 320:, while the latter includes only signals emitted since 5631:

List of publications of the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey

5950: 5134:"Cosmic Web Fuels Stars And Supermassive Black Holes" 5026:

Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia

1506: 1476: 1256: 1018:

Assuming dark energy remains constant (an unchanging

27:

All of space observable from the Earth at the present

4964:"Universe's Largest Structure is a Cosmic Conundrum" 1360:, has traveled to reach observers on Earth. Because 5842: 5727: 5666:

There are about 10 atoms in the observable universe

3135: 3133: 2119:

Another indicator of large-scale structure is the '

197: 174: 156: 137: 123: 109: 80: 51: 4714: 3773: 1555: 1489: 1292: 4687:(International ed.). Pearson. p. 1178. 4359:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 4288:"To see the Universe in a Grain of Taranaki Sand" 3814:Proceedings of the XLVIIth Rencontres de Moriond 3208: 3206: 3204: 2655: – Hypothetical group of multiple universes 1675:and the mass of ordinary matter equals density ( 5382:Vicent J. Martínez; Jean-Luc Starck; Enn Saar; 4411:"Emergence of life in an inflationary universe" 3581:. Science Friday, 3 Apr 2009. According to the 3353:"All the Light There Is to See? 4 x 10 Photons" 2957:Conselice, Christopher J.; et al. (2016). 2540:conception of the observable universe with the 2270:This would be the "light travel distance" (see 1422:as discussed above, and assuming all atoms are 1064:"The universe" versus "the observable universe" 3719:Ord, Toby. (2021). The Edges of Our Universe. 3579:Using Tiny Particles To Answer Giant Questions 1946:In 2011, a large quasar group was discovered, 1414:Assuming the mass of ordinary matter is about 1348:to the edge of the observable universe is the 1121:7-year data. This approach has been disputed. 1048:reach the Earth if the event is further away. 355:. In November 2018, astronomers reported that 5705: 5646:, from the American Museum of Natural History 4764:Carroll, Bradley W.; Ostlie, Dale A. (2013). 4681:Carroll, Bradley W.; Ostlie, Dale A. (2013). 4557:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 361–. 3986:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 187–. 2661: – Comparison of a wide range of lengths 2242:List of the most distant astronomical objects 2084:(2.2 μm). Blue are the nearest sources ( 1874:", a sheet of galaxies more than 500 million 1109:times the radius of the observable universe. 968: 8: 5595:"Millennium Simulation" of structure forming 5532:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 5212:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4883: 4881: 4020:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–. 2625: – Physics of the cause–effect relation 1043:This can be used to define a type of cosmic 30: 5012:"The Universe Isn't a Fractal, Study Finds" 4708: 4706: 4704: 4222:"How Many Stars Are There In The Universe?" 4050:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 3104: 3102: 2959:"The Evolution of Galaxy Number Density at 2619: – Computer simulation of the universe 1183:10 m). Assuming that space is roughly 5712: 5698: 5690: 5264: 5262: 4868:"Largest structure in universe discovered" 4293:Centre for Astrophysics and Supercomputing 3025:"Two Trillion Galaxies, at the Very Least" 2631: – History and future of the universe 2176:Cosmography of Earth's cosmic neighborhood 1396:The estimated total number of stars in an 1233:Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric 975: 961: 636: 575: 449: 407: 391: 5554: 5493: 5446: 5399: 5355: 5227:Wilford, John Noble (November 10, 1987). 5169: 5037: 4946: 4901: 4591: 4456: 4446: 4428: 4381: 4371: 4061: 3854: 3825: 3756: 3630: 3539: 3447: 3394: 3274:"Frequently Asked Questions in Cosmology" 3233: 3176: 3158: 3090: 3072: 2999: 2981: 2903: 2850: 2643: – Region of the observable universe 2127:that appear in the spectra of light from 1530: 1520: 1511: 1505: 1481: 1475: 1272: 1255: 1009:expansion rate appears to be accelerating 2080:), or photo-metrically deduced from the 5957: 5836:) may be read as "within" or "part of". 4255:The Fundamentals of Modern Astrophysics 4234:from the original on September 23, 2019 3299: 3297: 3295: 3293: 2756: 2678: 606: 578: 470: 399: 327:According to calculations, the current 5525: 5205: 4767:An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics 4721:. Princeton University Press. p. 4684:An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics 4201:from the original on February 28, 2021 29: 5898:History of the center of the Universe 5616:Animation of the cosmic light horizon 4512:Friedmann equations#Density parameter 4170:from the original on January 15, 2021 3601:Faster than light#Universal expansion 3049: 3047: 2184:, a gravitational anomaly called the 1939:Another large-scale structure is the 1293:{\displaystyle a(t)={\frac {1}{1+z}}} 333:cosmic microwave background radiation 267:and Earth since the beginning of the 7: 4409:Totani, Tomonori (3 February 2020). 4390:from the original on 1 December 2023 4333:from the original on 1 December 2023 4189:Howell, Elizabeth (March 20, 2018). 4140:from the original on 3 December 2023 2798:"volume universe Wolfram|Alpha" 2667: – Computer simulated universes 2649: – Computer-simulated universes 2091:); green are at moderate distances ( 4126:Gunn, Alistair (29 November 2023). 3490:An Introduction to Modern Cosmology 3023:Fountain, Henry (17 October 2016). 2290:, or about 30 billion light-years. 2175: 2054:2MASS Extended Source Catalog (XSC) 1956:Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall 1921:(more unsolved problems in physics) 1458:Estimates based on critical density 1226:, estimated to have occurred about 18:Large-scale structure of the Cosmos 5678:Limits to knowledge about Universe 5465:10.1023/B:GERG.0000006699.45969.49 5435:General Relativity and Gravitation 5014:, LiveScience.com, 22 August 2012. 4300:from the original on June 30, 2012 3528:General Relativity and Gravitation 2767:Extra Dimensions in Space and Time 2764:Itzhak Bars; John Terning (2009). 2013:. At this scale, no pseudo-random 1977:from observations captured by the 1786:Walls, filaments, nodes, and voids 1766:model with organization up to the 1410:Abundance of the chemical elements 703:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF") 25: 5908:Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex 5656:Cosmography of the Local Universe 4286:Mackie, Glen (February 1, 2002). 4017:Physical foundations of cosmology 3960:"Microwave (WMAP) All-Sky Survey" 3326:10.1038/scientificamerican0305-36 3061:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 2226:Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex 1852:Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex 1826:, which are separated by immense 1400:(observed and unobserved) is 10. 918:Timeline of cosmological theories 683:Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) 5984: 5972: 5960: 5933: 5921: 5651:NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database 5626:Logarithmic Maps of the Universe 5132:Byrd, Deborah (6 October 2019). 5077:Hamden, Erika (4 October 2019). 4530:. Knopf Doubleday. p. 385. 2589: 2529: 2504: 2479: 2463: 2449: 2435: 2421: 2407: 2393: 2375: 2361: 2347: 2052:. The image is derived from the 1490:{\displaystyle \rho _{\text{c}}} 1364:is curved, corresponding to the 942: 931: 930: 36: 4486:. First Mariner Books. p. 3109:Lauer, Todd (12 January 2021). 2816:"What is the Universe Made Of?" 2617:Bolshoi cosmological simulation 2544:at the center, inner and outer 1969:announced the detection of the 698:Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) 551:Future of an expanding universe 6012:Physical cosmological concepts 5293:Atkinson, Nancy (2009-10-28). 4992:Ferreira, Becky (2021-06-23). 4191:"How Many Galaxies Are There?" 3958:Abbott, Brian (May 30, 2007). 3516:(see the last two paragraphs). 2317:, an "optical horizon" at the 1404:Matter content—number of atoms 1266: 1260: 913:History of the Big Bang theory 709:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy 357:extragalactic background light 1: 5573:10.1016/S0370-1573(97)00044-6 2272:Distance measures (cosmology) 1967:American Astronomical Society 905:Discovery of cosmic microwave 556:Ultimate fate of the universe 5319:"Light Travel Time Distance" 5158:Astronomy & Astrophysics 4890:Astronomy & Astrophysics 4813:10.1126/science.246.4932.897 4713:Kirshner, Robert P. (2002). 4657:"Blueprints of the Universe" 4580:Astronomy & Astrophysics 4319:Mack, Eric (19 March 2015). 4263:10.1007/978-1-4614-8730-2_10 4103:"Light Travel Time Distance" 3695:Siegel, Ethan (2021-10-25). 2839:Astronomy & Astrophysics 2659:Orders of magnitude (length) 2182:Hydra–Centaurus Supercluster 2028:seen in smaller surveys are 1746:and mappings of the various 1587:is the present value of the 1446:(IGM). However, it excludes 1377:Number of galaxies and stars 1218:These are distances now (in 331:to particles from which the 5188:10.1051/0004-6361/202039887 4962:Klotz, Irene (2013-11-19). 4920:10.1051/0004-6361/201323020 4610:10.1051/0004-6361/201321591 4551:Schutz, Bernard F. (2003). 2922:10.1088/0004-637X/707/2/916 2869:10.1051/0004-6361/201833910 2709:uses of the proper distance 2123:'. This is a collection of 2078:NASA Extragalactic Database 1912:Unsolved problem in physics 1358:cosmic microwave background 1148:galaxies originated nearly 673:Black Hole Initiative (BHI) 281:. Assuming the universe is 6028: 5079:"Observing the cosmic web" 4554:Gravity from the ground up 4448:10.1038/s41598-020-58060-0 4080:10.1088/0067-0049/208/2/20 3649:10.1103/PhysRevD.65.047301 3466:10.1103/PhysRevD.65.047301 3001:10.3847/0004-637X/830/2/83 2770:. Springer. pp. 27–. 2629:Chronology of the universe 2601:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey 2599:of the inner parts of the 2582:Cosmic microwave radiation 2385:around the Sun inside the 2319:surface of last scattering 2297: 2239: 2228:, a structure one billion 1407: 436:Chronology of the universe 263:has had time to reach the 5916: 5482:The Astrophysical Journal 5388:The Astrophysical Journal 4866:Wall, Mike (2013-01-11). 4632:"Galactic treasure chest" 3737:The Astrophysical Journal 3558:10.1007/s10714-007-0472-9 3222:The Astrophysical Journal 3147:The Astrophysical Journal 2970:The Astrophysical Journal 2892:The Astrophysical Journal 1903:. It coincides with the ' 1752:electromagnetic radiation 1224:time of photon decoupling 1187:(in the sense of being a 1077:It is plausible that the 1015:was proposed to explain. 529:Expansion of the universe 257:electromagnetic radiation 152:per cubic meter of space) 138:Density (of total energy) 35: 5747:Local Interstellar Cloud 5658:at irfu.cea.fr (17:35) ( 4014:Mukhanov, V. F. (2005). 3780:. Basic Books. pp. 3178:10.3847/1538-4357/abc881 3092:10.3847/2041-8213/ac573d 1979:Sloan Digital Sky Survey 1085:initially introduced by 693:Planck space observatory 479:Gravitational wave (GWB) 5180:2021A&A...647A.107B 5103:10.1126/science.aaz1318 4912:2014A&A...561L..12H 4602:2014A&A...571A..16P 3487:Liddle, Andrew (2015). 3413:10.1126/science.aat8123 3215:"A Map of the Universe" 2861:2020A&A...641A...6P 2009:in accordance with the 1624:Although neutrinos are 1434:Mass of ordinary matter 1134:Hubble Ultra-Deep Field 546:Inhomogeneous cosmology 5859:To the Moon and Beyond 4751:www.spacetelescope.org 4636:www.spacetelescope.org 3772:Guth, Alan H. (1997). 2944:"Planck cosmic recipe" 2267:billion light-years. 2262:, was found to have a 2116: 2108: 2011:cosmological principle 1936: 1795: 1740: 1716: 1711:Galaxy clusters, like 1572:gravitational constant 1557: 1497:critical density, is: 1491: 1305:WMAP nine-year results 1302: 1294: 1153: 1060: 995: 269:cosmological expansion 124:Mass (ordinary matter) 6007:Concepts in astronomy 5877:(1968 and 1977 films) 5807:Laniakea Supercluster 4524:Kaku, Michio (2006). 4483:The Goldilocks Enigma 4480:Davies, Paul (2006). 4227:European Space Agency 3980:Davies, Paul (1992). 2966:and Its Implications" 2724:to be 4.50 times the 2722:A Map of the Universe 2192:, in accordance with 2180:At the centre of the 2148:Gravitational lensing 2114: 2047: 1929: 1810:, which in turn form 1793: 1731: 1710: 1703:Large-scale structure 1558: 1492: 1398:inflationary universe 1346:light-travel distance 1295: 1249: 1132: 1101:light-years—at least 1071:causally disconnected 1058: 1020:cosmological constant 990: 637:Large-scale structure 615:Shape of the universe 4383:10.1093/mnras/stv221 4257:. pp. 279–294. 3962:. Hayden Planetarium 3731:Kazanas, D. (1980). 2802:www.wolframalpha.com 2300:Cosmological horizon 2236:Most distant objects 2222:University of Hawaii 2068:, Tully NBGC, LCRS, 2060:' obtained from the 1888:Clowes–Campusano LQG 1504: 1474: 1444:intergalactic medium 1383:grains of beach sand 1254: 1138:constellation Fornax 949:Astronomy portal 907:background radiation 884:List of cosmologists 5821:Observable universe 5565:1998PhR...293...61S 5504:2005ApJ...624..463G 5457:2004GReGr..36..151M 5410:2005ApJ...634..744M 5366:2009BaltA..18..293M 5255:. 14 November 2023. 5095:2019Sci...366...31H 5048:2004PASA...21..396J 5010:Natalie Wolchover, 4805:1989Sci...246..897G 4439:2020NatSR..10.1671T 4072:2013ApJS..208...20B 3836:2013arXiv1303.4004B 3749:1980ApJ...241L..59K 3701:Starts With A Bang! 3641:2002PhRvD..65d7301L 3550:2007GReGr..39.1545K 3458:2002PhRvD..65d7301L 3405:2018Sci...362.1031F 3389:(6418): 1031–1034. 3351:(3 December 2018). 3318:2005SciAm.292c..36L 3306:Scientific American 3244:2005ApJ...624..463G 3169:2021ApJ...906...77L 3083:2022ApJ...927L...8L 2992:2016ApJ...830...83C 2914:2009ApJ...707..916F 2623:Causality (physics) 2597:DTFE reconstruction 2327:gravitational waves 2311:age of the universe 2274:) rather than the " 2248:astronomical object 1824:walls and filaments 1806:are organized into 1468:Friedmann equations 1440:interstellar medium 1350:age of the universe 649:Structure formation 541:Friedmann equations 431:Age of the universe 395:Part of a series on 233:observable universe 205:Ordinary (baryonic) 175:Average temperature 32: 31:Observable universe 5903:Order of magnitude 5885:(1996 documentary) 5801:Virgo Supercluster 5782:Milky Way subgroup 5644:The Known Universe 5323:www.astro.ucla.edu 5233:The New York Times 4416:Scientific Reports 3358:The New York Times 2704:Special relativity 2315:expansion of space 2152:general relativity 2121:Lyman-alpha forest 2117: 2109: 1941:SSA22 Protocluster 1937: 1892:large quasar group 1848:Robert Brent Tully 1841:large quasar group 1796: 1741: 1717: 1630:ultra-relativistic 1553: 1487: 1366:expansion of space 1290: 1154: 1150:13.8 billion years 1061: 996: 993:expanding Universe 688:Dark Energy Survey 632:Large quasar group 401:Physical cosmology 359:(EBL) amounted to 318:inflationary epoch 243:consisting of all 44:Virgo Supercluster 5948: 5947: 5721:Location of Earth 4799:(4932): 897–903. 4272:978-1-4614-8729-6 3619:Physical Review D 3534:(10): 1545–1550. 3436:Physical Review D 2741:Geodesic manifold 2711:for a discussion. 2647:Illustris project 2538:logarithmic scale 2493:Alternative image 2470:Our Universe 2369:Solar System 2336:Location of Earth 2246:The most distant 1879:information from 1729: 1646:comoving distance 1548: 1514: 1484: 1288: 1220:cosmological time 1158:comoving distance 1140:. Each spot is a 1029:comoving distance 985: 984: 656: 655: 498: 497: 329:comoving distance 229: 228: 148:(equivalent to 6 16:(Redirected from 6019: 5989: 5988: 5987: 5977: 5976: 5975: 5965: 5964: 5956: 5937: 5927:Astronomy portal 5925: 5837: 5835: 5826: 5819: 5812: 5805: 5799: 5793: 5787: 5780: 5773: 5766: 5759: 5752: 5745: 5738: 5714: 5707: 5700: 5691: 5584: 5558: 5556:astro-ph/9711073 5537: 5531: 5523: 5497: 5495:astro-ph/0310571 5476: 5450: 5429: 5403: 5401:astro-ph/0508326 5370: 5369: 5359: 5344:Baltic Astronomy 5339: 5333: 5332: 5330: 5329: 5315: 5309: 5308: 5306: 5305: 5290: 5284: 5283: 5281: 5280: 5274:science.nasa.gov 5266: 5257: 5256: 5243: 5237: 5236: 5224: 5218: 5217: 5211: 5203: 5173: 5148: 5142: 5141: 5129: 5123: 5122: 5074: 5068: 5067: 5041: 5039:astro-ph/0405069 5021: 5015: 5008: 5002: 5001: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4980: 4979: 4970:. Archived from 4959: 4953: 4952: 4950: 4938: 4932: 4931: 4905: 4885: 4876: 4875: 4863: 4857: 4856: 4854: 4853: 4839: 4833: 4832: 4788: 4782: 4781: 4761: 4755: 4754: 4743: 4737: 4736: 4720: 4710: 4699: 4698: 4678: 4672: 4671: 4669: 4667: 4653: 4647: 4646: 4644: 4642: 4628: 4622: 4621: 4595: 4575: 4569: 4568: 4548: 4542: 4541: 4521: 4515: 4508: 4502: 4501: 4477: 4471: 4470: 4460: 4450: 4432: 4406: 4400: 4399: 4397: 4395: 4385: 4375: 4366:(4): 3608–3627. 4349: 4343: 4342: 4340: 4338: 4316: 4310: 4309: 4307: 4305: 4283: 4277: 4276: 4250: 4244: 4243: 4241: 4239: 4217: 4211: 4210: 4208: 4206: 4186: 4180: 4179: 4177: 4175: 4156: 4150: 4149: 4147: 4145: 4133:BBC Sky at Night 4123: 4117: 4116: 4114: 4113: 4098: 4092: 4091: 4065: 4045: 4039: 4038: 4036: 4034: 4011: 4005: 4004: 4002: 4000: 3977: 3971: 3970: 3968: 3967: 3955: 3949: 3947: 3945: 3944: 3938: 3930: 3924: 3923: 3921: 3919: 3909: 3903: 3902: 3900: 3898: 3888: 3882: 3881: 3879: 3877: 3867: 3861: 3860: 3858: 3846: 3840: 3839: 3829: 3809: 3803: 3802: 3800: 3798: 3779: 3769: 3763: 3762: 3760: 3728: 3722: 3717: 3711: 3710: 3708: 3707: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3683: 3682: 3667: 3661: 3660: 3634: 3632:astro-ph/0107568 3614: 3608: 3597: 3591: 3576: 3570: 3569: 3543: 3523: 3517: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3484: 3478: 3477: 3451: 3449:astro-ph/0107568 3431: 3425: 3424: 3398: 3376: 3370: 3369: 3367: 3365: 3345: 3339: 3336: 3330: 3329: 3301: 3288: 3287: 3285: 3284: 3270: 3264: 3263: 3237: 3235:astro-ph/0310571 3219: 3210: 3199: 3198: 3180: 3162: 3137: 3128: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3106: 3097: 3096: 3094: 3076: 3051: 3042: 3041: 3039: 3037: 3020: 3014: 3013: 3003: 2985: 2965: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2940: 2934: 2933: 2907: 2887: 2881: 2880: 2854: 2834: 2828: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2812: 2806: 2805: 2794: 2788: 2787: 2785: 2784: 2761: 2745: 2735: 2729: 2718: 2712: 2701: 2695: 2692: 2686: 2683: 2593: 2570:Andromeda Galaxy 2566:Milky Way galaxy 2533: 2508: 2483: 2467: 2453: 2439: 2429:Local Group 2425: 2411: 2397: 2387:Orion-Cygnus Arm 2383:Molecular clouds 2379: 2365: 2351: 2307:particle horizon 2125:absorption lines 2106: 2098: 2090: 2034:redshift surveys 1991:End of Greatness 1985:End of Greatness 1960:gamma-ray bursts 1913: 1897:Sloan Great Wall 1870:discovered the " 1780:End of Greatness 1730: 1713:RXC J0142.9+4438 1698: 1696: 1690: 1688: 1683:) times volume ( 1682: 1680: 1674: 1672: 1663: 1661: 1660: 1657: 1654: 1643: 1641: 1615:cold dark matter 1612: 1610: 1591:. The value for 1586: 1562: 1560: 1559: 1554: 1549: 1547: 1536: 1535: 1534: 1521: 1516: 1515: 1512: 1496: 1494: 1493: 1488: 1486: 1485: 1482: 1470:, the value for 1428:Eddington number 1421: 1419: 1336: 1335: 1331: 1322: 1320: 1316: 1299: 1297: 1296: 1291: 1289: 1287: 1273: 1229: 1214: 1212: 1206: 1204: 1198: 1196: 1182: 1174: 1108: 1106: 1100: 1098: 1083:cosmic inflation 1024:Hubble parameter 977: 970: 963: 947: 946: 945: 934: 933: 627:Galaxy formation 587:Lambda-CDM model 576: 568:Components 450: 411: 392: 366: 364: 354: 352: 345:critical density 310:particle horizon 190: 189: 185: 182: 169: 164: 147: 145: 133: 131: 119: 117: 105: 90: 88: 76: 61: 59: 40: 33: 21: 6027: 6026: 6022: 6021: 6020: 6018: 6017: 6016: 5997: 5996: 5995: 5985: 5983: 5973: 5971: 5959: 5951: 5949: 5944: 5912: 5838: 5833: 5831: 5830: 5824: 5817: 5810: 5803: 5797: 5791: 5785: 5778: 5771: 5764: 5757: 5750: 5743: 5736: 5723: 5718: 5591: 5543:Physics Reports 5540: 5524: 5479: 5432: 5384:David L. Donoho 5381: 5378: 5376:Further reading 5373: 5341: 5340: 5336: 5327: 5325: 5317: 5316: 5312: 5303: 5301: 5292: 5291: 5287: 5278: 5276: 5268: 5267: 5260: 5245: 5244: 5240: 5226: 5225: 5221: 5204: 5150: 5149: 5145: 5131: 5130: 5126: 5089:(6461): 31–32. 5076: 5075: 5071: 5056:10.1071/AS04050 5023: 5022: 5018: 5009: 5005: 4991: 4990: 4986: 4977: 4975: 4961: 4960: 4956: 4940: 4939: 4935: 4887: 4886: 4879: 4865: 4864: 4860: 4851: 4849: 4841: 4840: 4836: 4790: 4789: 4785: 4778: 4763: 4762: 4758: 4745: 4744: 4740: 4733: 4712: 4711: 4702: 4695: 4680: 4679: 4675: 4665: 4663: 4655: 4654: 4650: 4640: 4638: 4630: 4629: 4625: 4577: 4576: 4572: 4565: 4550: 4549: 4545: 4538: 4523: 4522: 4518: 4509: 4505: 4498: 4479: 4478: 4474: 4408: 4407: 4403: 4393: 4391: 4351: 4350: 4346: 4336: 4334: 4318: 4317: 4313: 4303: 4301: 4285: 4284: 4280: 4273: 4252: 4251: 4247: 4237: 4235: 4219: 4218: 4214: 4204: 4202: 4188: 4187: 4183: 4173: 4171: 4158: 4157: 4153: 4143: 4141: 4125: 4124: 4120: 4111: 4109: 4100: 4099: 4095: 4047: 4046: 4042: 4032: 4030: 4028: 4013: 4012: 4008: 3998: 3996: 3994: 3983:The new physics 3979: 3978: 3974: 3965: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3952: 3942: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3931: 3927: 3917: 3915: 3911: 3910: 3906: 3896: 3894: 3890: 3889: 3885: 3875: 3873: 3869: 3868: 3864: 3848: 3847: 3843: 3811: 3810: 3806: 3796: 3794: 3792: 3771: 3770: 3766: 3730: 3729: 3725: 3718: 3714: 3705: 3703: 3694: 3693: 3689: 3680: 3678: 3670:Siegel, Ethan. 3669: 3668: 3664: 3616: 3615: 3611: 3598: 3594: 3577: 3573: 3525: 3524: 3520: 3512: 3508: 3501: 3486: 3485: 3481: 3433: 3432: 3428: 3378: 3377: 3373: 3363: 3361: 3349:Overbye, Dennis 3347: 3346: 3342: 3337: 3333: 3303: 3302: 3291: 3282: 3280: 3272: 3271: 3267: 3217: 3212: 3211: 3202: 3139: 3138: 3131: 3121: 3119: 3108: 3107: 3100: 3053: 3052: 3045: 3035: 3033: 3022: 3021: 3017: 2960: 2956: 2955: 2951: 2942: 2941: 2937: 2889: 2888: 2884: 2836: 2835: 2831: 2821: 2819: 2814: 2813: 2809: 2796: 2795: 2791: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2763: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2749: 2748: 2736: 2732: 2719: 2715: 2702: 2698: 2693: 2689: 2684: 2680: 2675: 2670: 2665:UniverseMachine 2612: 2607: 2606: 2605: 2604: 2603: 2594: 2586: 2585: 2534: 2523: 2518: 2517: 2516: 2514: 2509: 2500: 2499: 2498: 2489: 2484: 2475: 2474: 2473: 2472: 2471: 2468: 2460: 2459: 2454: 2446: 2445: 2440: 2432: 2431: 2426: 2418: 2417: 2412: 2404: 2403: 2398: 2390: 2389: 2380: 2372: 2371: 2366: 2358: 2357: 2352: 2343: 2342: 2302: 2296: 2278:" used in both 2276:proper distance 2256:gamma ray burst 2244: 2238: 2186:Great Attractor 2178: 2100: 2092: 2085: 2042: 1987: 1924: 1923: 1918: 1915: 1911: 1864:Margaret Geller 1860:redshift survey 1850:identified the 1816:galaxy clusters 1802:on that scale. 1788: 1754:(in particular 1719: 1705: 1694: 1692: 1686: 1684: 1678: 1676: 1670: 1668: 1658: 1655: 1652: 1651: 1649: 1639: 1637: 1608: 1606: 1604: 1597: 1589:Hubble constant 1585: 1575: 1537: 1526: 1522: 1507: 1502: 1501: 1477: 1472: 1471: 1460: 1436: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1406: 1379: 1374: 1372:Matter and mass 1333: 1329: 1328: 1318: 1314: 1312: 1277: 1252: 1251: 1227: 1210: 1208: 1202: 1200: 1194: 1192: 1189:Euclidean space 1180: 1172: 1127: 1104: 1102: 1096: 1094: 1066: 981: 943: 941: 923: 922: 909: 906: 899: 897:Subject history 889: 888: 880: 725: 717: 716: 713: 710: 668: 658: 657: 620:Galaxy filament 573: 561: 560: 512: 507:Expansion 500: 499: 484:Microwave (CMB) 463:Nucleosynthesis 447: 390: 362: 360: 350: 348: 225: 187: 183: 180: 178: 162: 160: 143: 141: 129: 127: 115: 113: 95: 86: 84: 66: 57: 55: 47: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6025: 6023: 6015: 6014: 6009: 5999: 5998: 5994: 5993: 5981: 5969: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5942: 5930: 5917: 5914: 5913: 5911: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5895: 5887: 5879: 5871: 5863: 5855: 5846: 5844: 5840: 5839: 5731: 5729: 5725: 5724: 5719: 5717: 5716: 5709: 5702: 5694: 5688: 5687: 5675: 5663: 5653: 5648: 5639: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5603: 5598: 5590: 5589:External links 5587: 5586: 5585: 5538: 5512:10.1086/428890 5488:(2): 463–484. 5477: 5441:(1): 151–184. 5430: 5418:10.1086/497125 5394:(2): 744–755. 5377: 5374: 5372: 5371: 5334: 5310: 5299:Universe Today 5285: 5258: 5238: 5219: 5164:(A107): A107. 5143: 5124: 5069: 5032:(4): 396–403. 5016: 5003: 4984: 4954: 4933: 4877: 4858: 4834: 4783: 4777:978-1292022932 4776: 4756: 4738: 4732:978-0691058627 4731: 4700: 4694:978-1292022932 4693: 4673: 4648: 4623: 4570: 4564:978-0521455060 4563: 4543: 4537:978-0307276988 4536: 4516: 4503: 4497:978-0618592265 4496: 4472: 4423:(1671): 1671. 4401: 4344: 4311: 4278: 4271: 4245: 4220:Staff (2019). 4212: 4181: 4151: 4118: 4107:astro.ucla.edu 4093: 4040: 4027:978-0521563987 4026: 4006: 3993:978-0521438315 3992: 3972: 3950: 3925: 3913:"WolframAlpha" 3904: 3892:"WolframAlpha" 3883: 3871:"WolframAlpha" 3862: 3841: 3804: 3791:978-0201328400 3790: 3764: 3758:10.1086/183361 3723: 3712: 3687: 3662: 3609: 3592: 3571: 3518: 3506: 3500:978-1118502143 3499: 3493:. John Wiley. 3479: 3426: 3371: 3340: 3331: 3289: 3278:astro.ucla.edu 3265: 3252:10.1086/428890 3228:(2): 463–484. 3200: 3129: 3098: 3043: 3030:New York Times 3015: 2949: 2935: 2898:(2): 916–920. 2882: 2829: 2807: 2789: 2777:978-0387776378 2776: 2755: 2753: 2750: 2747: 2746: 2730: 2713: 2696: 2687: 2677: 2676: 2674: 2671: 2669: 2668: 2662: 2656: 2650: 2644: 2638: 2632: 2626: 2620: 2613: 2611: 2608: 2595: 2588: 2587: 2558:Alpha Centauri 2535: 2528: 2527: 2526: 2525: 2524: 2522: 2519: 2511: 2510: 2503: 2502: 2501: 2486: 2485: 2478: 2477: 2476: 2469: 2462: 2461: 2455: 2448: 2447: 2441: 2434: 2433: 2427: 2420: 2419: 2415:Milky Way 2413: 2406: 2405: 2399: 2392: 2391: 2381: 2374: 2373: 2367: 2360: 2359: 2353: 2346: 2345: 2344: 2334: 2333: 2332: 2331: 2298:Main article: 2295: 2292: 2252:JADES-GS-z14-0 2240:Main article: 2237: 2234: 2218:R. Brent Tully 2208:constellations 2177: 2174: 2041: 2038: 1986: 1983: 1919: 1916: 1910: 1862:data, in 1989 1787: 1784: 1756:21-cm emission 1704: 1701: 1626:Standard Model 1602: 1595: 1583: 1564: 1563: 1552: 1546: 1543: 1540: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1519: 1510: 1480: 1459: 1456: 1442:(ISM) and the 1435: 1432: 1424:hydrogen atoms 1408:Main article: 1405: 1402: 1378: 1375: 1373: 1370: 1354:speed of light 1286: 1283: 1280: 1276: 1271: 1268: 1265: 1262: 1259: 1126: 1123: 1065: 1062: 983: 982: 980: 979: 972: 965: 957: 954: 953: 952: 951: 939: 925: 924: 921: 920: 915: 910: 903: 900: 895: 894: 891: 890: 887: 886: 879: 878: 873: 868: 863: 858: 853: 848: 843: 838: 833: 828: 823: 818: 813: 808: 803: 798: 793: 788: 783: 778: 773: 768: 763: 758: 753: 748: 743: 738: 733: 727: 726: 723: 722: 719: 718: 715: 714: 707: 705: 700: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 669: 664: 663: 660: 659: 654: 653: 652: 651: 639: 634: 629: 617: 609: 608: 604: 603: 602: 601: 589: 581: 580: 574: 567: 566: 563: 562: 559: 558: 553: 548: 543: 531: 526: 513: 506: 505: 502: 501: 496: 495: 494: 493: 491:Neutrino (CNB) 481: 473: 472: 468: 467: 466: 465: 448: 446:Early universe 445: 444: 441: 440: 439: 438: 433: 428: 413: 412: 404: 403: 397: 396: 389: 386: 306:speed of light 239:region of the 227: 226: 224: 223: 217: 211: 201: 199: 195: 194: 176: 172: 171: 158: 154: 153: 139: 135: 134: 125: 121: 120: 111: 107: 106: 82: 78: 77: 53: 49: 48: 41: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6024: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6004: 6002: 5992: 5982: 5980: 5970: 5968: 5963: 5958: 5954: 5941: 5940: 5936: 5931: 5929: 5928: 5924: 5919: 5918: 5915: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5892: 5888: 5886: 5884: 5883:Cosmic Voyage 5880: 5878: 5876: 5875:Powers of Ten 5872: 5870: 5868: 5864: 5862: 5860: 5856: 5854: 5852: 5848: 5847: 5845: 5841: 5829: 5822: 5815: 5808: 5802: 5796: 5790: 5783: 5776: 5769: 5762: 5755: 5748: 5741: 5734: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5715: 5710: 5708: 5703: 5701: 5696: 5695: 5692: 5685: 5684: 5679: 5676: 5673: 5672: 5667: 5664: 5661: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5645: 5640: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5606:Cosmology FAQ 5604: 5602: 5599: 5596: 5593: 5592: 5588: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5549:(1): 61–226. 5548: 5544: 5539: 5535: 5529: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5449: 5448:gr-qc/0505083 5444: 5440: 5436: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5402: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5380: 5379: 5375: 5367: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5338: 5335: 5324: 5320: 5314: 5311: 5300: 5296: 5289: 5286: 5275: 5271: 5265: 5263: 5259: 5254: 5253: 5248: 5242: 5239: 5234: 5230: 5223: 5220: 5215: 5209: 5202: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5147: 5144: 5139: 5135: 5128: 5125: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5073: 5070: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5040: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5020: 5017: 5013: 5007: 5004: 4999: 4995: 4988: 4985: 4974:on 2016-05-16 4973: 4969: 4965: 4958: 4955: 4949: 4944: 4937: 4934: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4884: 4882: 4878: 4873: 4869: 4862: 4859: 4848: 4847:New Scientist 4844: 4838: 4835: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4787: 4784: 4779: 4773: 4769: 4768: 4760: 4757: 4752: 4748: 4742: 4739: 4734: 4728: 4724: 4719: 4718: 4709: 4707: 4705: 4701: 4696: 4690: 4686: 4685: 4677: 4674: 4662: 4658: 4652: 4649: 4637: 4633: 4627: 4624: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4594: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4574: 4571: 4566: 4560: 4556: 4555: 4547: 4544: 4539: 4533: 4529: 4528: 4520: 4517: 4513: 4507: 4504: 4499: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4484: 4476: 4473: 4468: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4431: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4417: 4412: 4405: 4402: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4360: 4355: 4348: 4345: 4332: 4328: 4327: 4322: 4315: 4312: 4299: 4295: 4294: 4289: 4282: 4279: 4274: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4249: 4246: 4238:September 21, 4233: 4229: 4228: 4223: 4216: 4213: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4185: 4182: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4155: 4152: 4139: 4135: 4134: 4129: 4122: 4119: 4108: 4104: 4101:Wright, Ned. 4097: 4094: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4044: 4041: 4029: 4023: 4019: 4018: 4010: 4007: 3995: 3989: 3985: 3984: 3976: 3973: 3961: 3954: 3951: 3935: 3929: 3926: 3914: 3908: 3905: 3893: 3887: 3884: 3872: 3866: 3863: 3857: 3852: 3845: 3842: 3837: 3833: 3828: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3808: 3805: 3793: 3787: 3783: 3778: 3777: 3768: 3765: 3759: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3727: 3724: 3721: 3716: 3713: 3702: 3698: 3691: 3688: 3677: 3673: 3666: 3663: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3633: 3628: 3625:(4): 047301. 3624: 3620: 3613: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3596: 3593: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3575: 3572: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3542: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3522: 3519: 3515: 3510: 3507: 3502: 3496: 3492: 3491: 3483: 3480: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3442:(4): 047301. 3441: 3437: 3430: 3427: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3397: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3383: 3375: 3372: 3360: 3359: 3354: 3350: 3344: 3341: 3335: 3332: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3300: 3298: 3296: 3294: 3290: 3279: 3275: 3269: 3266: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3236: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3216: 3209: 3207: 3205: 3201: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3187:1721.1/133770 3184: 3179: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3161: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3136: 3134: 3130: 3118: 3117: 3112: 3105: 3103: 3099: 3093: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3050: 3048: 3044: 3032: 3031: 3026: 3019: 3016: 3011: 3007: 3002: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2953: 2950: 2945: 2939: 2936: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2906: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2886: 2883: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2853: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2833: 2830: 2817: 2811: 2808: 2803: 2799: 2793: 2790: 2779: 2773: 2769: 2768: 2760: 2757: 2751: 2743: 2742: 2734: 2731: 2727: 2726:Hubble radius 2723: 2717: 2714: 2710: 2705: 2700: 2697: 2691: 2688: 2682: 2679: 2672: 2666: 2663: 2660: 2657: 2654: 2651: 2648: 2645: 2642: 2641:Hubble volume 2639: 2636: 2633: 2630: 2627: 2624: 2621: 2618: 2615: 2614: 2609: 2602: 2598: 2592: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2532: 2520: 2513: 2507: 2496: 2494: 2488: 2482: 2466: 2458: 2452: 2444: 2438: 2430: 2424: 2416: 2410: 2402: 2396: 2388: 2384: 2378: 2370: 2364: 2356: 2350: 2341: 2337: 2330: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2301: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2268: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2254:. 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