492:
360:(state subjects) of the Reich would retain full political rights as a 'citizen of the Reich', consequently leaving the remaining population as effective non-citizens with no guaranteed rights. The law's definition of what constituted a citizen of the Reich utilized particularly ambiguous language; a citizen was defined as a "German or kindred blood ... who, through his conduct ... is both desirous and fit to serve the German people and the Reich faithfully". This ambiguity resulted in some of the human rights violations following the law's passage being justified (within the Nazi legal framework) by bureaucrats, law enforcement and medical professionals as legal acts under the 1935 law.
536:
51:" into the country's legal and justicial systems. The shift from the traditional legal system (the "normative state") to the Nazis' ideological mission (the "prerogative state") enabled all of the subsequent acts of the Hitler regime (including its atrocities) to be performed legally. For this to succeed, the normative judicial system needed to be reworked; judges, lawyers and other civil servants acclimatized themselves to the new Nazi laws and personnel. As of 2021, a few laws from the Nazi era still remain codified in German law.
523:, appointed in 1942 as judge and interrogator, was infamous for "berating and belittling" defendants and lawyers. Statutes were "systematically misinterpreted”, and the court has been described as committing "judicial murders". Separation of defendants and lawyers was calculated to prevent communication, and defense presentations were often interrupted. Courts were made up of three judges; all verdicts were final, and the convicted defendant was immediately executed. The
20:
336:
60:
364:
considered "unfit for reproduction", including groups such as the mentally ill, alcoholics, those with congenital and/or chronic illness, among many others. The details as to which rights would be stripped in the latter case were specified in the companion "Law for
Hereditary Hygiene", also included in the Nuremberg Laws. This law effectively legitimized the
299:) was passed on 20 March 1933 and was one of the first decrees passed by the Nazis to ensure that any enemies of the state were punished by either being sent to concentration camps or murdered. The act allowed people deemed to be social outcasts such as Jews, homosexuals and political opponents to be punished by the law.
368:
movement, inspired by various meetings between Hitler and
American and British eugenicists, as legal. The extent to which the British originators and American early adopters of the pseudo-science influenced Nazi eugenics is perhaps best exhibited by an openly acknowledged inspiration used in drafting
584:
Crimes against humanity – murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population, before or during the war, or persecution on political, racial, or religious grounds in execution of or in connection with any crime within the jurisdiction of
503:
In Nazi
Germany, the civil service provided a legal framework to deprive Jews of their rights. Opportunities to create anti-Jewish policies were coveted and career bureaucrats came together and developed increasingly radical policies. Their familiarity with the legal system enabled them to easily
401:
A 14 November 1935 supplemental decree defined
Jewishness. No longer limited to religious beliefs, the decree classified those who followed the Jewish faith, belonged to the Jewish religion when the decree was promulgated, or later entered the Jewish religion, anyone who had three or more Jewish
363:
In particular, the first condition ensured that many of the non-European ethnic and religious minorities residing in
Germany (targeting the Jewish population in particular) were no longer to be considered citizens whereas the latter condition allowed the same to occur to any group that might be
428:
The Berlin
Gestapo ordered measures to be taken to end the perception that Aryan students were receiving assistance from Jews in preparing for their exams (4 April 1935), and later the Justice Ministry decreed that candidates for the final juridical exam had to expressly declare that they had
450:
in Berlin, antisemitic laws and attacks were moderated and discriminatory signage removed. Although this was regarded as an attempt by Hitler to appease the international audience and limit criticism and interference, nearly all German Jewish athletes were excluded from
Olympic competition.
218:, which began on 30 June 1934, 80 stormtrooper leaders and other opponents of Hitler were arrested and shot. Von Hindenberg's death on 2 August 1934 enabled Hitler to usurp his presidential powers, and his dictatorship was built upon his position as
347:
on 15 September 1935. The two laws authorized arrests of, and violence against, Jews. Initially imposed in
Germany, Nazi expansion during the Second World War resulted in the imposition of the Nuremberg Laws in occupied territories.
508:
were dismissed. Jewish lawyers and judges and those with socialist or other views inconvenient to the Nazi Party were removed. The fundamental legal principle became Nazi "common sense", "Whatever is good for
Germany is legal". The
268:
amended the Weimar
Constitution to allow Hitler and his government to enact laws (even laws violating the constitution) without going through the Reichstag. Nazi intimidation of the opposition resulted in a vote of 444 to 94.
799:
281:. In the words of Hitler, this was to "repay a debt of gratitude to the movement under whose symbol Germany regained its freedom, fulfilling a significant item on the program of the National Socialist Party".
397:
Violations of the first article were punishable by hard labor; violations of the second article were punishable by imprisonment, and violations of the third article were punishable by fine and imprisonment.
116:
and the effects of the Great Depression. His actions and goals have been described as using the "constitution to destroy the constitution" and the "rules of the republic to destroy the republic".
186:
402:
grandparents or two Jewish grandparents and was married to a Jewish spouse and anyone who joined a Jewish community as Jewish, regardless of whether they still followed the religion.
519:) was created in 1934 for people accused of political crimes. In 1938, all crimes began to be tried in the court; in 1939, its remit was expanded to include minor offenses.
71:
After World War I, Germany considered the law a "most respected entity" as the country regained stability and public confidence. Many German lawyers and judges were Jewish.
609:(Head of The Armed Forces). Verdicts included 12 death sentences, three life imprisonments, four prison terms of 10–20 years and three acquittals. Those acquitted were
977:
724:
463:, the "fateful turning point" was reached in 1938 and 1939 with the passage of additional laws which used economic harassment and violence to drive Jews from Germany:
630:
885:
343:
When Germany was completely under Nazi rule, the number and severity of laws increased. The Nuremberg Laws were announced after the annual Nazi party rally in
321:) was passed on 20 December 1934. The act restricted the freedom of speech amongst civilians and penalised any criticism of the Nazi state or the Nazi Party.
413:
had already been prohibited from working for the city of Berlin in a local decree in March 1933, and Nazi ideology continued to creep into the legal system:
211:
was placed in charge of the civil police. With the growth of Nazi Germany, the RMI organized the administration of newly-acquired countries and territories.
491:
442:
The use of Jewish names for clarifying spelling in the telephone delivery of telegrams (e.g. saying "A as in Abraham") was banned (22 April 1933).
244:
were destroyed; firefighters were instructed to only prevent the flames from spreading. About 30,000 Jewish men were arrested and imprisoned or
219:
505:
106:, on 8–9 November 1923. The attempted coup was halted by Bavarian police; 15 Nazis were killed, and Hitler was imprisoned (where he wrote
953:
861:
236:
and Jewish businesses and citizens. Over 100 were killed, and thousands were arrested. Two hundred sixty-seven synagogues in Germany,
197:
and the "politically unreliable." Autonomy was removed from individual German states and provinces through a process of coordination (
555:, decreeing an International Military Tribunal (IMT), was announced on 8 August 1945 to conduct 13 trials made up of judges from the
1233:
1125:
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700:
123:
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544:
317:), its official title was the "Law against Treacherous Attacks on the State and Party and for the Protection of Party Uniforms" (
738:
504:
manipulate it. The judiciary lost its independence as it was increasingly controlled by the Nazis. Judges who did not join the
136:
578:
Crimes against peace – participation in the planning and waging of a war of aggression in violation of international treaties
88:
527:
in 1944 was accompanied by a series of aggressive prosecutions, and over 110 death sentences were imposed in fifty trials.
203:), and Nazi ideology was imposed by racial and ancestral legislation which defined who was (or was not) a German. In 1936,
370:
1334:
290:
439:
Laws pertaining to athletes excluded Jewish boxers from competition, and Jews were banned from public swimming places.
510:
155:
would "safeguard public security" by restricting civil liberties and granting increased power to the police, and the
1249:
277:
According to the Reich Flag law, Germany's national colors were black, white, and red and its flag incorporated the
635:
248:
in concentration camps. The government blamed the Jewish people for the attacks, and imposed a fine of one billion
190:
160:
172:("leader principle") designated Hitler as above the law. The Volkist Principle of Racial Inequality organised the
369:
the Nazi social hygiene laws being the 1924 US Virginia state law known as the "Eugenical Sterilization Act (see
256:, additional decrees removed the Jews from German economic and social life; those who could emigrated elsewhere.
594:
215:
994:
385:
Marriages between Jews and Germans or relatives were forbidden, and existing marriages of this kind were void.
1281:
1167:
602:
84:
1308:
535:
308:
152:
131:
163:. Legislative power was given to Hitler so his government could create laws without Reichstag consent.
585:
the tribunal, whether or not in violation of the domestic law of the country where it was perpetrated.
447:
265:
800:"After 75 years, Germany is moving to rid itself of cluster of laws introduced by Nazis - Nazi laws"
460:
148:
127:
1027:
1093:
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879:
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64:
193:
to consolidate Hitler's rise to power. New civil-service legislation enabled the removal of non-
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319:
Gesetz gegen heimtĂĽckische Angriffe auf Staat und Partei und zum Schutz der Parteiuniformen
640:
614:
610:
571:. Article six of the charter outlines the crimes for which Nazi officials would be tried:
520:
482:
Robbing Jews became legal, and Jews were forced to surrender "all jewellery of any value".
335:
199:
126:. Increasing public pressure, including marches, lawlessness and racism, forced president
44:
1138:
834:
467:
Jewish physicians were de-certified, and were no longer allowed to treat German patients.
391:
Jews were not allowed to employ female German citizens or relatives as domestic servants.
850:
692:
618:
606:
589:
Twenty-four Nazi officials were indicted for these crimes on 6 October 1945, including
388:
Sexual relations outside marriage between Jews and Germans or relatives were forbidden.
330:
156:
144:
113:
24:
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560:
556:
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228:
80:
689:
Law in Nazi Germany, The : Ideology, Opportunism, and the Perversion of Justice
568:
524:
406:
72:
36:
1069:
942:
1143:
Eugenics: Three Generations, No Imbeciles: Virginia, Eugenics & Buck v. Bell
598:
241:
40:
249:
245:
108:
59:
710:
581:
War crimes – violations of the internationally agreed-on rules for waging war
297:
Verordnung zur Abwehr heimtĂĽckischer Diskreditierung der nationalen Regierung
963:
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were conducted in 1945 and 1946 to bring Nazi war criminals to justice. The
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223:
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278:
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103:
32:
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410:
119:
99:
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GOLDBERG, AMOS; SERMONETA-GERTEL, SHMUEL; GREENBERG, AVNER (2017).
765:"Germany moves to eradicate lingering Nazi laws, some anti-Semitic"
166:
Several principles were invoked during the state of emergency. The
534:
490:
334:
194:
182:(people's community) was seen as undeserving of legal protection.
58:
35:
and, at times, controlled almost all of Europe. During this time,
18:
1043:
1041:
422:
112:). Hitler exploited Weimar's economic hardships, which included
405:
Over 1,900 "special Jewish laws" emphasized Aryan morality and
394:
Jews were forbidden to display the national flag and/or colours
409:
stereotypes of "Jewish counter-morality". Jewish lawyers and
476:
Jews were prohibited from cinemas, the opera, and concerts.
222:(head of state), Reich Chancellor (head of government) and
204:
906:
Trauma in First Person: Diary Writing during the Holocaust
1224:
Efron, Weitzman, Lehmann, John, Steven, Matthias (2004).
575:
Conspiracy to commit charges two, three, and four below
377:
Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor
1139:"Influence of Virginia's Eugenical Sterilization Act"
339:
Jewish marriage chart according to the Nuremberg Laws
16:
Nazi Germany's legal and justicial system 1933 - 1945
506:
National Socialist League for the Maintenance of Law
429:
received no assistance from Jews (2 September 1936).
356:The Citizenship Law formally defined who among the
226:(leader of the Nazi Party). The 9–10 November 1938
941:
849:
473:All Jewish-named streets in Germany were renamed.
739:"Germany moves to eradicate lingering Nazi laws"
479:Jewish children were banned from public schools.
1070:"Nurnberg Laws | Definition, Date, & Facts"
631:Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany
151:and impose a four-year state of emergency. The
122:influence increased after the party became the
613:(Economics Minister), Former Vice-Chancellor
8:
976:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
948:(1st US ed.). New York: Penguin Press.
723:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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176:by race; anyone not considered part of the
884:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
134:on 30 January 1933; this was known as the
446:For a brief period before and during the
31:From 1933 to 1945, the Nazi regime ruled
652:
232:(Night of Broken Glass) had attacks on
1228:. Pearson Education Inc. pp. 410–411.
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470:Jews were not allowed to own gardens.
264:After the Reichstag Fire Decree, the
147:was used as a pretext to suspend the
7:
1250:"Lawyers and Judges in Nazi Germany"
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852:The rise and fall of the Third Reich
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1118:The Germans and the Final Solution
539:Defendants at the Nuremberg trials
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1254:www.sydneycriminallawyers.com.au
43:society which characterized the
691:. Rachlin, Robert D. New York:
207:leader and RMI state secretary
47:and introduced an ideology of "
187:Reich Ministry of the Interior
159:arrested 4,000 members of the
1:
1013:"Remembering Kristallnacht".
944:The coming of the Third Reich
371:Eugenics in the United States
295:The Malicious Practices Act (
1286:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
1098:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
908:. Indiana University Press.
687:E., Steinweis, Alan (2013).
381:This law had five articles:
291:Malicious Practices Act 1933
83:, which brought Mussolini's
1094:"The Reich Citizenship Law"
940:J., Evans, Richard (2004).
848:Shirer, William L. (1960).
621:(Head of Press and Radio).
425:members (13 November 1933).
1351:
1209:Nazi Germany and The Jews.
1207:Friedlander, Saul (1997).
1191:Friedlander, Saul (1997).
1047:Friedlander, Saul (1997).
436:of animals was prohibited.
328:
306:
288:
189:(RMI) was utilised by the
1193:Nazi Germany and the Jews
1168:"The Nuremberg Race Laws"
1051:. HarperCollins, p. 142.
1049:Nazi Germany and The Jews
835:"Nazi Law: Legally Blind"
27:that were enacted in 1935
1195:. HarperCollins. p. 149.
605:(Foreign Minister), and
417:Non-Aryans could not be
216:Night of the Long Knives
124:largest in the Reichstag
1116:Bankier, David (1992).
1074:Encyclopedia Britannica
914:10.2307/j.ctt1zxz15p.12
636:BĂĽrgerliches Gesetzbuch
459:According to historian
285:Malicious Practices Act
1309:"The Nuremberg Trials"
1282:"The "People's Court""
1172:encyclopedia.ushmm.org
1032:Holocaust Encyclopedia
1017:. 2008 – via ProQuest.
603:Joachim von Ribbentrop
601:(Nazi Deputy Leader),
540:
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500:
455:Later antisemitic laws
340:
85:National Fascist Party
68:
39:shifted from the post-
28:
23:A chart depicting the
769:www.timesofisrael.com
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499:in the People's Court
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309:Treachery Act of 1934
153:Reichstag Fire Decree
143:The 27 February 1933
132:Chancellor of Germany
62:
22:
1015:The Jerusalem Report
448:1936 Summer Olympics
266:Enabling Act of 1933
1335:Law of Nazi Germany
1226:The Jews: A History
313:The Treachery Act (
149:Weimar Constitution
128:Paul von Hindenburg
804:The Economic Times
763:FOULKES, Mathieu.
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130:to appoint Hitler
69:
65:Reichstag building
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553:Nuremberg Charter
543:After the end of
179:Volksgemeinschaft
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461:Saul Friedländer
434:kosher slaughter
358:Staatsangehörige
209:Heinrich Himmler
96:Beer Hall Putsch
79:'s October 1922
77:Benito Mussolini
75:was inspired by
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45:Weimar Republic
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