Late Devonian extinction

1493:, which marks the boundary between the Devonian and Carboniferous periods. This could offer a possible explanation for the dramatic drop in atmospheric ozone during the Hangenberg event that could have permitted massive ultraviolet damage to the genetic material of lifeforms, triggering a mass extinction. Recent research offers evidence of ultraviolet damage to pollen and spores over many thousands of years during this event as observed in the fossil record and that, in turn, points to a possible long-term destruction of the ozone layer. A supernova explosion is an alternative explanation to global temperature rise, that could account for the drop in atmospheric ozone. Because very high mass stars, required to produce a supernova, tend to form in dense star-forming regions of space and have short lifespans lasting only at most tens of millions of years, it is likely that if a supernova did occur, multiple others also did within a few million years of it. Thus, supernovae have also been speculated to have been responsible for the Kellwasser event, as well as the entire sequence of environmental crises covering several millions of years towards the end of the Devonian period. Detecting either of the long-lived, extra-terrestrial radioisotopes 1470:, cannot generally be dated with sufficient precision to link them to the event; others dated precisely are not contemporaneous with the extinction. Although some evidence of meteoric impact have been observed in places, including iridium anomalies and microspherules, these were probably caused by other factors. Some lines of evidence suggest that the meteorite impact and its associated geochemical signals postdate the extinction event. Modelling studies have ruled out a single impact as entirely inconsistent with available evidence, although a multiple impact scenario may still be viable. 983: 7156: 1066:) were eliminated. The family is a great unit, and to lose so many signifies a deep loss of ecosystem diversity. On a smaller scale, 57% of genera and at least 75% of species did not survive into the Carboniferous. These latter estimates need to be treated with a degree of caution, as the estimates of species loss depend on surveys of Devonian marine taxa that are perhaps not well enough known to assess their true rate of losses, so it is difficult to estimate the effects of differential preservation and 1098:, is the term given to the extinction pulse that occurred near the Frasnian–Famennian boundary (372.2 ± 1.6 Ma). Most references to the "Late Devonian extinction" are in fact referring to the Kellwasser, which was the first event to be detected based on marine invertebrate record and was the most severe of the extinction crises of the Late Devonian. There may in fact have been two closely spaced events here, as shown by the presence of two distinct anoxic shale layers. 870: 130: 35: 1435:

igneous province emissions and extraterrestrial impacts and the fact that there is no confirmed evidence of the latter occurring in association with the Kellwasser event, this enrichment strongly suggests a causal relationship between volcanism and the Kellwasser extinction event. However, not all sites show evidence of mercury enrichment across the Frasnian-Famennian boundary, leading other studies to reject volcanism as an explanation for the crisis.

7568: 1202:, the Frasnian-Famennian boundary instead shows evidence of increased oxygenation of the seafloor. Trace metal proxies in black shales from New York state point to anoxic conditions only occurring intermittently, being interrupted by oxic intervals, further indicating that anoxia was not globally synchronous, a finding also supported by the prevalence of cyanobacterial mats in the 1316:, covers most of the present day north-eastern margin of the Siberian Platform. The triple-junction rift system was formed during the Devonian Period; the Viluy rift is the western remaining branch of the system and two other branches form the modern margin of the Siberian Platform. Volcanic rocks are covered with post Late Devonian–Early Carboniferous sediments. Volcanic rocks, 1179:

dominant role in extinction. Evidence exists of a rapid increase in the rate of organic carbon burial and for widespread anoxia in oceanic bottom waters. Signs of anoxia in shallow waters have also been described from a variety of localities. Good evidence has been found for high-frequency sea-level changes around the Frasnian–Famennian Kellwasser event, with one

7578: 1235:; conodont apatite δO excursions also occurred at this time. A similar positive δO excursion in phosphates is known from the boundary, corresponding to a removal of atmospheric carbon dioxide and a global cooling event. This oxygen isotope excursion is known from time-equivalent strata in South China and in the western 1173:

and subsequent anoxia. For example, during an algal bloom, organic material formed at the surface can sink at such a rate that decomposition of dead organisms uses up all available oxygen, creating anoxic conditions and suffocating bottom-dwelling fish. The fossil reefs of the Frasnian were dominated

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archaeopterids, at the end of the period. This increase in height was made possible by the evolution of advanced vascular systems, which permitted the growth of complex branching and rooting systems, facilitating their ability to colonise drier areas previously off limits to them. In conjunction with

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Vertebrates were not strongly affected by the Kellwasser event, but still experienced some diversity loss. Around half of placoderm families died out, primarily species-poor bottom-feeding groups. More diverse placoderm families survived the event only to succumb in the Hangenberg event at the end of

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evolved smaller eyes in the run-up to the Kellwasser event, with eye size increasing again afterwards. This suggests vision was less important around the event, perhaps due to increasing water depth or turbidity. The brims of trilobites (i.e. the rims of their heads) also expanded across this period.

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concentrations from about 15 to three times present levels. Carbon in the form of plant matter would be produced on prodigious scales, and given the right conditions, could be stored and buried, eventually producing vast coal measures (e.g. in China) which locked the carbon out of the atmosphere and

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forests expanded rapidly during the closing ages of the Devonian. These tall trees required deep rooting systems to acquire water and nutrients, and provide anchorage. These systems broke up the upper layers of bedrock and stabilized a deep layer of soil, which would have been of the order of metres

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sequestration by mountain building has been suggested as a cause of the decline in greenhouse gases during the Frasnian-Famennian transition. This mountain-building may have also enhanced biological sequestration through an increase in nutrient runoff. The combination of silicate weathering and the

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The Kellwasser event and most other Later Devonian pulses primarily affected the marine community, and had a greater effect on shallow warm-water organisms than on cool-water organisms. The Kellwasser event's effects were also stronger at low latitudes than high ones. Large differences are observed

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in the time period around the Kellwasser event. Evidence from various European sections reveals that Kellwasser anoxia was relegated to epicontinental seas and developed as a result of upwelling of poorly oxygenated waters within ocean basins into shallow waters rather than a global oceanic anoxic

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Extinction rates appear to have been higher than the background rate for an extended interval covering the last 20–25 million years of the Devonian. During this time, about eight to ten distinct events can be seen, of which two, the Kellwasser and the Hangenberg events, stand out as particularly

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enrichment has been found in deposits dating back to the Kellwasser event, with similar enrichments found in deposits coeval with the Frasnes event at the Givetian-Frasnian boundary and in ones coeval with the Hangenberg event. Because coronene enrichment is only known in association with large

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and (to a lesser degree) corals—organisms which only thrive in low-nutrient conditions. Therefore, the postulated influx of high levels of nutrients may have caused an extinction. Anoxic conditions correlate better with biotic crises than phases of cooling, suggesting anoxia may have played the

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in the Late Devonian, the timespan of this event is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 500,000 to 25 million years, extending from the mid-Givetian to the end-Famennian. Some consider the extinction to be as many as seven distinct events, spread over about 25 million years, with notable

908:, although there is evidence this shift in reef composition began prior to the Frasnian-Famennian boundary. The collapse of the reef system was so stark that it would take until the Mesozoic for reefs to recover their Middle Devonian extent. Mesozoic and modern reefs are based on 1328:

large igneous provinces were suggested to correlate with the Frasnian / Famennian extinction, with the Kola and Timan-Pechora magmatic provinces being suggested to be related to the Hangenberg event at the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary. Viluy magmatism may have injected enough

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this, the evolution of seeds permitted reproduction and dispersal in areas which were not waterlogged, allowing plants to colonise previously inhospitable inland and upland areas. The two factors combined to greatly magnify the role of plants on the global scale. In particular,

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Lutzoni, François; Nowak, Michael D.; Alfaro, Michael E.; Reeb, Valérie; Miadlikowska, Jolanta; Krug, Michael; Arnold, A. Elizabeth; Lewis, Louise A.; Swofford, David L.; Hibbett, David; Hilu, Khidir; James, Timothy Y.; Quandt, Dietmar; Magallón, Susana (21 December 2018).

1134:), several environmental changes can be detected from the sedimentary record, which directly affected organisms and caused extinction. What caused these changes is somewhat more open to debate. Possible triggers for the Kellwasser event are as follows: 973:

as nutrient input changed. As with most extinction events, specialist taxa occupying small niches were harder hit than generalists. Marine invertebrates that lived in warmer ecoregions were devastated more compared to those living in colder biomes.

912:("stony") corals, which would not evolve until the Triassic period. Devonian reef-builders are entirely extinct in the modern day: Stromatoporoids died out in the end-Devonian Hangenberg event, while rugose and tabulate corals went extinct at the 3782:

Stein, William E.; Berry, Christopher M.; Morris, Jennifer L.; Hernick, Linda VanAller; Mannolini, Frank; Ver Straeten, Charles; Landing, Ed; Marshall, John E. A.; Wellman, Charles H.; Beerling, David J.; Leake, Jonathan R. (3 February 2020).

6201: 1239:, suggesting it was a globally synchronous climatic change. The concomitance of the drop in global temperatures and the swift decline of metazoan reefs indicates the blameworthiness of global cooling in precipitating the extinction event. 1450:

approximately 374 million years ago. Remains of this caldera can be found in the modern day state of Victoria, Australia. Eovariscan volcanic activity in present-day Europe may have also played a role in conjunction with the Viluy Traps.

309:; that is, a lack of oxygen, prohibiting decay and allowing the preservation of organic matter. This, combined with the ability of porous reef rocks to hold oil, has led to Devonian rocks being an important source of oil, especially in 1250:

is a greenhouse gas, reduced levels might have helped produce a chillier climate, in contrast to the warm climate of the Middle Devonian. The biological sequestration of carbon dioxide may have ultimately led to the beginning of the

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and rifting in the Russian and Siberian platforms, which were situated above the hot mantle plumes and suggested as a cause of the Frasnian / Famennian and end-Devonian extinctions. The Viluy Large igneous province, located in the

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Kuzmin, M.I.; Yarmolyuk, V.V.; Kravchinsky, V.A. (2010). "Phanerozoic hot spot traces and paleogeographic reconstructions of the Siberian continent based on interaction with the African large low shear velocity province".

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Algeo, T.J., S.E. Scheckler and J. B. Maynard (2001). "Effects of the Middle to Late Devonian spread of vascular land plants on weathering regimes, marine biota, and global climate". In P.G. Gensel; D. Edwards (eds.).

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systems that allowed them to survive away from places that were constantly wet—and so grew huge forests on the highlands. Several clades had developed a shrubby or tree-like habit by the Late Givetian, including the

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Zheng, Wang; Gilleaudeau, Geoffrey J.; Algeo, Thomas J.; Zhao, Yaqiu; Song, Yi; Zhang, Yuanming; Sahoo, Swapan K.; Anbar, Ariel D.; Carmichael, Sarah K.; Xie, Shucheng; Liu, Cong-Qiang; Chen, Jiubin (1 July 2023).

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There is evidence that the Kellwasser event was a two-pulsed event, with the two extinction pulses being separated by an interval of approximately 800,000 years. The second pulse was more severe than the first.

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thick. In contrast, early Devonian plants bore only rhizoids and rhizomes that could penetrate no more than a few centimeters. The mobilization of a large portion of soil had a huge effect: soil promotes

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The brims are thought to have served a respiratory purpose, and the increasing anoxia of waters led to an increase in their brim area in response. The shape of conodonts' feeding apparatus varied with

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Sole, R. V., and Newman, M., 2002. "Extinctions and Biodiversity in the Fossil Record - Volume Two, The earth system: biological and ecological dimensions of global environment change" pp. 297-391,

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Though a super eruption on its own would have devastating effects in both short term and long term, the Late Devonian extinction was caused by a series of events which contributed to the extinction.

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Since the Kellwasser-related extinctions occurred over such a long time, it is difficult to assign a single cause, and indeed to separate cause from effect. From the end of the Middle Devonian (

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Kaufmann, B.; Trapp, E.; Mezger, K. (2004). "The numerical age of the Upper Frasnian (Upper Devonian) Kellwasser horizons: A new U-Pb zircon date from Steinbruch Schmidt(Kellerwald, Germany)".

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The "greening" of the continents during the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution that led to them being covered with massive photosynthesizing land plants in the first forests reduced CO

6374:"Photic-zone euxinia and anoxic events in a Middle-Late Devonian shelfal sea of Panthalassan continental margin, NW Canada: Changing paradigm of Devonian ocean and sea level fluctuations" 4191:

Da Silva, Anne-Christine; Sinesael, Matthias; Claeys, Philippe; Davies, Joshua H. M. L.; De Winter, Niels J.; Percival, L. M. E.; Schaltegger, Urs; De Vleeschouwer, David (31 July 2020).

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and manticoceratids devastated. Following the Kellwasser event, reefs of the Famennian were primarily dominated by siliceous sponges and calcifying bacteria, producing structures such as

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Joachimski, Michael M.; Ostertag-Henning, Christian; Pancost, Richard D.; Strauss, Harald; Freeman, Katherine H.; Littke, Ralf; Sinninghe Damsté, Jaap S.; Racki, Grzegorz (1 May 2001).

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would have caused global cooling and resulted in at least one period of late Devonian glaciation (and subsequent sea level fall), probably fluctuating in intensity alongside the 40ka

3844:"Relationships between bacterial-algal proliferating and mass extinction in the Late Devonian Frasnian-Famennian transition: Enlightening from carbon isotopes and molecular fossils" 355: 3624:"Silurian-Devonian terrestrial revolution in South China: Taxonomy, diversity, and character evolution of vascular plants in a paleogeographically isolated, low-latitude region" 5423:

Ricci, J.; et al. (2013). "New Ar/Ar and K–Ar ages of the Viluy traps (Eastern Siberia): Further evidence for a relationship with the Frasnian–Famennian mass extinction".

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Balter, Vincent; Renaud, Sabrina; Girard, Catherine; Joachimski, Michael M. (November 2008). "Record of climate-driven morphological changes in 376 Ma Devonian fossils".

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associated with the onset of anoxic deposits; marine transgressions likely helped spread deoxygenated waters. Evidence exists for the modulation of the intensity of anoxia by

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Clemens, J. D.; Birch, W. D. (2012). "Assembly of a zoned volcanic magma chamber from multiple magma batches: The Cerberean Cauldron, Marysville Igneous Complex, Australia".

1517:, sea-level change, and oceanic overturning. These have all been discounted because they are unable to explain the duration, selectivity, and periodicity of the extinctions. 5282:

Ma, X. P.; et al. (2015). "The Late Devonian Frasnian–Famennian event in South China — Patterns and causes of extinctions, sea level changes, and isotope variations".

7612: 6554: 6195:

Fields, Brian D.; Melott, Adrian L.; Ellis, John; Ertel, Adrienne F.; Fry, Brian J.; Lieberman, Bruce S.; Liu, Zhenghai; Miller, Jesse A.; Thomas, Brian C. (2020-08-18).

6280: 5994: 5284: 5065: 4914: 4714: 4553: 4449: 4156: 4066: 3344: 3009: 2815: 2735: 1987: 1769: 1376:

and the Kellwasser extinction by Ar/Ar dating. Ages show that the two volcanic phase hypotheses are well supported and the weighted mean ages of each volcanic phase are

3118: 2296:

Algeo, T. J. (1998). "Terrestrial-marine teleconnections in the Devonian: links between the evolution of land plants, weathering processes, and marine anoxic events".

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Kaiho, Kunio; Miura, Mami; Tezuka, Mio; Hayashi, Naohiro; Jones, David S.; Oikawa, Kazuma; Casier, Jean-Georges; Fujibayashi, Megumu; Chen, Zhong-Qiang (April 2021).

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Gurung, Khushboo; Field, Katie J.; Batterman, Sarah J.; Goddéris, Yves; Donnadieu, Yannick; Porada, Philipp; Taylor, Lyla L.; Mills, Benjamin J. W. (4 August 2022).

179:, which collectively represent one of the five largest mass extinction events in the history of life on Earth. The term primarily refers to a major extinction, the 3966:"Water column anoxia, enhanced productivity and concomitant changes in δ13C and δ34S across the Frasnian–Famennian boundary (Kowala — Holy Cross Mountains/Poland)" 7495: 4951:"Mountain building-enhanced continental weathering and organic carbon burial as major causes for climatic cooling at the Frasnian–Famennian boundary (c. 376 Ma)?" 6547: 6037: 203:, also known as the end-Devonian extinction, occurred 359 million years ago, bringing an end to the Famennian and Devonian, as the world transitioned into the 1462:

impacts can be dramatic triggers of mass extinctions. An asteroid impact was proposed as the prime cause of this faunal turnover. The impact that created the

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that cover more than 320,000 km, and a gigantic amount of magmatic material (more than 1 million km) formed in the Viluy branch. The Viluy and

881:

The most hard-hit biological category affected by the Kellwasser event were the calcite-based reef-builders of the great Devonian reef-systems, including the

2192:"Late Devonian and Early Mississippian Bakken and Exshaw Black Shale Source Rocks, Western Canada Sedimentary Basin: A Sequence Stratigraphic Interpretation" 3061:"Five hundred million years of extinction and recovery: a phanerozoic survey of large-scale diversity patterns in fishes: EXTINCTION AND RECOVERY IN FISHES" 5692:"Laser argon dating of melt breccias from the Siljan impact structure, Sweden: Implications for a possible relationship to Late Devonian extinction events" 3906:"Enhanced terrestrial nutrient release during the Devonian emergence and expansion of forests: Evidence from lacustrine phosphorus and geochemical records" 1187:

as well. Negative δU excursions concomitant with both the Lower and Upper Kellwasser events provide direct evidence for an increase in anoxia. Photic zone

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deposition. Viluy Traps activity may have also enabled euxinia by fertilising the oceans with sulphate, increasing rates of microbial sulphate reduction.

7552: 5385:

Courtillot, V.; et al. (2010). "Preliminary dating of the Viluy traps (Eastern Siberia): Eruption at the time of Late Devonian extinction events?".

2135: 7329: 6783: 3291: 1051: 86: 4379:"Mercury isotope evidence for recurrent photic-zone euxinia triggered by enhanced terrestrial nutrient inputs during the Late Devonian mass extinction" 1198:

The timing, magnitude, and causes of Kellwasser anoxia remain poorly understood. Anoxia was not omnipresent across the globe; in some regions, such as

5575: 1034:(defined as four-limbed vertebrates with digits) survived and experienced an evolutionary radiation following the Kellwasser extinction, though their 348: 7377: 6709: 298:

were hit hard by the Kellwasser event and completely died out in the Hangenberg event, but most other jawed vertebrates were less strongly impacted.

2191: 1501:

in one or more end-Devonian extinction strata would confirm a supernova origin. However, there is currently no direct evidence for this hypothesis.

1147: 748: 4653: 274:; the latter almost completely disappeared. The causes of these extinctions are unclear. Leading hypotheses include changes in sea level and ocean 7339: 5912: 4062:"A new model for the Kellwasser Anoxia Events (Late Devonian): Shallow water anoxia in an open oceanic setting in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt" 2090:"Shale oil and gas resources in organic pores of the Devonian Duvernay Shale, Western Canada Sedimentary Basin based on petroleum system modeling" 7324: 6771: 5313:"Sulfur isotope evidence for low and fluctuating sulfate levels in the Late Devonian ocean and the potential link with the mass extinction event" 3340:"Strategies of survival during extreme environmental perturbations: evolution of conodonts in response to the Kellwasser crisis (Upper Devonian)" 1416: Ma proposed for the Kellwasser event. However, the second volcanic phase is slightly older than Hangenberg event, which is dated to around 93: 2407:"Terrestrial-marine teleconnections in the Devonian: links between the evolution of land plants, weathering processes, and marine anoxic events" 7479: 5959:

Wang K, Attrep M, Orth CJ (December 2017). "Global iridium anomaly, mass extinction, and redox change at the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary".

1634: 7437: 7319: 6759: 913: 100: 6476: 6446: 6349: 6111: 5035: 4131: 2136:"A model for porosity evolution in shale reservoirs: An example from the Upper Devonian Duvernay Formation, Western Canada Sedimentary Basin" 6520: 6505: 7077: 4654:"Extent and duration of marine anoxia during the Frasnian–Famennian (Late Devonian) mass extinction in Poland, Germany, Austria and France" 341: 6495: 5913:"Geochemistry of the Frasnian-Famennian boundary in Belgium: Mass extinction, anoxic oceans and microtektite layer, but not much iridium?" 6327: 6089: 5622:"A volcanic scenario for the Frasnian–Famennian major biotic crisis and other Late Devonian global changes: More answers than questions?" 5117:"Palaeomagnetism of East Siberian traps and kimberlites: two new poles and palaeogeographic reconstructions at about 360 and 250 Ma" 4113: 3244:"The Late Frasnian Kellwasser horizons of the Harz Mountains (Germany): Two oxygen-deficient periods resulting from different mechanisms" 2034:"Paleogeography and paleoenvironments of the Late Devonian Kellwasser event: A review of its sedimentological and geochemical expression" 7510: 7259: 5805: 5317: 4866: 4818: 4383: 4320: 4264: 1583: 2473: 294:

than by an increase in extinctions. This might have been caused by invasions of cosmopolitan species, rather than by any single event.

7602: 7432: 6649: 5696: 1845: 5115:

Kravchinsky, V.A.; K.M. Konstantinov; V. Courtillot; J.-P. Valet; J.I. Savrasov; S.D. Cherniy; S.G. Mishenin; B.S. Parasotka (2002).

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Le Hir, Guillaume; Donnadieu, Yannick; Goddéris, Yves; Meyer-Berthaud, Brigitte; Ramstein, Gilles; Blakey, Ronald C. (October 2011).

1862: 7397: 6673: 6463:

Racki, Grzegorz (2005). "Toward understanding Late Devonian global events: few answers, many questions". In Over, D. Jeffrey (ed.).

5936: 5259: 4258:

De Vleeschouwer, David; Rakociński, Michał; Racki, Grzegorz; Bond, David P. G.; Sobień, Katarzyna; Claeys, Philippe (1 March 2013).

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Wang, Pengwei; Chen, Zhuoheng; Jin, Zhijun; Jiang, Chunqing; Sun, Mingliang; Guo, Yingchun; Chen, Xiao; Jia, Zekai (February 2018).

1682: 4814:"Did climate changes trigger the Late Devonian Kellwasser Crisis? Evidence from a high-resolution conodont record from South China" 7531: 7500: 6697: 6685: 5990:"Upper Devonian iridium anomalies, conodont zonation and the Frasnian-Famennian boundary in the Canning Basin, Western Australia" 1514: 107: 6324:"Devonian stromatoporoid originations, extinctions, and paleobiogeography: how they relate to the Frasnian-Famennian extinction" 3904:

Smart, Matthew S.; Filippelli, Gabriel; Gilhooly III, William P.; Marshall, John E.A.; Whiteside, Jessica H. (9 November 2022).

7309: 7206: 6735: 5514: 5460:"Coronene, mercury, and biomarker data support a link between extinction magnitude and volcanic intensity in the Late Devonian" 3183:

Percival, L. M. E.; Davies, J. H. F. L.; Schaltegger, Urs; De Vleeschouwer, D.; Da Silva, A.-C.; Föllmi, K. B. (22 June 2018).

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in the Devonian Period. Overall, 19% of all families and 50% of all genera became extinct. A second mass extinction called the

121: 1765:"Devonian–Carboniferous Hangenberg mass extinction event, widespread organic-rich mudrock and anoxia: causes and consequences" 1191:, documented by concurrent negative ∆Hg and positive δHg excursions, occurred in the North American Devonian Seaway. Elevated 7186: 5159:

Kravchinsky, V. A. (2012). "Paleozoic large igneous provinces of Northern Eurasia: Correlation with mass extinction events".

3563:"The Silurian–Devonian terrestrial revolution: Diversity patterns and sampling bias of the vascular plant macrofossil record" 3561:

Capel, Elliot; Cleal, Christopher J.; Xue, Jinzhuang; Monnet, Claude; Servais, Thomas; Cascales-Miñana, Borja (August 2022).

1712:

Sallan, L.; Galimberti, A. K. (2015-11-13). "Body-size reduction in vertebrates following the end-Devonian mass extinction".

1526: 3242:

Riquier, Laurent; Tribovillard, Nicolas; Averbuch, Olivier; Devleeschuwer, Xavier; Riboulleau, Armelle (30 September 2006).

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Haddad, Emily E.; Boyer, Diana L.; Droser, Mary L.; Lee, Bridget K.; Lyons, Timothy W.; Love, Gordon D. (15 January 2018).

7536: 6528: 4491:

Cui, Yixin; Shen, Bing; Sun, Yuanlin; Ma, Haoran; Chang, Jieqiong; Li, Fangbing; Lang, Xianguo; Peng, Yongbo (July 2021).

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Dong, Tian; Harris, Nicholas B.; McMillan, Julia M.; Twemlow, Cory E.; Nassichuk, Brent R.; Bish, David L. (15 May 2019).

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was suggested as a cause of the Late Devonian extinction in 2002. The end of the Devonian Period had extremely widespread

129: 34: 4193:"Anchoring the Late Devonian mass extinction in absolute time by integrating climatic controls and radio-isotopic dating" 1677:

McGhee, George R. Jr, 1996. The Late Devonian Mass Extinction: the Frasnian/Famennian Crisis (Columbia University Press)

7367: 4549:"Ichnofabrics and chemostratigraphy argue against persistent anoxia during the Upper Kellwasser Event in New York State" 1630:"Kellwasser Events and goniatite successions in the Devonian of the Montagne Noire with comments on possible causations" 1169:

The relatively sudden input of nutrients into river water as rooted plants expanded into upland regions may have caused

6036:

McGhee Jr., George R.; Orth, Charles J.; Quintana, Leonard R.; Gilmore, James S.; Olsen, Edward J. (1 September 1986).

7452: 6378: 6038:"Late Devonian "Kellwasser Event" mass-extinction horizon in Germany: No geochemical evidence for a large-body impact" 5626: 5464: 4316:"Global seawater redox trends during the Late Devonian mass extinction detected using U isotopes of marine limestones" 2557: 2038: 812:

The biota was also very different. Plants, which had been on land in forms similar to mosses and liverworts since the

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Carbon locked in Devonian coal, the earliest of Earth's coal deposits, is currently being returned to the atmosphere.

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between the biotas before and after the Frasnian-Famennian boundary, demonstrating the extinction event's magnitude.

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event in Sweden. Some statistical analysis suggests that the decrease in diversity was caused more by a decrease in

137: 42: 7607: 7100: 4949:

Averbuch, O.; Tribovillard, N.; Devleeschouwer, X.; Riquier, L.; Mistiaen, B.; Van Vliet-Lanoe, B. (2 March 2005).

3185:"Precisely dating the Frasnian–Famennian boundary: implications for the cause of the Late Devonian mass extinction" 3134:"Late Frasnian--Famennian climates based on palynomorph analyses and the question of the Late Devonian glaciations" 2232:"A high-precision U–Pb age constraint on the Rhynie Chert Konservat-Lagerstätte: time scale and other implications" 1466:

either was just before the Kellwasser event or coincided with it. Most impact craters, such as the Kellwasser-aged

4708:

van Geldern, R.; Joachimski, M. M.; Day, J.; Jansen, U.; Alvarez, F.; Yolkin, E. A.; Ma, X. -P. (6 October 2006).

7442: 6795: 6661: 6438: 6140: 5753:"Sedimentary and faunal changes across the frasnian/famennian boundary in the canning basin of Western Australia" 1805: 1439: 302:(jawless fish) were in decline long before the end of the Frasnian and were nearly wiped out by the extinctions. 5974: 4783: 3317: 1888: 151:

Comparison of the three episodes of extinction in the Late Devonian (Late D) to other mass extinction events in

7617: 7474: 7466: 7362: 7070: 6601: 5690:

Reimold, Wolf U.; Kelley, Simon P.; Sherlock, Sarah C.; Henkel, Herbert; Koeberl, Christian (26 January 2010).

982: 6063: 4766:"Conodont apatite δ18O signatures indicate climatic cooling as a trigger of the Late Devonian mass extinction" 5691: 3386:

Pier, Jaleigh Q.; Brisson, Sarah K.; Beard, J. Andrew; Hren, Michael T.; Bush, Andrew M. (21 December 2021).

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Brisson, Sarah K.; Pier, Jaleigh Q.; Beard, J. Andrew; Fernandes, Anjali M.; Bush, Andrew M. (5 April 2023).

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and Devonian, land plants, assisted by fungi, underwent a hugely significant phase of evolution known as the

7412: 4060:

Carmichael, Sarah K.; Waters, Johnny A.; Suttner, Thomas J.; Kido, Erika; DeReuil, Aubry A. (1 April 2014).

3065: 2032:

Carmichael, Sarah K.; Waters, Johnny A.; Königshof, Peter; Suttner, Thomas J.; Kido, Erika (December 2019).

1252: 1087: 6518:

Understanding Late Devonian and Permian-Triassic Biotic and Climatic Events: Towards an Integrated Approach

6329:

Understanding Late Devonian And Permian-Triassic Biotic and Climatic Events: Towards an Integrated Approach

6134:

Brunton, Ian R.; O’Mahoney, Connor; Fields, Brian D.; Melott, Adrian L.; Thomas, Brian C. (19 April 2023).

6091:

Understanding Late Devonian And Permian-Triassic Biotic and Climatic Events: Towards an Integrated Approach

4115:

Understanding Late Devonian And Permian-Triassic Biotic and Climatic Events: Towards an Integrated Approach

3940:"Late Devonian Oceanic Anoxic Events and Biotic Crises: "Rooted" in the Evolution of Vascular Land Plants?" 2670:"Tabulate Corals after the Frasnian/Famennian Crisis: A Unique Fauna from the Holy Cross Mountains, Poland" 952:

disappeared during this event. The surviving taxa show morphological trends through the event. Atrypid and

141: 46: 7279: 7231: 6465:

Understanding Late Devonian and Permian-Triassic biotic and climate events: towards an integrated approach

6373: 6323: 6275: 6085: 5459: 5060: 4813: 4492: 4149:"The role of sea-level change and marine anoxia in the Frasnian-Famennian (Late Devonian) mass extinction" 4109: 4061: 3965: 3623: 3506: 3339: 3243: 2552: 2089: 2033: 1982: 1867: 1806:"GSA Today - Speciation collapse and invasive species dynamics during the Late Devonian "Mass Extinction"" 1764: 7581: 5989: 5800: 5015: 4014:"Evidence for shallow-water 'Upper Kellwasser' anoxia in the Frasnian–Famennian reefs of Alberta, Canada" 2342: 134: 39: 7357: 7236: 7125: 7115: 5196: 4497: 4260:"The astronomical rhythm of Late-Devonian climate change (Kowala section, Holy Cross Mountains, Poland)" 3721: 3628: 3567: 3452: 3138: 142: 47: 7402: 6721: 4950: 4765: 4591: 2859: 5312: 4709: 4444: 4378: 4259: 2810: 2730: 1983:"Quantitative conodont-based approaches for correlation of the Late Devonian Kellwasser anoxic events" 761:

During the Late Devonian, the continents were arranged differently from today, with a supercontinent,

7505: 7274: 7264: 7221: 6387: 6289: 6220: 6159: 6051: 6003: 5862: 5814: 5766: 5739:

Revised Dating Of Alamo And Some Other Late Devonian Impacts In Relation To Resulting Mass Extinction

5635: 5587: 5548: 5473: 5432: 5394: 5326: 5205: 5164: 5128: 5074: 4964: 4955: 4923: 4875: 4723: 4667: 4603: 4562: 4506: 4392: 4329: 4273: 4206: 4165: 4075: 4027: 3979: 3855: 3798: 3730: 3637: 3576: 3520: 3461: 3401: 3353: 3305: 3257: 3198: 3147: 3018: 2977: 2871: 2824: 2744: 2683: 2614: 2566: 2509: 2354: 2270: 2149: 2101: 2047: 1996: 1935: 1876: 1778: 1721: 1478: 1203: 1180: 211: 140: 139: 45: 44: 136: 41: 7571: 7334: 7216: 7211: 7201: 7120: 7063: 6534: 4658: 1467: 1325: 1184: 770: 196: 135: 133: 77: 40: 38: 2494:

Neil H. Shubin, Edward B. Daeschler and Farish A. Jenkins Jr (6 April 2006). "The pectoral fin of

143: 138: 48: 43: 6517: 6403: 6210: 6149: 5886: 5757: 5713: 5663: 5489: 5360: 5090: 5041: 4980: 4861: 4835: 4683: 4627: 4522: 4493:"A pulse of seafloor oxygenation at the Late Devonian Frasnian-Famennian boundary in South China" 4418: 4355: 4240: 4197: 4110:"Evidence for Late Devonian (Kellwasser) anoxic events in the Great Basin, Western United States" 3879: 3824: 3764: 3622:

Xue, Jinzhuang; Huang, Pu; Wang, Deming; Xiong, Conghui; Liu, Le; Basinger, James F. (May 2018).

3604: 3536: 3392: 3189: 3112: 3084: 2887: 2860:"Microbial mounds prior to the Frasnian-Famennian mass extinctions, Hantang, Guilin, South China" 2553:"Astronomical climate changes trigger Late Devonian bio- and environmental events in South China" 2533: 2465: 2370: 2165: 2063: 1892: 1745: 1236: 798: 794: 5848: 5801:"Microtektite-like impact glass associated with the Frasnian-Famennian boundary mass extinction" 5752: 2209: 869: 732: 65: 6492: 7541: 7427: 7417: 7170: 7130: 6637: 6510: 6472: 6442: 6345: 6256: 6238: 6177: 6107: 6042: 5961: 5932: 5878: 5853: 5352: 5255: 5031: 4787: 4770: 4739: 4619: 4466: 4410: 4347: 4289: 4232: 4127: 3871: 3816: 3756: 3511: 3487: 3427: 3296: 3224: 3034: 2968: 2945: 2840: 2760: 2711: 2650: 2632: 2525: 1963: 1737: 1678: 1600: 1431: 1080: 786: 17: 4718:. Evolution of the System Earth in the Late Palaeozoic: Clues from Sedimentary Geochemistry. 4445:"A multiproxy analysis of the Frasnian-Famennian transition in western New York State, U.S.A" 4013: 1924:"End-Devonian extinction and a bottleneck in the early evolution of modern jawed vertebrates" 1016:

only barely survived, succumbing early in the Famennian. Among freshwater and shallow marine

7546: 7294: 7269: 7226: 7196: 7145: 7140: 6570: 6432: 6395: 6337: 6297: 6246: 6228: 6167: 6099: 6059: 6011: 5970: 5924: 5870: 5822: 5818: 5774: 5751:

Becker, R. Thomas; House, Michael R.; Kirchgasser, William T.; Playford, Phillip E. (1991).

5705: 5653: 5643: 5595: 5556: 5481: 5440: 5402: 5342: 5334: 5330: 5293: 5247: 5213: 5172: 5136: 5082: 5023: 4972: 4931: 4910:"Evidence for long-term climate change in Upper Devonian strata of the central Appalachians" 4883: 4879: 4827: 4779: 4731: 4675: 4611: 4570: 4514: 4458: 4400: 4396: 4337: 4333: 4281: 4277: 4222: 4214: 4173: 4119: 4118:. Developments in Palaeontology and Stratigraphy. Vol. 20. Elsevier. pp. 225–262. 4083: 4035: 3987: 3970: 3913: 3863: 3806: 3746: 3738: 3695: 3687: 3645: 3594: 3584: 3528: 3477: 3469: 3417: 3409: 3361: 3313: 3265: 3248: 3214: 3206: 3163: 3155: 3074: 3026: 2985: 2935: 2927: 2879: 2832: 2752: 2701: 2691: 2640: 2622: 2574: 2517: 2500: 2457: 2449: 2428: 2420: 2362: 2323: 2305: 2278: 2243: 2231: 2205: 2157: 2109: 2055: 2004: 1953: 1943: 1884: 1786: 1729: 1592: 1490: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1175: 1166:, the chemical breakdown of rocks, releasing ions which are nutrients for plants and algae. 1059: 846:. Fish were also undergoing a huge radiation, and tetrapodomorphs, such as the Frasnian-age 670: 243: 200: 169: 152: 5738: 5574:

Racki, Grzegorz; Rakociński, Michał; Marynowski, Leszek; Wignall, Paul B. (26 April 2018).

5235: 1842: 1481:

have been speculated as possible drivers of mass extinctions due to their ability to cause

960:, whose spiny shells made them more resistant to predation and environmental disturbances. 7254: 7191: 6524: 6499: 5576:"Mercury enrichments and the Frasnian-Famennian biotic crisis: A volcanic trigger proved?" 3789: 1849: 1482: 1438:

Another overlooked contributor to the Kellwasser mass extinction could be the now extinct

1373: 1313: 1021: 1017: 992: 829: 551: 176: 3785:"Mid-Devonian Archaeopteris Roots Signal Revolutionary Change in Earliest Fossil Forests" 6391: 6293: 6224: 6163: 6055: 6007: 5866: 5770: 5639: 5591: 5552: 5477: 5436: 5398: 5209: 5168: 5132: 5078: 4968: 4927: 4727: 4671: 4607: 4566: 4510: 4210: 4169: 4079: 4031: 4012:

Bond, David P. G.; Zatoń, Michał; Wignall, Paul B.; Marynowski, Leszek (11 March 2013).

3983: 3859: 3802: 3734: 3641: 3580: 3524: 3465: 3405: 3357: 3309: 3261: 3202: 3151: 3022: 2981: 2940: 2913: 2875: 2828: 2748: 2687: 2618: 2570: 2513: 2358: 2274: 2153: 2105: 2051: 2000: 1939: 1880: 1782: 1725: 969:, and thus with the sea water temperature; this may relate to their occupying different 7407: 7382: 6251: 6196: 5709: 5027: 4227: 4192: 3751: 3716: 3691: 3482: 3447: 3422: 3388:"Accelerated mass extinction in an isolated biota during Late Devonian climate changes" 3387: 3219: 3184: 2706: 2669: 2645: 2601:"Devonian geoheritage of Siberia: A case of the northwestern Kemerovo region of Russia" 2600: 2433: 2406: 1958: 1923: 1578: 1338: 1330: 1321: 1317: 1304: 1170: 882: 874: 542: 279: 6341: 6301: 6103: 4123: 3991: 3938:

Algeo, T.J.; Berner, R.A.; Maynard, J.B.; Scheckler, S.E.; Archives, G.S.A.T. (1995).

3365: 3159: 3004: 2836: 2756: 1790: 7596: 7284: 7135: 7110: 6863: 6407: 6015: 5826: 5667: 5493: 5141: 5116: 5094: 5045: 4984: 4976: 4909: 4839: 4615: 4526: 4422: 4359: 4314:

White, David A.; Elrick, Maya; Romaniello, Stephen; Zhang, Feifei (1 December 2018).

4244: 3883: 3828: 3768: 3608: 3540: 3079: 3060: 3030: 3005:"Paleolatitudes in the Devonian of Brazil and the Frasnian-Famennian mass extinction" 2891: 2883: 2469: 2196: 2169: 2140: 2067: 1749: 1629: 1498: 1447: 1220: 1157: 1143: 1067: 970: 953: 905: 897: 843: 840: 822: 560: 533: 314: 204: 173: 6399: 5890: 5717: 5648: 5621: 5485: 5406: 5364: 5217: 5176: 4687: 4631: 4518: 3649: 3589: 3562: 3292:"Anoxic events in the late Frasnian—Causes of the Frasnian-Famennian faunal crisis?" 3088: 2785: 2578: 2374: 2059: 1896: 7526: 7105: 4710:"Carbon, oxygen and strontium isotope records of Devonian brachiopod shell calcite" 4148: 3939: 2914:"Niche conservatism and ecological change during the Late Devonian mass extinction" 2537: 1494: 1358: 1255:

during the Famennian, which has been suggested as a cause of the Hangenberg event.

1091: 1063: 1047: 1009: 909: 836: 806: 652: 306: 275: 5874: 5849:"Microtektites and Mass Extinctions: Evidence for a Late Devonian Asteroid Impact" 5061:"Global events of the Late Paleozoic (Early Devonian to Middle Permian): A review" 3269: 2627: 1284:. The continued drawdown of organic carbon eventually pulled the Earth out of its 5560: 5444: 5297: 5086: 4935: 4735: 4575: 4548: 4462: 4177: 4087: 3842:

Gong, Yiming; Xu, Ran; Tang, Zhongdao; Si, Yuanlan; Li, Baohua (1 October 2005).

2696: 2008: 1219:

excursion is observed across the Frasnian-Famennian boundary in brachiopods from

27:

One of the five most severe extinction events in the history of the Earth's biota

7387: 7372: 7155: 2113: 1463: 1273: 1199: 1001: 945: 802: 790: 287: 259: 58: 6202:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

6172: 6135: 5847:

Claeys, Philippe; Casier, Jean-Georges; Margolis, Stanley V. (21 August 1992).

5338: 5059:

Qie, Wenkun; Algeo, Thomas J.; Luo, Genming; Herrmann, Achim (1 October 2019).

4887: 4831: 4405: 4342: 4315: 4285: 4218: 3742: 3473: 3413: 3210: 2599:

Gutak, Jaroslav M.; Ruban, Dmitry A.; Ermolaev, Vladimir A. (1 February 2023).

1579:"Devonian climate change, breathing, and the origin of the tetrapod stem group" 7086: 6926: 6899: 6836: 5928: 5778: 5658: 5251: 4679: 3811: 3784: 3599: 2247: 1545:

The species estimate is the toughest to assess and most likely to be adjusted.

1346: 1192: 1163: 1055: 1013: 1005: 957: 925: 813: 568: 295: 291: 263: 247: 6242: 6181: 5356: 4791: 4743: 4470: 4414: 4351: 4293: 3875: 3532: 3038: 2844: 2764: 2636: 7392: 6908: 6818: 6613: 6233: 3843: 1948: 1733: 1486: 1354: 1350: 1300: 1026: 995:. They were among the vertebrates which died out due to the Kellwasser event 987: 961: 941: 929: 848: 782: 774: 766: 610: 503: 267: 224: 192: 6467:. Developments in palaeontology and stratigraphy (1. ed.). Amsterdam: 6260: 5882: 4623: 4236: 3820: 3760: 3717:"Climate windows of opportunity for plant expansion during the Phanerozoic" 3491: 3431: 3228: 3133: 2949: 2931: 2715: 2654: 2529: 2424: 2366: 2309: 1967: 1741: 1694: 1604: 187:, which occurred around 372 million years ago, at the boundary between the 3700: 2668:

Zapalski, Mikołaj K.; Berkowski, Błażej; Wrzołek, Tomasz (23 March 2016).

1079:

severe. The Kellwasser event was preceded by a longer period of prolonged

7447: 7422: 6890: 6881: 6854: 6845: 6827: 6625: 6468: 6333: 6095: 5347: 2674: 2461: 1596: 1510: 1443: 1427: 1408: Ma, which the first volcanic phase is in agreement with the age of 1369: 1309: 1031: 949: 937: 933: 901: 890: 832: 817: 762: 603: 596: 589: 523: 513: 271: 251: 220: 216: 188: 2551:

Ma, Kunyuan; Hinnov, Linda; Zhang, Xinsong; Gong, Yiming (August 2022).

2521: 2161: 1150:. Their maximum height went from 30 cm at the start of the Devonian, to 6917: 6872: 6437:. Critical moments in paleobiology and earth history series. New York: 5911:

Claeys, P.; Kyte, F. T.; Herbosch, A.; Casier, J.-G. (1 January 1996).

4592:"Late Devonian marine anoxia challenged by benthic cyanobacterial mats" 4018: 3168: 2605: 1368:

Recent studies have confirmed a correlation between Viluy traps in the

1228: 1216: 1188: 1095: 1035: 966: 778: 575: 299: 255: 235: 4862:"The climate change caused by the land plant invasion in the Devonian" 4039: 2989: 2412:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2298:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

286:

or another extraterrestrial body has also been suggested, such as the

5599: 4652:

Bond, David P. G.; Wignall, Paul B.; Racki, Grzegorz (1 March 2004).

3918: 3905: 3867: 3507:"Ordovician-Devonian lichen canopies before evolution of woody trees" 2811:"Reef development at the Frasnian/Famennian mass extinction boundary" 1459: 1000:

the Devonian. Most lingering agnathan (jawless fish) groups, such as

886: 582: 310: 231: 6539: 4812:

Huang, Cheng; Joachimski, Michael M.; Gong, Yiming (1 August 2018).

3448:"Contemporaneous radiations of fungi and plants linked to symbiosis" 6215: 6154: 2731:"Strength, timing, setting and cause of mid-Palaeozoic extinctions" 2282: 2230:

Parry, S. F.; Noble, S. R.; Crowley, Q. G.; Wellman, C. H. (2011).

2858:

Shen, Jianwei; Webb, Gregory E.; Qing, Hairuo (16 November 2010).

1863:"Origination, extinction, and mass depletions of marine diversity" 1362: 1232: 1224: 893: 877:

showing laminae and pillars; Columbus Limestone (Devonian) of Ohio

868: 283: 156: 6276:"Frasnian–Famennian biotic crisis: undervalued tectonic control?" 5515:"Devonian Mass Extinction: Causes, Facts, Evidence & Animals" 3105:

Plants Invade the Land: Evolutionary and Environmental Approaches

773:

occupied the Northern Hemisphere, while an equatorial continent,

6434:

The late Devonian mass extinction: the Frasnian Famennian crisis

4908:

Brezinski, D.K.; Cecil, C.B.; Skema, V.W.; Kertis, C.A. (2009).

1509:

Other mechanisms put forward to explain the extinctions include

825: 239: 7059: 6543: 1058:. A recent survey (McGhee 1996) estimates that 22% of all the ' 6136:"X-Ray-luminous Supernovae: Threats to Terrestrial Biospheres" 5311:

Sim, Min Sub; Ono, Shuhei; Hurtgen, Matthew T. (1 June 2015).

4590:

Kazmierczak, J.; Kremer, B.; Racki, Grzegorz (7 August 2012).

324: 155:. Plotted is the extinction intensity, calculated from marine 7055: 3132:

Streel, M.; Caputo, M.V.; Loboziak, S.; Melo, J.H.G. (2000).

1843:

Patterns of extinction and biodiversity in the fossil record

1012:, also went extinct by the end of the Frasnian. The jawless 5975:

10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021<1071:giamea>2.3.co;2

4784:

10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0711:CAOSIC>2.0.CO;2

3318:

10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021<0675:AEITLF>2.3.CO;2

1889:

10.1666/0094-8373(2004)030<0522:OEAMDO>2.0.CO;2

305:

The extinction event was accompanied by widespread oceanic

6326:. In Over, D. J.; Morrow, J. R.; Wignall, Paul B. (eds.). 6088:. In Over, D. J.; Morrow, J. R.; Wignall, Paul B. (eds.). 5988:

Nicoll, Robert S.; Playford, Phillip E. (September 1993).

4764:

Joachimski, Michael M.; Buggisch, Werner (1 August 2002).

4112:. In Over, D. J.; Morrow, J. R.; Wignall, Paul B. (eds.). 3290:

Joachimski, Michael M.; Buggisch, Werner (1 August 1993).

1195:

concentrations further support widespread euxinic waters.

6064:

10.1130/0091-7613(1986)14<776:LDKEMH>2.0.CO;2

5236:"Large igneous provinces and mass extinctions: An update" 3676:, and further consideration of its phylogenetic position" 1292:

that continued throughout the Carboniferous and Permian.

210:

Although it is well established that there was a massive

128: 33: 1861:

Bambach, R.K.; Knoll, A.H.; Wang, S.C. (December 2004).

3338:

Renaud, Sabrina; Girard, Catherine (15 February 1999).

2919:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

1030:) disappeared at the Frasnian-Famennian boundary. True 2341:

McKerrow, W.S.; Mac Niocaill, C.; Dewey, J.F. (2000).

1628:

Becker, R. Thomas; House, Michael R. (13 March 1986).

5799:

Claeys, Philippe; Casier, Jean-Georges (April 1994).

2027: 2025: 1345:

into the atmosphere to have generated a destabilised

956:

brachiopods became rarer, replaced in many niches by

230:

By the Late Devonian, the land had been colonized by

1267:

burial of organic matter to decreased atmospheric CO

7519: 7488: 7465: 7350: 7302: 7293: 7245: 7179: 7163: 7093: 1981:Girard, Catherine; Renaud, Sabrina (25 June 2007). 1572: 1570: 1258:

The weathering of silicate rocks also draws down CO

5917:Special Paper of the Geological Society of America 5022:(2nd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 534–545. 3107:. Columbia Univ. Press: New York. pp. 13–236. 254:were beginning to converge into what would become 6281:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 6197:"Supernova triggers for end-Devonian extinctions" 5995:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 5741:, 68th Annual Meteoritical Society Meeting (2005) 5425:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 5285:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 5066:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4915:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4715:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4554:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4450:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4157:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4067:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 3345:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 3010:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2816:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2736:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 1988:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 1770:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 1908: 1906: 924:Further taxa to be starkly affected include the 852:, were beginning to evolve leg-like structures. 765:, covering much of the Southern Hemisphere. The 6086:"Modelling Late Devonian Extinction Hypotheses" 2190:Smith, Mark G.; Bustin, R. Marc (1 July 2000). 1928:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 132: 37: 7496:International Union for Conservation of Nature 6531:conference in 2003 reflects current approaches 5018:. In Alderton, David; Elias, Scott A. (eds.). 2786:"Kellwasser Event | paleontology | Britannica" 2094:Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 1485:. A recent explanation suggests that a nearby 1207:event that intruded into epicontinental seas. 7071: 6555: 6502:at The Devonian Times. An excellent overview. 5418: 5416: 5014:Rosa, Eduardo L. M.; Isbell, John L. (2021). 1659: 1657: 747:Subdivision of the Devonian according to the 349: 258:. The extinction seems to have only affected 8: 4108:Bond, David P. G.; Wignall, Paul B. (2005). 3933: 3931: 3929: 3117:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3059:Friedman, Matt; Sallan, Lauren Cole (2012). 2400: 2398: 2396: 2394: 2392: 2390: 2388: 2386: 2384: 5154: 5152: 4147:David P. G. Bond; Paul B. Wignalla (2008). 2330:. International Commission on Stratigraphy. 2210:10.1306/A9673B76-1738-11D7-8645000102C1865D 1830:Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change 1763:Caplan, Mark L; Bustin, R.Mark (May 1999). 754:Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago. 7553:The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History 7299: 7078: 7064: 7056: 6562: 6548: 6540: 5188: 5186: 2242:(4). London: Geological Society: 863–872. 1922:Sallan, L. C.; Coates, M. I. (June 2010). 1038:are rare until the mid-to-late Famennian. 356: 342: 7613:History of climate variability and change 6250: 6232: 6214: 6171: 6153: 5657: 5647: 5346: 5140: 4574: 4404: 4341: 4226: 3917: 3848:Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences 3810: 3750: 3699: 3598: 3588: 3481: 3421: 3218: 3167: 3078: 2961: 2959: 2939: 2705: 2695: 2644: 2626: 2432: 1957: 1947: 1489:explosion was the cause for the specific 797:were also growing across what is now the 691: 5229: 5227: 2450:"The fish that crawled out of the water" 1673: 1671: 1669: 1340: 1148:Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution 981: 5234:Bond, D. P. G.; Wignall, P. B. (2014). 1566: 1538: 1446:period and thought to have undergone a 816:, had just developed roots, seeds, and 3110: 2498:and the origin of the tetrapod limb". 2405:Algeo, T.J.; Scheckler, S. E. (1998). 1635:Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 282:or oceanic volcanism. The impact of a 4371: 4369: 1577:Clack, Jennifer A. (13 August 2007). 7: 7577: 1623: 1621: 1288:state during the Famennian into the 1086:The Kellwasser event, named for its 722: 704: 681: 660: 642: 7511:Voluntary Human Extinction Movement 7260:Extinction risk from climate change 6372:Kabanov, P.; Jiang, C. (May 2020). 5806:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 5697:Meteoritics & Planetary Science 5387:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 5318:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 4867:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 4819:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 4384:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 4321:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 4265:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 3505:Retallack, Gregory J. (June 2022). 1584:Integrative and Comparative Biology 1050:was more drastic than the familiar 57:Marine extinction intensity during 6274:Racki, Grzegorz (September 1998). 5710:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2005.tb00965.x 5028:10.1016/B978-0-08-102908-4.00063-1 3692:10.1002/j.1537-2197.1962.tb14953.x 2343:"The Caledonian Orogeny redefined" 1276:. This reduction in atmospheric CO 1246:levels in the atmosphere. Since CO 25: 5121:Geophysical Journal International 2729:House, Michael R (20 June 2002). 2347:Journal of the Geological Society 2236:Journal of the Geological Society 7576: 7567: 7566: 7532:Decline in amphibian populations 7501:IUCN Species Survival Commission 7154: 7044:Millions of years before present 5142:10.1046/j.0956-540x.2001.01548.x 4977:10.1111/j.1365-3121.2004.00580.x 4616:10.1111/j.1472-4669.2012.00339.x 3080:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2012.01165.x 2884:10.1111/j.1365-3091.2010.01158.x 1353:, causing rapid global cooling, 7207:Human impact on the environment 6400:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103153 5737:J.R. Morrow and C.A. Sandberg. 5649:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103174 5486:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103452 5407:10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.06.004 5218:10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.06.004 5177:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2012.01.007 4519:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103651 3650:10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.03.004 3590:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104085 2579:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2022.103874 2476:from the original on 2006-04-11 2060:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.102984 215:extinctions at the ends of the 7187:Climate variability and change 6513:"The Late Devonian Extinction" 6493:Late Devonian mass extinctions 6084:McGhee Jr., George R. (2005). 1527:Evolutionary history of plants 789:towards Gondwana, closing the 18:Late Devonian extinction event 1: 7537:Decline in insect populations 7480:IUCN Red List extinct species 6529:Geological Society of America 6342:10.1016/S0920-5446(05)80005-6 6302:10.1016/S0031-0182(98)00059-5 6104:10.1016/S0920-5446(05)80003-2 5875:10.1126/science.257.5073.1102 5620:Racki, Grezgorz (June 2020). 4124:10.1016/S0920-5446(05)80009-3 3992:10.1016/S0009-2541(00)00365-X 3366:10.1016/S0031-0182(98)00138-2 3270:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2006.02.021 3160:10.1016/S0012-8252(00)00026-X 3003:Copper, Paul (1 April 1977). 2837:10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00472-2 2757:10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00471-0 2628:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13288 1791:10.1016/S0031-0182(98)00218-1 1442:which was active in the Late 1062:' of marine animals (largely 185:Frasnian-Famennian extinction 6016:10.1016/0031-0182(93)90123-Z 5827:10.1016/0012-821X(94)90004-3 5561:10.1016/j.lithos.2012.09.007 5445:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.06.020 5298:10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.10.047 5087:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.109259 4936:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.10.010 4736:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.03.045 4576:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.10.025 4463:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.02.032 4443:Lash, Gary G. (1 May 2015). 4178:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.02.015 4088:10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.02.016 3031:10.1016/0031-0182(77)90020-7 2697:10.1371/journal.pone.0149767 2009:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.03.007 1841:Sole, R. V., and Newman, M. 777:(formed by the collision of 6379:Global and Planetary Change 5627:Global and Planetary Change 5465:Global and Planetary Change 5161:Global and Planetary Change 5016:"Late Paleozoic Glaciation" 2809:Copper, Paul (2002-06-20). 2558:Global and Planetary Change 2114:10.1016/j.jngse.2017.10.027 2039:Global and Planetary Change 1361:to occur during Kellwasser 1262:from the atmosphere, and CO 1118:), into the Late Devonian ( 1046:The late Devonian crash in 1042:Magnitude of diversity loss 914:Permian-Triassic extinction 329:Devonian graphical timeline 7634: 7101:Background extinction rate 6511:BBC "The Extinction files" 6431:McGhee, George R. (1996). 5339:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.03.009 4888:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.08.042 4832:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.05.016 4406:10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118175 4343:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.09.020 4286:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.01.016 4219:10.1038/s41598-020-69097-6 3743:10.1038/s41467-022-32077-7 3680:American Journal of Botany 3474:10.1038/s41467-018-07849-9 3414:10.1038/s41598-021-03510-6 3211:10.1038/s41598-018-27847-7 262:. Hard-hit groups include 7603:Late Devonian extinctions 7562: 7423:End-Jurassic or Tithonian 7152: 6577: 6439:Columbia University Press 6141:The Astrophysical Journal 5929:10.1130/0-8137-2307-8.491 5779:10.1080/10292389109380400 4680:10.1017/S0016756804008866 3812:10.1016/j.cub.2019.11.067 3670:Beck, C.B. (April 1962). 2248:10.1144/0016-76492010-043 991:, an early air-breathing 896:. It left communities of 744: 334: 327: 242:were built by corals and 238:. In the oceans, massive 7475:Lists of extinct species 6506:Devonian Mass Extinction 6173:10.3847/1538-4357/acc728 3533:10.1016/j.gr.2022.01.010 1804:Stigall, Alycia (2011). 1020:fish, the tetrapod-like 967:the oxygen isotope ratio 696:Late Devonian extinction 278:, possibly triggered by 166:Late Devonian extinction 6322:Stock, Carl W. (2005). 6234:10.1073/pnas.2013774117 5819:1994E&PSL.122..303C 5331:2015E&PSL.419...52S 5020:Encyclopedia of Geology 4880:2011E&PSL.310..203L 4397:2023E&PSL.61318175Z 4334:2018E&PSL.503...68W 4278:2013E&PSL.365...25D 1949:10.1073/pnas.0914000107 1734:10.1126/science.aac7373 1253:Late Palaeozoic Ice Age 1090:, the Kellwassertal in 489:−360 — 479:−365 — 469:−370 — 459:−375 — 449:−380 — 439:−385 — 429:−390 — 419:−395 — 409:−400 — 399:−405 — 389:−410 — 379:−415 — 369:−420 — 7280:Latent extinction risk 2932:10.1098/rspb.2022.2524 2425:10.1098/rstb.1998.0195 2367:10.1144/jgs.157.6.1149 2310:10.1098/rstb.1998.0195 2263:The Journal of Geology 1832:John Wiley & Sons. 1326:Pripyat-Dnieper-Donets 996: 878: 146: 51: 7237:Paradox of enrichment 7126:Functional extinction 7116:Ecological extinction 5252:10.1130/2014.2505(02) 5197:Earth-Science Reviews 4498:Earth-Science Reviews 3722:Nature Communications 3629:Earth-Science Reviews 3568:Earth-Science Reviews 3453:Nature Communications 3139:Earth-Science Reviews 1479:Near-Earth supernovae 1138:Weathering and anoxia 1070:during the Devonian. 985: 872: 168:consisted of several 145: 72:Millions of years ago 50: 7506:Extinction Rebellion 7448:Pliocene–Pleistocene 7330:Cretaceous–Paleogene 7275:Hypothetical species 7265:Extinction threshold 7222:Overabundant species 6784:Cretaceous–Paleogene 3672:"Reconstructions of 2462:10.1038/news060403-7 2448:Dalton, Rex (2006). 2328:www.stratigraphy.org 1204:Holy Cross Mountains 920:Marine invertebrates 795:Caledonian mountains 675:Famennian glaciation 270:, and reef-building 212:loss of biodiversity 205:Carboniferous Period 183:, also known as the 7433:Cenomanian-Turonian 7378:Cambrian–Ordovician 7310:Ordovician–Silurian 7217:Mutational meltdown 7202:Habitat destruction 7121:Extinct in the wild 6736:Ordovician-Silurian 6710:Cambrian-Ordovician 6650:Cenomanian-Turonian 6392:2020GPC...18803153K 6294:1998PPP...141..177R 6225:2020PNAS..11721008F 6209:(35): 21008–21010. 6164:2023ApJ...947...42B 6056:1986Geo....14..776M 6008:1993PPP...104..105N 5867:1992Sci...257.1102C 5861:(5073): 1102–1104. 5771:1991HBio....5..183B 5680:Digby McLaren, 1969 5640:2020GPC...18903174R 5592:2018Geo....46..543R 5553:2012Litho.155..272C 5478:2021GPC...19903452K 5437:2013PPP...386..531R 5399:2010ESRv..102...29K 5210:2010ESRv..102...29K 5169:2012GPC....86...31K 5133:2002GeoJI.148....1K 5079:2019PPP...53109259Q 4969:2005TeNov..17...25A 4928:2009PPP...284..315B 4728:2006PPP...240...47V 4672:2004GeoM..141..173B 4659:Geological Magazine 4608:2012Gbio...10..371K 4567:2018PPP...490..178H 4511:2021ESRv..21803651C 4211:2020NatSR..1012940D 4170:2008PPP...263..107B 4080:2014PPP...399..394C 4032:2013Letha..46..355B 3984:2001ChGeo.175..109J 3860:2005ScChD..48.1656G 3803:2020CBio...30E.421S 3735:2022NatCo..13.4530G 3642:2018ESRv..180...92X 3581:2022ESRv..23104085C 3525:2022GondR.106..211R 3466:2018NatCo...9.5451L 3406:2021NatSR..1124366P 3358:1999PPP...146...19R 3310:1993Geo....21..675J 3262:2006ChGeo.233..137R 3203:2018NatSR...8.9578P 3152:2000ESRv...52..121S 3023:1977PPP....21..165C 2982:2008Geo....36..907B 2876:2010Sedim..57.1615S 2829:2002PPP...181...27C 2749:2002PPP...181....5H 2688:2016PLoSO..1149767Z 2619:2023Heliy...913288G 2571:2022GPC...21503874M 2522:10.1038/nature04637 2514:2006Natur.440..764S 2359:2000JGSoc.157.1149M 2275:2004JG....112..495K 2162:10.1306/10261817272 2154:2019BAAPG.103.1017D 2106:2018JNGSE..50...33W 2052:2019GPC...18302984C 2001:2007PPP...250..114G 1940:2010PNAS..10710131S 1934:(22): 10131–10135. 1881:2004Pbio...30..522B 1783:1999PPP...148..187C 1726:2015Sci...350..812S 1185:Milankovitch cycles 1074:Duration and timing 856:Extinction patterns 809:rose over America. 321:Late Devonian world 6674:Rainforest collaps 6523:2019-04-08 at the 6498:2020-07-27 at the 6336:. pp. 71–92. 6098:. pp. 37–50. 5758:Historical Biology 5659:20.500.12128/14061 5240:GSA Special Papers 4198:Scientific Reports 3600:20.500.12210/76731 3393:Scientific Reports 3190:Scientific Reports 2790:www.britannica.com 2324:"Chart/Time Scale" 1848:2012-03-14 at the 1810:www.geosociety.org 1597:10.1093/icb/icm055 997: 879: 830:lepidosigillarioid 799:Scottish Highlands 716:shrubs & trees 147: 52: 7608:Extinction events 7590: 7589: 7542:Extinction symbol 7461: 7460: 7325:Triassic–Jurassic 7295:Extinction events 7171:Extinction vortex 7131:Genetic pollution 7053: 7052: 6772:Triassic–Jurassic 6698:Smithian-Spathian 6626:Toarcian turnover 6571:Extinction events 6478:978-0-444-52127-9 6448:978-0-231-07505-3 6351:978-0-444-52127-9 6113:978-0-444-52127-9 5969:(12): 1071–1074. 5037:978-0-08-102909-1 4133:978-0-444-52127-9 4040:10.1111/let.12014 3854:(10): 1656–1665. 3512:Gondwana Research 2990:10.1130/G24989A.1 2508:(7085): 764–771. 2419:(1365): 113–130. 2304:(1365): 113–130. 1720:(6262): 812–815. 1440:Cerberean Caldera 1081:biodiversity loss 1022:elpistostegalians 759: 758: 740: 739: 721: 720: 703: 702: 680: 679: 659: 658: 170:extinction events 80: 16:(Redirected from 7625: 7580: 7579: 7570: 7569: 7547:Human extinction 7438:Eocene–Oligocene 7320:Permian–Triassic 7300: 7270:Field of Bullets 7227:Overexploitation 7212:Muller's ratchet 7197:Invasive species 7158: 7146:Pseudoextinction 7141:Local extinction 7080: 7073: 7066: 7057: 6810: 6805: 6798: 6793: 6786: 6781: 6774: 6769: 6762: 6757: 6750: 6745: 6738: 6733: 6724: 6719: 6712: 6707: 6700: 6695: 6688: 6683: 6676: 6671: 6664: 6659: 6652: 6647: 6640: 6635: 6628: 6623: 6616: 6611: 6604: 6599: 6592: 6587: 6564: 6557: 6550: 6541: 6482: 6459: 6457: 6455: 6419: 6418: 6416: 6414: 6369: 6363: 6362: 6360: 6358: 6332:. 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4642: 4640: 4638: 4587: 4581: 4580: 4578: 4544: 4538: 4537: 4535: 4533: 4488: 4482: 4481: 4479: 4477: 4440: 4434: 4433: 4431: 4429: 4408: 4373: 4364: 4363: 4345: 4311: 4305: 4304: 4302: 4300: 4255: 4249: 4248: 4230: 4188: 4182: 4181: 4164:(3–4): 107–118. 4153: 4144: 4138: 4137: 4105: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4057: 4051: 4050: 4048: 4046: 4009: 4003: 4002: 4000: 3998: 3978:(1–2): 109–131. 3971:Chemical Geology 3961: 3955: 3954: 3944: 3935: 3924: 3923: 3921: 3919:10.1130/B36384.1 3901: 3895: 3894: 3892: 3890: 3868:10.1360/02yd0346 3839: 3833: 3832: 3814: 3779: 3773: 3772: 3754: 3712: 3706: 3705: 3703: 3667: 3661: 3660: 3658: 3656: 3619: 3613: 3612: 3602: 3592: 3558: 3552: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3502: 3496: 3495: 3485: 3442: 3436: 3435: 3425: 3383: 3377: 3376: 3374: 3372: 3335: 3329: 3328: 3326: 3324: 3287: 3281: 3280: 3278: 3276: 3256:(1–2): 137–155. 3249:Chemical Geology 3239: 3233: 3232: 3222: 3180: 3174: 3173: 3171: 3146:(1–3): 121–173. 3129: 3123: 3122: 3116: 3108: 3099: 3093: 3092: 3082: 3056: 3050: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3000: 2994: 2993: 2963: 2954: 2953: 2943: 2909: 2903: 2902: 2900: 2898: 2870:(7): 1615–1639. 2855: 2849: 2848: 2806: 2800: 2799: 2797: 2796: 2782: 2776: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2726: 2720: 2719: 2709: 2699: 2665: 2659: 2658: 2648: 2630: 2596: 2590: 2589: 2587: 2585: 2548: 2542: 2541: 2496:Tiktaalik roseae 2491: 2485: 2484: 2482: 2481: 2456:: news060403–7. 2445: 2439: 2438: 2436: 2402: 2379: 2378: 2353:(6): 1149–1154. 2338: 2332: 2331: 2320: 2314: 2313: 2293: 2287: 2286: 2258: 2252: 2251: 2227: 2221: 2220: 2218: 2216: 2187: 2181: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2148:(5): 1017–1044. 2131: 2125: 2124: 2122: 2120: 2085: 2079: 2078: 2076: 2074: 2029: 2020: 2019: 2017: 2015: 1995:(1–4): 114–125. 1978: 1972: 1971: 1961: 1951: 1919: 1913: 1910: 1901: 1900: 1858: 1852: 1839: 1833: 1826: 1820: 1819: 1817: 1816: 1801: 1795: 1794: 1760: 1754: 1753: 1709: 1703: 1702: 1691: 1685: 1675: 1664: 1661: 1652: 1651: 1649: 1647: 1625: 1616: 1615: 1613: 1611: 1574: 1555: 1552: 1546: 1543: 1505:Other hypotheses 1491:Hangenberg event 1423: 1421: 1415: 1413: 1407: 1405: 1399: 1397: 1391: 1389: 1383: 1381: 1344: 1282:Milankovic cycle 1153: 1133: 1131: 1125: 1123: 1117: 1115: 1106:Potential causes 1054:that closed the 1052:extinction event 993:elpistostegalian 885:sponges and the 865:Reef destruction 728: 723: 710: 705: 692:Kellwasser event 687: 682: 671:Hangenberg event 666: 661: 648: 643: 563: 554: 545: 526: 506: 495: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 425: 420: 415: 410: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 370: 358: 351: 344: 338: 325: 201:Hangenberg event 181:Kellwasser event 124: 117: 110: 103: 96: 89: 82: 78: 73: 68: 67: 61: 21: 7633: 7632: 7628: 7627: 7626: 7624: 7623: 7622: 7618:Devonian events 7593: 7592: 7591: 7586: 7558: 7515: 7484: 7467:Extinct species 7457: 7413:Carnian Pluvial 7358:Great Oxidation 7346: 7289: 7255:Extinction debt 7247: 7241: 7192:Genetic erosion 7175: 7159: 7150: 7089: 7084: 7054: 7049: 7048: 7047: 7046: 7045: 7042: 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4707: 4706: 4702: 4692: 4690: 4651: 4650: 4646: 4636: 4634: 4589: 4588: 4584: 4546: 4545: 4541: 4531: 4529: 4490: 4489: 4485: 4475: 4473: 4442: 4441: 4437: 4427: 4425: 4375: 4374: 4367: 4313: 4312: 4308: 4298: 4296: 4257: 4256: 4252: 4190: 4189: 4185: 4151: 4146: 4145: 4141: 4134: 4107: 4106: 4102: 4092: 4090: 4059: 4058: 4054: 4044: 4042: 4011: 4010: 4006: 3996: 3994: 3963: 3962: 3958: 3942: 3937: 3936: 3927: 3903: 3902: 3898: 3888: 3886: 3841: 3840: 3836: 3790:Current Biology 3781: 3780: 3776: 3714: 3713: 3709: 3669: 3668: 3664: 3654: 3652: 3621: 3620: 3616: 3560: 3559: 3555: 3545: 3543: 3504: 3503: 3499: 3444: 3443: 3439: 3385: 3384: 3380: 3370: 3368: 3337: 3336: 3332: 3322: 3320: 3289: 3288: 3284: 3274: 3272: 3241: 3240: 3236: 3182: 3181: 3177: 3131: 3130: 3126: 3109: 3101: 3100: 3096: 3058: 3057: 3053: 3043: 3041: 3002: 3001: 2997: 2965: 2964: 2957: 2911: 2910: 2906: 2896: 2894: 2857: 2856: 2852: 2808: 2807: 2803: 2794: 2792: 2784: 2783: 2779: 2769: 2767: 2728: 2727: 2723: 2682:(3): e0149767. 2667: 2666: 2662: 2598: 2597: 2593: 2583: 2581: 2550: 2549: 2545: 2493: 2492: 2488: 2479: 2477: 2447: 2446: 2442: 2404: 2403: 2382: 2340: 2339: 2335: 2322: 2321: 2317: 2295: 2294: 2290: 2260: 2259: 2255: 2229: 2228: 2224: 2214: 2212: 2189: 2188: 2184: 2174: 2172: 2133: 2132: 2128: 2118: 2116: 2087: 2086: 2082: 2072: 2070: 2031: 2030: 2023: 2013: 2011: 1980: 1979: 1975: 1921: 1920: 1916: 1911: 1904: 1860: 1859: 1855: 1850:Wayback Machine 1840: 1836: 1827: 1823: 1814: 1812: 1803: 1802: 1798: 1762: 1761: 1757: 1711: 1710: 1706: 1693: 1692: 1688: 1676: 1667: 1662: 1655: 1645: 1643: 1627: 1626: 1619: 1609: 1607: 1576: 1575: 1568: 1564: 1559: 1558: 1553: 1549: 1544: 1540: 1535: 1523: 1507: 1483:ozone depletion 1476: 1457: 1419: 1417: 1411: 1409: 1403: 1401: 1395: 1393: 1387: 1385: 1379: 1377: 1374:Siberian Craton 1342: 1337: 1334: 1314:Siberian Craton 1298: 1279: 1270: 1265: 1261: 1249: 1245: 1231:, Siberia, and 1213: 1176:stromatoporoids 1151: 1140: 1129: 1127: 1121: 1119: 1113: 1111: 1108: 1076: 1068:sampling biases 1044: 980: 922: 873:Side view of a 867: 858: 818:water transport 755: 753: 736: 735: 726: 717: 715: 708: 699: 685: 676: 674: 664: 655: 646: 639: 638: 634: 633: 629: 628: 624: 623: 619: 618: 614: 613: 607: 606: 600: 599: 593: 592: 586: 585: 579: 578: 572: 571: 565: 564: 559: 556: 555: 550: 547: 546: 541: 538: 537: 529: 528: 522: 518: 517: 509: 508: 502: 496: 493: 491: 488: 486: 483: 481: 478: 476: 473: 471: 468: 466: 463: 461: 458: 456: 453: 451: 448: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 411: 408: 406: 403: 401: 398: 396: 393: 391: 388: 386: 383: 381: 378: 376: 373: 371: 368: 362: 336: 330: 323: 244:stromatoporoids 162: 161: 160: 153:Earth's history 149: 148: 144: 126: 125: 120: 118: 113: 111: 106: 104: 99: 97: 92: 90: 85: 83: 76: 74: 71: 69: 64: 62: 56: 53: 49: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7631: 7629: 7621: 7620: 7615: 7610: 7605: 7595: 7594: 7588: 7587: 7585: 7584: 7574: 7563: 7560: 7559: 7557: 7556: 7549: 7544: 7539: 7534: 7529: 7523: 7521: 7517: 7516: 7514: 7513: 7508: 7503: 7498: 7492: 7490: 7486: 7485: 7483: 7482: 7477: 7471: 7469: 7463: 7462: 7459: 7458: 7456: 7455: 7450: 7445: 7443:Middle Miocene 7440: 7435: 7430: 7425: 7420: 7415: 7410: 7408:End-Capitanian 7405: 7400: 7395: 7390: 7385: 7380: 7375: 7370: 7365: 7360: 7354: 7352: 7348: 7347: 7345: 7344: 7343: 7342: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7306: 7304: 7297: 7291: 7290: 7288: 7287: 7282: 7277: 7272: 7267: 7262: 7257: 7251: 7249: 7243: 7242: 7240: 7239: 7234: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7199: 7194: 7189: 7183: 7181: 7177: 7176: 7174: 7173: 7167: 7165: 7161: 7160: 7153: 7151: 7149: 7148: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7128: 7123: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7103: 7097: 7095: 7091: 7090: 7085: 7083: 7082: 7075: 7068: 7060: 7051: 7050: 7043: 7038: 7036: 7032: 7030: 7026: 7024: 7020: 7018: 7014: 7012: 7008: 7006: 7002: 7000: 6996: 6994: 6990: 6988: 6984: 6982: 6978: 6976: 6972: 6970: 6966: 6964: 6963: 6957: 6956: 6955: 6950: 6949: 6948: 6943: 6942: 6941: 6937:Neoproterozoic 6936: 6935: 6934: 6933: 6925: 6924: 6923: 6916: 6915: 6914: 6907: 6906: 6905: 6898: 6897: 6896: 6889: 6888: 6887: 6880: 6879: 6878: 6871: 6870: 6869: 6862: 6861: 6860: 6853: 6852: 6851: 6844: 6843: 6842: 6835: 6834: 6833: 6826: 6825: 6824: 6817: 6816: 6815: 6814: 6802: 6801: 6790: 6789: 6778: 6777: 6766: 6765: 6760:Permo-Triassic 6754: 6753: 6742: 6741: 6730: 6729: 6728: 6716: 6715: 6704: 6703: 6692: 6691: 6680: 6679: 6668: 6667: 6662:Middle Miocene 6656: 6655: 6644: 6643: 6632: 6631: 6620: 6619: 6608: 6607: 6602:End-Ediacaran? 6596: 6595: 6584: 6583: 6582: 6581: 6580: 6579: 6578: 6575: 6574: 6569: 6567: 6566: 6559: 6552: 6544: 6538: 6537: 6535:PBS: Deep Time 6532: 6514: 6508: 6503: 6488: 6487:External links 6485: 6484: 6483: 6477: 6460: 6447: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6420: 6364: 6350: 6314: 6266: 6187: 6126: 6112: 6076: 6050:(9): 776–779. 6028: 5980: 5951: 5937: 5903: 5839: 5791: 5743: 5730: 5704:(4): 591–607. 5682: 5673: 5612: 5586:(6): 543–546. 5566: 5531: 5506: 5450: 5412: 5393:(1–2): 29–59. 5377: 5303: 5274: 5260: 5223: 5182: 5148: 5107: 5051: 5036: 5006: 4997: 4941: 4900: 4852: 4804: 4756: 4700: 4666:(2): 173–193. 4644: 4602:(5): 371–383. 4582: 4539: 4483: 4435: 4365: 4306: 4250: 4183: 4139: 4132: 4100: 4052: 4026:(3): 355–368. 4004: 3956: 3925: 3896: 3834: 3797:(3): 321–331. 3774: 3707: 3701:2027.42/141981 3686:(4): 373–382. 3662: 3614: 3553: 3497: 3437: 3378: 3352:(1–4): 19–32. 3330: 3304:(8): 675–678. 3282: 3234: 3175: 3124: 3094: 3073:(4): 707–742. 3051: 3017:(3): 165–207. 2995: 2955: 2904: 2850: 2801: 2777: 2721: 2660: 2591: 2543: 2486: 2440: 2380: 2333: 2315: 2288: 2283:10.1086/421077 2269:(4): 495–501. 2253: 2222: 2204:(7): 940–960. 2182: 2126: 2080: 2021: 1973: 1914: 1902: 1875:(4): 522–542. 1853: 1834: 1821: 1796: 1777:(4): 187–207. 1755: 1704: 1699:April 8, 2006" 1686: 1665: 1653: 1617: 1591:(4): 510–523. 1565: 1563: 1560: 1557: 1556: 1547: 1537: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1530: 1529: 1522: 1519: 1515:climate change 1506: 1503: 1475: 1472: 1456: 1453: 1372:region on the 1332: 1312:region on the 1305:trap magmatism 1297: 1294: 1277: 1268: 1263: 1259: 1247: 1243: 1212: 1211:Global cooling 1209: 1181:sea-level rise 1171:eutrophication 1139: 1136: 1107: 1104: 1075: 1072: 1043: 1040: 1018:tetrapodomorph 1010:heterostracans 979: 976: 971:trophic levels 921: 918: 883:stromatoporoid 875:stromatoporoid 866: 863: 857: 854: 844:progymnosperms 757: 756: 745: 742: 741: 738: 737: 733:Hunsrück fauna 731: 729: 719: 718: 713: 711: 701: 700: 690: 688: 678: 677: 669: 667: 657: 656: 651: 649: 640: 636: 635: 631: 630: 626: 625: 621: 620: 616: 615: 609: 608: 602: 601: 595: 594: 588: 587: 581: 580: 574: 573: 567: 566: 558: 557: 549: 548: 540: 539: 531: 530: 520: 519: 511: 510: 500: 499: 497: 492: 487: 482: 477: 472: 467: 462: 457: 452: 447: 442: 437: 432: 427: 422: 417: 412: 407: 402: 397: 392: 387: 382: 377: 372: 367: 364: 363: 361: 360: 353: 346: 335: 332: 331: 328: 322: 319: 280:global cooling 195:age, the last 150: 127: 119: 112: 105: 98: 91: 84: 75: 70: 63: 55: 54: 32: 31: 30: 29: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7630: 7619: 7616: 7614: 7611: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7600: 7598: 7583: 7575: 7573: 7565: 7564: 7561: 7555: 7554: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7524: 7522: 7518: 7512: 7509: 7507: 7504: 7502: 7499: 7497: 7494: 7493: 7491: 7489:Organizations 7487: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7472: 7470: 7468: 7464: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7399: 7398:Carboniferous 7396: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7363:End-Ediacaran 7361: 7359: 7356: 7355: 7353: 7349: 7341: 7338: 7337: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7315:Late Devonian 7313: 7311: 7308: 7307: 7305: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7292: 7286: 7285:Living fossil 7283: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7252: 7250: 7244: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7185: 7184: 7182: 7178: 7172: 7169: 7168: 7166: 7162: 7157: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7136:Lazarus taxon 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7111:De-extinction 7109: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7099: 7098: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7081: 7076: 7074: 7069: 7067: 7062: 7061: 7058: 6928: 6919: 6910: 6901: 6892: 6883: 6874: 6865: 6864:Carboniferous 6856: 6847: 6838: 6829: 6820: 6809: 6797: 6785: 6773: 6761: 6749: 6748:Late Devonian 6737: 6723: 6711: 6699: 6687: 6675: 6663: 6651: 6639: 6627: 6615: 6603: 6591: 6576: 6572: 6565: 6560: 6558: 6553: 6551: 6546: 6545: 6542: 6536: 6533: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6519: 6515: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6501: 6497: 6494: 6491: 6490: 6486: 6480: 6474: 6470: 6466: 6461: 6450: 6444: 6441:. p. 9. 6440: 6436: 6435: 6429: 6428: 6424: 6409: 6405: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6380: 6375: 6368: 6365: 6353: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6330: 6325: 6318: 6315: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6282: 6277: 6270: 6267: 6262: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6203: 6198: 6191: 6188: 6183: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6142: 6137: 6130: 6127: 6115: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6097: 6093: 6092: 6087: 6080: 6077: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6045: 6044: 6039: 6032: 6029: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5996: 5991: 5984: 5981: 5976: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5963: 5955: 5952: 5940: 5938:9780813723075 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5907: 5904: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5868: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5855: 5850: 5843: 5840: 5828: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5807: 5802: 5795: 5792: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5759: 5754: 5747: 5744: 5740: 5734: 5731: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5698: 5693: 5686: 5683: 5677: 5674: 5669: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5641: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5628: 5623: 5616: 5613: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5570: 5567: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5535: 5532: 5520: 5516: 5510: 5507: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5466: 5461: 5454: 5451: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5419: 5417: 5413: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5381: 5378: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5349: 5348:1721.1/109433 5344: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5319: 5314: 5307: 5304: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5286: 5278: 5275: 5263: 5261:9780813725055 5257: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5230: 5228: 5224: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5204:(1–2): 1–33. 5203: 5199: 5198: 5189: 5187: 5183: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5155: 5153: 5149: 5143: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5111: 5108: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5067: 5062: 5055: 5052: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5010: 5007: 5001: 4998: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4957: 4952: 4945: 4942: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4916: 4911: 4904: 4901: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4868: 4863: 4856: 4853: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4820: 4815: 4808: 4805: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4772: 4767: 4760: 4757: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4716: 4711: 4704: 4701: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4660: 4655: 4648: 4645: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4586: 4583: 4577: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4555: 4550: 4543: 4540: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4499: 4494: 4487: 4484: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4451: 4446: 4439: 4436: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4385: 4380: 4372: 4370: 4366: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4322: 4317: 4310: 4307: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4266: 4261: 4254: 4251: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4229: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4199: 4194: 4187: 4184: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4158: 4150: 4143: 4140: 4135: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4116: 4111: 4104: 4101: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4068: 4063: 4056: 4053: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4020: 4015: 4008: 4005: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3972: 3967: 3960: 3957: 3952: 3948: 3941: 3934: 3932: 3930: 3926: 3920: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3900: 3897: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3838: 3835: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3791: 3786: 3778: 3775: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3753: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3723: 3718: 3711: 3708: 3702: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3675: 3674:Archaeopteris 3666: 3663: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3630: 3625: 3618: 3615: 3610: 3606: 3601: 3596: 3591: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3569: 3564: 3557: 3554: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3513: 3508: 3501: 3498: 3493: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3454: 3449: 3441: 3438: 3433: 3429: 3424: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3394: 3389: 3382: 3379: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3346: 3341: 3334: 3331: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3298: 3293: 3286: 3283: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3250: 3245: 3238: 3235: 3230: 3226: 3221: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3191: 3186: 3179: 3176: 3170: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3140: 3135: 3128: 3125: 3120: 3114: 3106: 3098: 3095: 3090: 3086: 3081: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3067: 3066:Palaeontology 3062: 3055: 3052: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3011: 3006: 2999: 2996: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2970: 2962: 2960: 2956: 2951: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2920: 2915: 2908: 2905: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2864:Sedimentology 2861: 2854: 2851: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2817: 2812: 2805: 2802: 2791: 2787: 2781: 2778: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2737: 2732: 2725: 2722: 2717: 2713: 2708: 2703: 2698: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2676: 2671: 2664: 2661: 2656: 2652: 2647: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2629: 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