205:
advantage that they can gain by applying early. Some universities have alumni councils that provide legacies with special advising sessions, pair these prospective students with current legacy students, and generally provide advice and mentoring for legacy applicants. Some universities employ admissions counselors dedicated solely to legacy applicants, and it is common to provide scholarships or tuition discounts earmarked especially for legacies and for legacies to be charged in-state tuition fees when they are out-of-state residents. In cases where legacies are rejected, some universities offer legacy admissions counseling and help with placement at other colleges. Such students are often encouraged to enroll at a lesser ranked school for one or two years to prove themselves and then to reapply as transfer students. Because rankings by
429:
177:
321:
legacy students are white. According to a 2008 study, Duke's legacies are more likely to be white, Protestant, American citizens, and private high school graduates than the overall student body. In 2000-2001, of 567 alumni children attending
Princeton, 10 were Latino and 4 were black. Similarly, a 2005 study reported that half of the legacy applicants to selective colleges boasted family incomes in the top quartile of American earnings, compared to 29% of non-legacy students. In 2003,
33:
209:
and other media take into account only the SAT scores and high school grades of entering freshmen, a college can accept poor achieving legacies as transfer students without hurting its standing. Harvard caters to the children of well-connected alumni and big donors through the "Z-list." Z-listers are
200:
were either athletes, legacies, members of the "Dean's" or "Director's" lists of relations of donors or prominent figures, or children of university employees ("ALDCs"); fewer than 16% of ethnic minority
Harvard undergraduate admits were ALDCs. Arcidiacono also found that almost 70% of Harvard legacy
204:
The advantages that colleges offer legacy students extend well beyond admission preferences. Many colleges have various mechanisms for coaching legacies through the admissions process and for advising them about strategies for constructing successful applications, including notifying legacies of the
159:
admitted 41.7% of legacies who applied during the early decision admissions round and 33.9% of legacies who applied during the regular admissions cycle, versus 29.3% of all students who applied during the early decision admissions round and 16.4% of all who applied during the regular cycle. In 2009,
78:
Legacy preferences are controversial, as the legacy students tend to be less qualified and less racially diverse than non-legacy students. However, legacy students are economically beneficial to universities, as they are perceived to be more likely to donate to their university after graduation and
369:
While many schools say that a main reason for legacy preferences is to increase donations, at an aggregate (school-wide) level the decision to prefer legacies has not been shown to increase donations. However, in some instances, while alumni donations may go up if a child is intending on applying,
263:
applicants with greater academic potential. The economists were divided as to whether the existence of legacy admissions meant that universities had a less beneficial "net effect" on society than if there were no legacy admissions: 2% strongly agreed, 29% agreed, 40% were uncertain, 19% disagreed,
332:
In 1990, the OCR determined that
Harvard had admitted legacies at twice the rate of other applicants, that in several cases legacy status "was the critical or decisive favor" in a decision to admit an applicant, and that legacy preferences help explain why 17.4% of white applicants were admitted
268:
commented that "There are clear costs + benefits, But the optics are terrible, which degrades public faith in ostensibly meritocratic institutions." Many economists noted that the effect of legacy admissions (or ending legacy admissions) was difficult to determine, given the unclear relationship
320:
Although it may initially appear that non-Asian students of color are the most favored of all the groups in terms of college admissions, in practice, widespread legacy preferences have reduced acceptance rates for black, Latino, and Asian-American applicants because the overwhelming majority of
237:, former Harvard University president, found "the overall admission rate for legacies was almost twice that for all other candidates." While the preference is quite common in elite universities and liberal arts colleges, it is quite controversial, with 75% of Americans opposing the preference.
74:
Schools vary in how broadly they extend legacy preferences, with some schools granting this favor only to children of undergraduate alumni, while other schools extend the favor to extended family, including: children, grandchildren, siblings, nephews, and nieces of alumni of undergraduate and
333:
compared with only 13.2% of Asian-American applicants during the previous decade. The OCR also found that legacies on average were rated lower than applicants who were neither legacies nor athletes in every important category (excluding athletic ability) in which applicants were judged.
116:
also affirmed that it does not practice legacy admissions. Legacy preferences were almost ubiquitous among the one hundred top-ranked liberal arts colleges as well. The only liberal arts college in the top one hundred that explicitly said it did not use legacy preferences was
325:—which no longer practices legacy admissions—enrolled 312 white students and only 27 Latino and 6 black students who would not have been admitted if not for their family ties. Since 1983, there have been formal complaints to the Education Department's
201:
applicants were white. A similar study at an elite college found that legacies were almost twice as likely to be admitted as non-legacies and that legacy preferences increased the admission rates for white and wealthy students to the greatest degree.
75:
graduate programs. A 2005 analysis of 180,000 student records obtained from nineteen selective colleges and universities found that, within a set range of SAT scores, being a legacy raised an applicant's chances of admission by 19.7 percentage points.
164:
admitted 33.5% of alumni children, significantly higher than the 13.8% overall admissions rate. In short, Ivy League and other top schools typically admit legacies at two to five times their overall admission rates. Among top universities, the
424:
by creating a hereditary privilege and discriminating on the basis of ancestry. Legacy preferences in both public and private universities may be illegal under the Civil Rights Act of 1866 (now codified in
Section 1981 of the U.S. Code).
459:, economist James Monks compared the academic performance of legacy students to that of non-legacy students from 27 private and selective colleges. Monks finds that legacies perform at least as well as their nonlegacy counterparts.
381:
Because private universities in the U.S. rely heavily on donations from alumni, critics argue that legacy preferences are a way to indirectly sell university placement. Opponents accuse these programs of perpetuating an
360:
While the majority of
Americans have been shown to strongly oppose legacy admissions, its beneficiaries hold key positions in Congress and the judiciary, protecting this practice from political and legal challenge.
390:
as they lower the weight of academic merit in the admissions process in exchange for a financial one. Legacy students tend to be the white and wealthy, contributing to socioeconomic inequality.
472:
than non-legacy students except at the highest income levels, and were more likely to go into non-profit work after admission, and less likely to go on to graduate school.
344:
voted to ban the use of affirmative action preferences throughout the system, and legacy privilege was abandoned across the
University of California system soon after.
1919:
1454:
Espenshade, Thomas J.; Chung, Chang Y.; Walling, Joan L. (December 2004). "Admission preferences for minority students, athletes, and legacies at elite universities".
977:
1099:
668:
629:
252:
1856:
210:
often guaranteed admittance while in high school but are obliged to take a year off between high school and
Harvard, doing whatever they wish in the interim.
1914:
155:
institutions are estimated to admit 10% to 15% of each entering class using legacy admissions. For example, in the 2008 entering undergraduate class, the
1894:
1370:
393:
Supporters of the elimination of all non-academic preferences point out that many
European universities, including highly selective institutions such as
143:
In 2023, the bipartisan Merit-based
Educational Reforms and Institutional Transparency Act was proposed in the U.S. Congress to ban legacy preferences.
40:
accepted legacy students at a rate of 33%—more than five times the percentage of
Harvard University's 6% overall acceptance rate in the same period.
1787:
1125:
273:) between donations and admission of children and the unclear effects of legacy admissions on donations and class size/higher education capacity.
1710:
341:
289:
68:
276:
Some studies suggest legacy admissions practices marginally increase donations from alumni, though other analyses have disputed this conclusion.
1474:
1033:
1609:
1083:
652:
613:
113:
1303:
Castilla, Emilio J.; Poskanzer, Ethan J. (October 2022). "Through the Front Door: Why Do Organizations (Still) Prefer Legacy Applicants?".
900:
353:
decision, involving the University of Michigan's law school. The only significant criticism of legacy preferences from the Court came from
189:
91:
In the United States, legacy admissions in universities date back to the 1920s. Elite schools used legacy admissions to maintain spots for
1839:
872:
450:, "While some research indicates that legacy admits go on to earn lower average grades than their peers, plenty are strong applicants."
109:
221:
has stated, "Legacy admissions are integral to the kind of community that any private educational institution is." In the 1998 book
928:
1571:
1429:
1658:
745:
579:
71:; almost three-quarters of research universities and nearly all liberal arts colleges grant legacy preferences in admissions.
553:
51:
is a preference given by an institution or organization to certain applicants on the basis of their familial relationship to
1397:
1904:
92:
1729:“Titles of Nobility, Hereditary Privilege, and the Unconstitutionality of Legacy Preferences in Public School Admissions”
1305:
1005:
256:
428:
772:
160:
Princeton admitted 41.7% of legacy applicants—more than 4.5 times the 9.2% rate of non-legacies. Similarly, in 2006,
104:
527:
421:
406:
156:
412:
There are also legal arguments against legacy preferences. In public schools, legacy preferences may violate the
176:
1909:
1899:
402:
259:) found that 76% of economists responding surveyed either "strongly agreed" or "agreed" that legacy preferences
1456:
956:
337:
260:
166:
125:
845:
417:
398:
326:
79:
have parents who are perceived to be more generous donors. Legacy preferences are particularly prevalent at
1879:
1595:"Chapter 5: An Empirical Analysis of the Impact of Legacy Preferences on Alumni Giving at Top Universities"
1844:
1826:
464:
270:
1074:
Schmidt, Peter (2010). "A History of Legacy Preferences and Privilege". In Kahlenberg, Richard D. (ed.).
293:
181:
170:
223:
The Shape of the River: Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions
1749:
1625:
1362:
329:(OCR) that Asian-American applicants are being rejected in favor of students with lesser credentials.
284:
At some schools, legacy preferences have an effect on admissions comparable to other programs such as
1172:
486:
469:
394:
349:
296:
in the United States showed the following effects (admissions disadvantage and advantage in terms of
230:
643:
Golden, Daniel (2010). "An Analytic Survey of Legacy Preferences". In Kahlenberg, Richard D. (ed.).
251:
Economists are divided over implications of the practice. A 2019 study of leading economists by the
1831:
1814:
933:
240:
137:
1209:
1173:"Legacy, Athlete, and Donor Preferences Disproportionately Benefit White Applicants, per Analysis"
1322:
1229:
1093:
1010:
961:
826:
726:
662:
623:
481:
437:
285:
214:
56:
37:
1145:
1728:
1260:
373:
In 2008, alumni donations accounted for 27.5% of all donations to higher education in the U.S.
1867:
1849:
1769:
1605:
1079:
1051:
818:
780:
753:
718:
648:
609:
455:
193:
1711:"Does the University of Oxford have better admissions policies than elite U.S. universities?"
1861:
1761:
1640:
1594:
1579:
1465:
1379:
1314:
1221:
710:
698:
491:
226:
218:
161:
1191:
746:"Study of Elite College Admissions Data Suggests Being Very Rich Is Its Own Qualification"
508:
502:
413:
354:
197:
133:
1347:
1130:
129:
32:
1788:"How do Princeton's legacy students stack up to their peers? We looked at the numbers"
1765:
1888:
1872:
1819:
1469:
1326:
1233:
730:
118:
1277:
554:"Harvard's freshman class is more than one-third legacy—here's why that's a problem"
1880:"Study: Ending affirmative action would devastate most minority college enrollment"
905:
877:
446:
322:
243:
announced in 2023 that it would no longer lend preference to 'legacy' applicants.
17:
1684:
699:"Through the Front Door: Why Do Organizations (Still) Prefer Legacy Applicants?"
604:
Kahlenberg, Richard D. (2010). "Introduction". In Kahlenberg, Richard D. (ed.).
265:
124:
Beginning in the 2010s, several top schools ended legacy preferences, including
1210:"Through the Front Door: Why do Organizations (Still) Prefer Legacy Applicants"
1318:
1225:
714:
387:
184:
with legacy status are twice as likely as non-legacy applicants to be accepted
152:
80:
1773:
1126:"Which US Colleges Accept Most Legacy Students? Notre Dame, Yale - Bloomberg"
822:
784:
757:
722:
978:"Wesleyan University Ends Legacy Admissions—Joining Other Selective Schools"
409:
do not use legacy, racial, or athletic preferences in admissions decisions.
383:
234:
83:
universities and other selective private universities in the United States.
580:"Of course legacy admissions should follow affirmative action to the grave"
1278:"Wesleyan University: Top US college says it will end 'legacy' admissions"
1076:
Affirmative-Action for the Rich: Legacy Preferences in College Admissions
645:
Affirmative-Action for the Rich: Legacy Preferences in College Admissions
606:
Affirmative-Action for the Rich: Legacy Preferences in College Admissions
496:
173:
are known to weigh legacy status heavily in their application processes.
1644:
1383:
830:
806:
444:
test scores and grades than the rest of admitted students. According to
347:
The Supreme Court upheld race-conscious admissions policies in its 2003
468:
in 2023, the student newspaper found that legacy students had a higher
1190:
Arcidiacono, Peter; Kinsler, Josh; Ransom, Tyler (December 22, 2020).
99:, Catholics and Asians were increasingly taking spots at the schools.
982:
102:
A 1992 survey found that of the top seventy-five universities in the
52:
957:"Amherst College Ends Legacy Admissions Favoring Children of Alumni"
1034:"This bipartisan Senate duo wants to end legacy college admissions"
175:
31:
1827:"For Groton grads, Academics aren't the Only Keys to Ivy Schools"
929:"Pressure mounts on colleges to ditch 'legacy' admissions factor"
744:
Bhatia, Aatish; Miller, Claire Cain; Katz, Josh (July 24, 2023).
96:
357:, the sole member of the Supreme Court who grew up in poverty.
1037:
807:"The Origins of Legacy Admissions: A Sociological Explanation"
441:
297:
264:
and none strongly disagreed. (10% did not respond). Panelist
1659:"10 Universities in the UK with the Lowest Acceptance Rates"
1685:"Oxford hopefuls urged to ditch the flute and work hard"
1078:. New York: The Century Foundation Press. p. 59.
647:. New York: The Century Foundation Press. p. 73.
1208:
Castilla, Emilio; Poskanzer, Ethan (March 14, 2023).
608:. New York: The Century Foundation Press. p. 1.
432:
Distribution of GPA in college major by legacy status
1361:
Meer, Jonathan; Rosen, Harvey S (February 1, 2009).
1857:"Will Bush Truly Renounce Privilege in Admissions?"
1626:"Altruism and the Child Cycle of Alumni Donations"
1363:"Altruism and the Child Cycle of Alumni Donations"
873:"Why We Ended Legacy Admissions at Johns Hopkins"
697:Castilla, Emilio J.; Poskanzer, Ethan J. (2022).
67:. The practice is particularly widespread in the
55:of that institution. It is most controversial in
59:, where students so admitted are referred to as
27:Preference given to applicants related to alumni
1593:Chad Coffman; Tara O'Neil; Brian Starr (2010),
552:Blumberg, Yoni; Martin, Emmie (April 7, 2019).
253:University of Chicago Booth School of Business
1259:Kahlenberg, Richard D. (September 29, 2010),
8:
1261:"Elite Colleges, or Colleges for the Elite?"
1006:"Wesleyan University Ends Legacy Admissions"
805:COE, DEBORAH L.; DAVIDSON, JAMES D. (2011).
1430:"The Real Reasons Legacy Preferences Exist"
1192:"Legacy and Athlete Preferences at Harvard"
773:"The Quiet Fight to Keep Legacy Admissions"
1633:American Economic Journal: Economic Policy
1570:Kathrin Lassila (November–December 2004),
1371:American Economic Journal: Economic Policy
1342:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1098:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
667:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
628:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
370:donations fall if that child is rejected.
1624:Meer, Jonathan; Rosen, Harvey S. (2009).
1743:
1741:
1398:"The Pointless End of Legacy Admissions"
427:
196:found that 43% of students admitted to
112:) had no legacy preferences at all; the
1920:Affirmative action in the United States
1545:
1533:
1521:
1509:
1497:
1171:Camille G. Caldera (October 23, 2019).
1069:
1067:
1065:
871:Daniels, Ronald J. (January 18, 2020).
852:. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
519:
292:. One study of three selective private
69:college admissions in the United States
1750:"The academic performance of legacies"
1557:
1485:
1246:
1112:
1091:
846:"Just To Be Clear: We Don't Do Legacy"
681:
660:
621:
1423:
1421:
1419:
901:"College Admissions Are Still Unfair"
899:Murphy, James S. (October 23, 2021).
114:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
7:
692:
690:
528:"High Time to End Legacy Admissions"
190:National Bureau of Economic Research
1915:Discrimination in the United States
1835:, April 25, 2003, by Daniel Golden.
1032:Eric McDaniel (December 27, 2023).
316:Legacies (children of alumni): +160
955:Fortin, Jacey (October 20, 2021).
110:California Institute of Technology
25:
1895:University and college admissions
1840:"Candidate opposes legacy places"
976:Bohannon, Molly (July 19, 2023).
844:Peterson, Chris (June 25, 2012).
771:Saul, Stephanie (July 13, 2022).
300:points on the 1600-point scale):
1733:Washington University Law Review
1470:10.1111/j.0038-4941.2004.00284.x
927:Anderson, Nick (July 16, 2023).
1848:. February 2003. Archived from
1735:, Volume 84, page 1375 (2006).
1602:Affirmative Action for the Rich
280:In comparison to other programs
1748:Monks, James (April 1, 2000).
1428:Pinsker, Joe (April 4, 2019).
1004:Patel, Vimal (July 19, 2023).
578:Soave, Robby (June 29, 2023).
462:In admission data reviewed by
440:, legacies have higher median
1:
1766:10.1016/S0165-1765(99)00207-4
93:White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
1604:, Century Foundation Press,
1350:. IGM Forum. April 30, 2019.
1306:American Sociological Review
1214:American Sociological Review
811:Review of Religious Research
703:American Sociological Review
207:U.S. News & World Report
105:U.S. News & World Report
1936:
407:London School of Economics
365:Effect on alumni donations
180:As of 2020, applicants to
157:University of Pennsylvania
1572:"Why Yale Favors Its Own"
1319:10.1177/00031224221122889
1226:10.1177/00031224221122889
715:10.1177/00031224221122889
1815:"Meritocracy in America"
1457:Social Science Quarterly
453:In a paper published in
338:University of California
313:Recruited athletes: +200
167:University of Notre Dame
126:Johns Hopkins University
108:rankings, only one (the
1868:"The Curse of Nepotism"
1715:Baltimore Post Examiner
1146:"End Legacy Admissions"
1052:"The curse of nepotism"
418:Equal Protection Clause
355:Justice Clarence Thomas
327:Office for Civil Rights
304:African Americans: +230
36:Between 2014 and 2019,
1845:The Daily Princetonian
465:The Daily Princetonian
433:
185:
41:
1852:on February 11, 2006.
431:
294:research universities
182:Georgetown University
179:
171:Georgetown University
35:
1905:History of education
1823:, December 29, 2004.
1576:Yale Alumni magazine
1348:"College Admissions"
1150:The Georgetown Voice
487:Class discrimination
350:Grutter v. Bollinger
231:Princeton University
1832:Wall Street Journal
1717:. January 16, 2015.
1663:Global Scholarships
1645:10.1257/pol.1.1.258
1582:on December 2, 2010
1404:. November 23, 2021
1384:10.1257/pol.1.1.258
1177:The Harvard Crimson
934:The Washington Post
532:The Harvard Crimson
286:athletic recruiting
241:Wesleyan University
138:Wesleyan University
1876:, January 8, 2004.
1727:Larson, Carlton.
1152:. January 31, 2020
1058:. January 8, 2004.
1011:The New York Times
962:The New York Times
777:The New York Times
750:The New York Times
482:Affirmative action
434:
336:In the 1990s, the
290:affirmative action
215:Harvard University
186:
57:college admissions
42:
38:Harvard University
1754:Economics Letters
1691:. August 27, 2010
1665:. August 21, 2019
1611:978-0-87078-518-4
1134:. March 21, 2019.
1085:978-0-87078-518-4
654:978-0-87078-518-4
615:978-0-87078-518-4
456:Economics Letters
422:U.S. Constitution
194:Peter Arcidiacono
192:working paper by
147:Current practices
45:Legacy preference
18:Legacy preference
16:(Redirected from
1927:
1910:Education policy
1900:Education issues
1862:The Boston Globe
1853:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1792:The Princetonian
1784:
1778:
1777:
1745:
1736:
1725:
1719:
1718:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1698:
1696:
1681:
1675:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1630:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1599:
1590:
1584:
1583:
1578:, archived from
1567:
1561:
1555:
1549:
1543:
1537:
1531:
1525:
1519:
1513:
1512:, pp. 61–62
1507:
1501:
1495:
1489:
1483:
1477:
1473:
1464:(5): 1422–1446.
1451:
1445:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1425:
1414:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1367:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1344:
1331:
1330:
1300:
1294:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1274:
1268:
1267:
1256:
1250:
1244:
1238:
1237:
1205:
1199:
1198:
1196:
1187:
1181:
1180:
1168:
1162:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1142:
1136:
1135:
1122:
1116:
1115:, pp. 73–74
1110:
1104:
1103:
1097:
1089:
1071:
1060:
1059:
1048:
1042:
1041:
1029:
1023:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1001:
995:
994:
992:
990:
973:
967:
966:
952:
946:
945:
943:
941:
924:
918:
917:
915:
913:
896:
890:
889:
887:
885:
868:
862:
861:
859:
857:
841:
835:
834:
802:
796:
795:
793:
791:
768:
762:
761:
741:
735:
734:
694:
685:
684:, pp. 74–76
679:
673:
672:
666:
658:
640:
634:
633:
627:
619:
601:
595:
594:
592:
590:
575:
569:
568:
566:
564:
549:
543:
542:
540:
538:
524:
492:Development case
342:Board of Regents
227:William G. Bowen
219:Lawrence Summers
162:Brown University
95:amid fears that
49:legacy admission
21:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1929:
1928:
1926:
1925:
1924:
1885:
1884:
1838:
1811:
1806:
1796:
1794:
1786:
1785:
1781:
1747:
1746:
1739:
1726:
1722:
1709:
1708:
1704:
1694:
1692:
1683:
1682:
1678:
1668:
1666:
1657:
1656:
1652:
1628:
1623:
1622:
1618:
1612:
1597:
1592:
1591:
1587:
1569:
1568:
1564:
1556:
1552:
1544:
1540:
1532:
1528:
1520:
1516:
1508:
1504:
1496:
1492:
1484:
1480:
1453:
1452:
1448:
1438:
1436:
1427:
1426:
1417:
1407:
1405:
1396:
1395:
1391:
1365:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1346:
1345:
1334:
1302:
1301:
1297:
1287:
1285:
1284:. July 19, 2023
1276:
1275:
1271:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1245:
1241:
1207:
1206:
1202:
1194:
1189:
1188:
1184:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1155:
1153:
1144:
1143:
1139:
1124:
1123:
1119:
1111:
1107:
1090:
1086:
1073:
1072:
1063:
1050:
1049:
1045:
1031:
1030:
1026:
1016:
1014:
1003:
1002:
998:
988:
986:
975:
974:
970:
954:
953:
949:
939:
937:
926:
925:
921:
911:
909:
898:
897:
893:
883:
881:
870:
869:
865:
855:
853:
843:
842:
838:
804:
803:
799:
789:
787:
770:
769:
765:
743:
742:
738:
696:
695:
688:
680:
676:
659:
655:
642:
641:
637:
620:
616:
603:
602:
598:
588:
586:
577:
576:
572:
562:
560:
551:
550:
546:
536:
534:
526:
525:
521:
517:
509:Old boy network
503:Numerus clausus
478:
414:Nobility Clause
379:
367:
307:Hispanics: +185
282:
249:
247:Economic impact
233:president, and
198:Harvard College
151:Currently, the
149:
134:Amherst College
89:
65:legacy students
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1933:
1931:
1923:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1887:
1886:
1883:
1882:
1877:
1865:
1854:
1836:
1824:
1810:
1809:External links
1807:
1805:
1804:
1779:
1737:
1720:
1702:
1676:
1650:
1616:
1610:
1585:
1562:
1550:
1546:Schmidt (2010)
1538:
1534:Schmidt (2010)
1526:
1522:Schmidt (2010)
1514:
1510:Schmidt (2010)
1502:
1498:Schmidt (2010)
1490:
1478:
1446:
1415:
1402:The New Yorker
1389:
1378:(1): 258–286.
1353:
1332:
1313:(5): 782–826.
1295:
1269:
1265:New York Times
1251:
1239:
1220:(5): 782–826.
1200:
1182:
1163:
1137:
1131:Bloomberg News
1117:
1105:
1084:
1061:
1043:
1024:
996:
968:
947:
919:
891:
863:
850:MIT Admissions
836:
817:(3): 233–247.
797:
763:
736:
709:(5): 782–826.
686:
674:
653:
635:
614:
596:
570:
544:
518:
516:
513:
512:
511:
506:
499:
494:
489:
484:
477:
474:
378:
375:
366:
363:
318:
317:
314:
311:
308:
305:
281:
278:
248:
245:
148:
145:
130:Pomona College
88:
85:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1932:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1890:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1873:The Economist
1869:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1858:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1846:
1841:
1837:
1834:
1833:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1821:
1820:The Economist
1816:
1813:
1812:
1808:
1793:
1789:
1783:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1760:(1): 99–104.
1759:
1755:
1751:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1724:
1721:
1716:
1712:
1706:
1703:
1690:
1686:
1680:
1677:
1664:
1660:
1654:
1651:
1646:
1642:
1639:(1): 258–86.
1638:
1634:
1627:
1620:
1617:
1613:
1607:
1603:
1596:
1589:
1586:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1558:Golden (2010)
1554:
1551:
1547:
1542:
1539:
1535:
1530:
1527:
1523:
1518:
1515:
1511:
1506:
1503:
1499:
1494:
1491:
1487:
1486:Golden (2010)
1482:
1479:
1476:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1458:
1450:
1447:
1435:
1431:
1424:
1422:
1420:
1416:
1403:
1399:
1393:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1372:
1364:
1357:
1354:
1349:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1307:
1299:
1296:
1283:
1279:
1273:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1255:
1252:
1248:
1247:Golden (2010)
1243:
1240:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1204:
1201:
1193:
1186:
1183:
1178:
1174:
1167:
1164:
1151:
1147:
1141:
1138:
1133:
1132:
1127:
1121:
1118:
1114:
1113:Golden (2010)
1109:
1106:
1101:
1095:
1087:
1081:
1077:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1056:The Economist
1053:
1047:
1044:
1039:
1035:
1028:
1025:
1013:
1012:
1007:
1000:
997:
985:
984:
979:
972:
969:
964:
963:
958:
951:
948:
936:
935:
930:
923:
920:
908:
907:
902:
895:
892:
880:
879:
874:
867:
864:
851:
847:
840:
837:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
801:
798:
786:
782:
778:
774:
767:
764:
759:
755:
751:
747:
740:
737:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
693:
691:
687:
683:
682:Golden (2010)
678:
675:
670:
664:
656:
650:
646:
639:
636:
631:
625:
617:
611:
607:
600:
597:
585:
581:
574:
571:
559:
555:
548:
545:
533:
529:
523:
520:
514:
510:
507:
505:
504:
500:
498:
495:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
479:
475:
473:
471:
467:
466:
460:
458:
457:
451:
449:
448:
443:
439:
430:
426:
423:
419:
415:
410:
408:
404:
400:
396:
391:
389:
385:
376:
374:
371:
364:
362:
358:
356:
352:
351:
345:
343:
339:
334:
330:
328:
324:
323:Texas A&M
315:
312:
309:
306:
303:
302:
301:
299:
295:
291:
287:
279:
277:
274:
272:
267:
262:
258:
254:
246:
244:
242:
238:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
211:
208:
202:
199:
195:
191:
183:
178:
174:
172:
168:
163:
158:
154:
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:in 2021, and
135:
131:
127:
122:
120:
115:
111:
107:
106:
100:
98:
94:
86:
84:
82:
76:
72:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
39:
34:
30:
19:
1871:
1860:
1850:the original
1843:
1830:
1818:
1797:September 3,
1795:. Retrieved
1791:
1782:
1757:
1753:
1732:
1723:
1714:
1705:
1693:. Retrieved
1688:
1679:
1667:. Retrieved
1662:
1653:
1636:
1632:
1619:
1601:
1588:
1580:the original
1575:
1565:
1560:, p. 71
1553:
1548:, p. 66
1541:
1536:, p. 65
1529:
1524:, p. 62
1517:
1505:
1500:, p. 67
1493:
1488:, p. 77
1481:
1461:
1455:
1449:
1437:. Retrieved
1434:The Atlantic
1433:
1406:. Retrieved
1401:
1392:
1375:
1369:
1356:
1310:
1304:
1298:
1286:. Retrieved
1281:
1272:
1264:
1254:
1249:, p. 75
1242:
1217:
1213:
1203:
1185:
1176:
1166:
1154:. Retrieved
1149:
1140:
1129:
1120:
1108:
1075:
1055:
1046:
1027:
1015:. Retrieved
1009:
999:
987:. Retrieved
981:
971:
960:
950:
938:. Retrieved
932:
922:
910:. Retrieved
906:The Atlantic
904:
894:
882:. Retrieved
878:The Atlantic
876:
866:
856:February 10,
854:. Retrieved
849:
839:
814:
810:
800:
788:. Retrieved
776:
766:
749:
739:
706:
702:
677:
644:
638:
605:
599:
587:. Retrieved
583:
573:
561:. Retrieved
557:
547:
535:. Retrieved
531:
522:
501:
463:
461:
454:
452:
447:The Atlantic
445:
435:
411:
392:
380:
372:
368:
359:
348:
346:
335:
331:
319:
283:
275:
250:
239:
222:
212:
206:
203:
187:
150:
142:
123:
103:
101:
90:
77:
73:
64:
60:
48:
44:
43:
29:
1439:January 18,
1408:January 18,
1156:January 18,
884:October 23,
563:January 18,
537:January 18,
310:Asians: -50
266:David Autor
1889:Categories
584:Reason.com
515:References
388:plutocracy
271:elasticity
261:crowds out
225:, authors
217:president
153:Ivy League
81:Ivy League
1774:0165-1765
1327:252458129
1234:252458129
1094:cite book
823:0034-673X
785:0362-4331
758:0362-4331
731:252458129
723:0003-1224
663:cite book
624:cite book
399:Cambridge
384:oligarchy
377:Criticism
257:IGM Forum
235:Derek Bok
229:, former
140:in 2023.
132:in 2017,
128:in 2014,
1689:BBC News
1669:July 19,
1288:July 21,
1282:BBC News
1017:July 19,
989:July 19,
940:July 19,
912:July 19,
831:23055549
790:July 13,
497:Nepotism
476:See also
416:and the
61:legacies
1695:July 1,
589:July 1,
438:Harvard
420:of the
213:Former
188:A 2019
87:History
1772:
1608:
1325:
1232:
1082:
983:Forbes
829:
821:
783:
756:
729:
721:
651:
612:
395:Oxford
53:alumni
1629:(PDF)
1598:(PDF)
1366:(PDF)
1323:S2CID
1230:S2CID
1195:(PDF)
827:JSTOR
727:S2CID
119:Berea
1799:2023
1770:ISSN
1697:2011
1671:2021
1606:ISBN
1475:Pdf.
1441:2022
1410:2022
1290:2023
1158:2022
1100:link
1080:ISBN
1019:2023
991:2023
942:2023
914:2023
886:2021
858:2020
819:ISSN
792:2022
781:ISSN
754:ISSN
719:ISSN
669:link
649:ISBN
630:link
610:ISBN
591:2023
565:2022
558:CNBC
539:2022
405:and
386:and
169:and
97:Jews
1762:doi
1641:doi
1466:doi
1380:doi
1315:doi
1222:doi
1038:NPR
711:doi
470:GPA
442:SAT
436:At
403:UCL
340:'s
298:SAT
288:or
63:or
47:or
1891::
1870:,
1859:,
1842:.
1829:,
1817:,
1790:.
1768:.
1758:67
1756:.
1752:.
1740:^
1731:,
1713:.
1687:.
1661:.
1635:.
1631:.
1600:,
1574:,
1462:85
1460:.
1432:.
1418:^
1400:.
1374:.
1368:.
1335:^
1321:.
1311:87
1309:.
1280:.
1263:,
1228:.
1218:87
1216:.
1212:.
1175:.
1148:.
1128:.
1096:}}
1092:{{
1064:^
1054:.
1036:.
1008:.
980:.
959:.
931:.
903:.
875:.
848:.
825:.
815:52
813:.
809:.
779:.
775:.
752:.
748:.
725:.
717:.
707:87
705:.
701:.
689:^
665:}}
661:{{
626:}}
622:{{
582:.
556:.
530:.
401:,
397:,
121:.
1801:.
1776:.
1764::
1699:.
1673:.
1647:.
1643::
1637:1
1472:.
1468::
1443:.
1412:.
1386:.
1382::
1376:1
1329:.
1317::
1292:.
1236:.
1224::
1197:.
1179:.
1160:.
1102:)
1088:.
1040:.
1021:.
993:.
965:.
944:.
916:.
888:.
860:.
833:.
794:.
760:.
733:.
713::
671:)
657:.
632:)
618:.
593:.
567:.
541:.
269:(
255:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
