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evidence is; to point out the distinction between that and positive or direct evidence; and to give you some idea of the mode in which a judicial investigation is to be pursued by the aid of circumstantial evidence. The distinction, then, between direct and circumstantial evidence, is this. Direct or positive evidence is when a witness can be called to testify to the precise fact which is the subject of the issue in trial; that is, in a case of homicide, that the party accused did cause the death of the deceased. Whatever may be the kind or force of the evidence, this is the fact to be proved. ... Circumstantial evidence, therefore, is founded on experience and observed facts and coincidences, establishing a connection between the known and proved facts and the fact sought to be proved. The advantages are, that, as the evidence commonly comes from several witnesses and different sources, a chain of circumstances is less likely to be falsely prepared and arranged, and falsehood and perjury are more likely to be detected and fail of their purpose.
392:, and presided over a similar number of trials. Many of his legal opinions would help shape American law and jurisprudence. His exceptionally long judicial career coincided with the development of many important industries and, coincidentally, Shaw made law on such matters as water power, railroads, and other public utilities. Some commentators have argued that Shaw had more influence on the development of American law than any other state court judge in the country's history. One hundred years after he came onto the court as Chief Justice, it was observed that his legal opinions influenced the United States Supreme Court, the development of the
599:
accident, necessity, or infirmity, are to be satisfactorily established by the party charged, unless they arise out of the evidence produced against him to prove the homicide, and the circumstances attending it." While this would appear to be contrary to the principle of "innocent until proven guilty," Shaw's charge to the jury has been interpreted to mean that if the prosecution's evidence proves that a life was taken and does not produce any evidence of extenuating circumstances, the law will imply that malice existed. It then, and only then, becomes the defense's burden to show extenuating circumstances.
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proved beyond reasonable doubt. Then, what is reasonable doubt? It is a term often used, probably pretty well understood, but not easily defined. It is not mere possible doubt; because everything relating to human affairs and depending on moral evidence is open to some possible or imaginary doubt. It is that state of the case, which, after the entire comparison and consideration of all the evidence, leaves the minds of jurors in that condition that they cannot say they feel an abiding conviction, to a moral certainty, of the truth of the charge. The burden of proof is upon the prosecutor.
625:"In his charge, however," Sullivan notes that "Shaw set a new standard for the degree of proof required to show the commission of the homicide. He stated that the corpus delicti was to be proved "beyond a reasonable doubt" only, and then the guilt of the accused "beyond a reasonable doubt" also. He further instructed the jury that the corpus delicti could be established beyond a reasonable doubt by circumstantial evidence alone." The case against Webster was one of the first capital cases to be won by the prosecution without absolute evidence that the victim had been murdered.
588:
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554:, 1838 to 1848, noted that "the trial, in the course of its progress, was a cause of extreme excitement, extending through the whole length and breadth of the land, and reaching even into foreign countries." On March 30, after the defense's closing remarks were concluded, after the prosecution's closing remarks lasting nearly five hours and after a brief un-sworn statement by the defendant himself, Chief Justice Shaw delivered a three-hours-long charge to the jury.
570:
trial by twelve men a mockery and a farce. ... What ulterior purpose was to be accomplished or what feeling of interest or resentment was to be gratified by such an extraordinary judicial usurpation as this we do not pretend even to conjecture; but we do not hesitate to declare that to find a parallel for such an unscrupulous prostitution of dignity, such an unblushing betrayal of the judicial office, we must go back to the days of
Jeffreys.
323:
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420:(Louisiana), who were building their courts and the law in the early history of the United States. In developing the common law, Shaw adapted traditional common law principles in innovative ways to adjudicate disputes arising out of the rapidly changing circumstances and conditions in the world around him, that occurred during his 30-year tenure.
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Having made the distinction in the law between murder and manslaughter, Shaw then argued, "Upon this subject, the rule as deduced from the authorities is, that the implication of malice arises in every case of intentional homicide; and, the fact of killing being first proved, all the circumstances of
561:
In his charge to the jury, sometimes referred to as "the
Webster charge", Shaw reviewed and/or refuted portions of the testimony heard and, in turn, defined murder, manslaughter, circumstantial evidence and reasonable doubt. Chase notes that regarding Shaw's review of the evidence presented that "it
621:
Sullivan makes the case in his book that Shaw overstepped his judicial bounds in his charge to the jury. Sullivan cites "Starkie, McNally, and Roscoe, the leading authorities upon the law of criminal evidence in 1850" and notes that they "made it quite clear that the fact of the corpus delicti, or
583:
was defined by Shaw as "the unlawful killing of another without malice". The distinction, as
Leonard Williams Levy notes, is "..no small matter, particularly to the accused whose life is at stake. The existence of malice distinguishes murder from manslaughter, and manslaughter, the unlawful killing
384:
successfully urged Shaw to accept, though it meant giving up a practice of $ 15,000 to $ 20,000 a year for a salary of $ 3,500. And for this, if nothing else, Webster later thought the public owed him a debt of gratitude. Shaw's commission was issued on August 30, 1830. He served for almost exactly
569:
It seems scarcely credible that Judge Shaw could have given utterance to the language published in his "charge to the jury." From the beginning to the end it is but an argument against the prisoner. An argument with all the moral force of a dictation to the jury, a dictation which makes a pretended
557:
Frederick
Hathaway Chase in his 1918 biography of Shaw wrote: "Probably no charge ever delivered in this country has been followed as a precedent so frequently and so closely as this memorable effort. With the dignity of expression and the clearness of thought and language ... he expounded the law
602:
In 1850, the law required the prosecution to prove the existence of a crime, that is, the corpus delicti. In murder cases this had generally meant that the prosecution had to physically produce the corpse of the person alleged to have been murdered. In that only body parts and some teeth had been
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The evidence must establish the corpus delicti, as it is termed, or the offence committed as charged; and, in case of homicide, must not only prove a death by violence, but must, to a reasonable extent, exclude the hypothesis of suicide, and a death by the act of any other person. This is to be
607:
This case is to be proved, if proved at all, by circumstantial evidence; because it is not suggested that any direct evidence can be given, or that any witness can be called to give direct testimony upon the main fact of the killing. It becomes important, therefore, to state what circumstantial
533:
While Shaw was Chief
Justice, the Supreme Judicial Court still possessed exclusive jurisdiction over all capital crimes: capital cases were tried by a jury presided over by the Chief Justice attended by his associate justices. At such a trial all points of law were argued fully by counsel and
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the commission of the homicide, had to be proven by direct evidence to an absolute certainty, or beyond the least doubt. After this had been established absolutely, then the burden of proof was on the prosecution to show that the defendant had committed the crime beyond a reasonable doubt."
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Shaw's opinions were not often readily quotable and are instead recognized for solid reasoning. "His words had weight rather than brilliancy or eloquence." His reputation as a jurist lies mostly in the substance of his work, as opposed to the literary quality of his writings for the court.
462:. In his strict understanding, comity is a vehicle for facilitating trade and amicable interactions between jurisdictions. Therefore, Shaw reasoned that a state or jurisdiction is not required to honor comity if in doing so it is sanctioning practices repugnant to the state's own norms.
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as stated by Shaw was "the killing of any person in the peace of the
Commonwealth, with malice aforethought, either express or implied by law." Malice, as defined by the Chief Justice, included "not only anger, hatred and revenge, but every other unlawful and unjustifiable motive."
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suit, wanted a rule which would have freed the girl, while southern defenders of the practice wanted the court to uphold the concept of comity and acknowledge the legality of slavery. Shaw attempted to split the decision by applying the archaic "sojourner" status to slaves.
449:
held that a slave brought voluntarily into
Massachusetts, a free state, was a "sojourner," or a journeyer, and not taking domicile in that state. Therefore, slaves could be brought into the state only for a limited time. Abolitionists, who had brought the
427:
In Shaw's time on the
Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, the chief justice often sat at trials. In the role of a trial judge, he was considered to be thorough, systematic, and patient. He was also renowned for his ability to clearly instruct juries.
562:
must be remembered that at the time when this case was tried there was no statute forbidding the court to charge upon the facts. It was within the power of the court at that time, as it is not now, to express an opinion as to the weight of evidence."
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Such an accommodation was rooted in the consideration that the defendant and the public had a unique interest in securing, in the first instance, a verdict based on correct and authoritative rulings and, therefore, in avoiding repeated trials.
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763:, Shaw was also attracted by new mechanical processes and was a member of many learned and charitable societies. He was a fellow of Harvard College from 1834 until his death, and an overseer from 1831 to 1853, two offices rarely united.
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In about 1822, Shaw took Sidney
Bartlett, an able trial lawyer, as his junior partner. His practice gradually became large, but he was less known as an advocate than as the adviser of important commercial enterprises.
345:
services, though he was never a communicant. Fond of entertaining and dining out, he was simple and affectionate in his home life, his interest in the social events of his household extending to the minutest details.
659:, using contract rationale to prevent a railroad laborer from recovering from his employer. Shaw held that the laborer was at liberty to prevent his injury and for the corporation to insure against it would create a
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1385:
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required states and local governments to cooperate in the capture of escaped slaves. Sims' Case was the first by any court in the United States to uphold the constitutionality of the
Fugitive Slave Act.
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case caused an uproar in the South where planters accused the Northerners of denying their equal sovereign status. Shaw also drew criticism from conservative jurists in other Northern states, as in
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209:(1830–1860). Prior to his appointment he also served for several years in the Massachusetts House of Representatives and as a state senator. In 1847, Shaw became the father-in-law of author
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in 1796. There, he taught school in winter vacations. After graduating with high honors in 1800, he taught for a year in a Boston public school, and wrote articles and read proof for the
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Shaw's charge to the jury was something less than unanimously well received in 1850. One pamphleteer at the time, identifying himself only as a "Member of the Legal Profession" wrote:
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in every American state, and were observed favorably in England. At a minimum, he was among the leading early to mid-Nineteenth Century American state court judges, such as Chancellor
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736:
On January 6, 1818, Shaw married Elizabeth Knapp, daughter of Josiah Knapp of Boston. She died in 1822, leaving a son and a daughter, Elizabeth, who became the wife of author
672:(1842), Shaw provided an important precedent in labor relations by arguing that members of labor unions were not engaging in criminal conspiracies against their employers.
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that November, Shaw began practice in Boston. When his associate left Boston after being acquitted of murder in a political quarrel, he practiced alone for fifteen years.
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679:, 8 Metcalf (1844), Shaw created an important legal precedent in Massachusetts regarding the regulation of water power rights belonging to riparian proprietors.
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The trial lasted eleven days with the court sitting from nine in the morning until seven in the evening with a lunch break of one and one-half hours.
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problem. The decision empowered both the railroad industry and the insurance industry, which now had a market for insuring against workplace injuries.
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in 1821–22. He served as a member of the constitutional convention of 1820. He also held many offices in Boston. Shaw was elected a Fellow of the
1939:
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1994:
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740:. He was the nephew of Shaw's former fiancée. In 1847, the year of his marriage to Elizabeth, Melville dedicated his Polynesian novel,
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686:(1847), Shaw presided over the unsuccessful divorce case of Henry Cobb against his wife Augusta Adams Cobb, for joining the
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minister, was pastor of the West Church in Barnstable for forty-seven years. Lemuel was named for his uncle, Dr. Hayward of
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settled on the spot by decisions as "final and conclusive" as those of the highest appellate court on a bill of exceptions.
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After his resignation from the bench in 1860, his health failed, and he died within a few months. He was buried in
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1142:"Some Thoughts on the State-Created Danger Doctrine: Deshaney is Still Wrong and Castle Rock is More of the Same"
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On August 29, 1827, Shaw married Hope Savage, daughter of Dr. Samuel Savage of Barnstable; they had two sons.
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In 1822, with few precedents to guide him, he drafted the first charter of the city, which lasted until 1913.
225:, the second son of the Rev. Oakes Shaw and his second wife Susanna, who was a daughter of John H. Hayward of
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of homicide in terms which have been followed closely in nearly every murder trial from that day to this."
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of Boston (the subject of Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.'s poem "The Last Leaf") but she died soon afterward.
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705:, a black seaman convicted and executed on circumstantial evidence of murdering a fellow black mariner.
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Shaw was prepared for his judicial career by numerous public positions. He was elected a member of the
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law, and ruled that injured plaintiffs have the burden of proving that the defendant was negligent.
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205:(January 9, 1781 – March 30, 1861) was an American jurist who served as chief justice of the
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229:. The Shaws were descendants of Abraham Shaw (January 2, 1590 – November 2, 1638), who left
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In August 1801, he began studying law in Boston under David Everett. Meanwhile, he learned
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727:(1851) was an early and influential attempt to define the limits of state police power.
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Sketches by Samuel S. Shaw and P. Emory Aldrich in vol. iv., pp. 200–247, of
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Educated at home by his father except for a few months at Braintree, he entered
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213:. He ruled on prominent cases involving slavery, segregation, and religion.
856:. Villanova University Charles Widger School of Law Digital Repository: 389
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295:, a local newspaper. He became engaged to Nancy Melvill, daughter of Maj.
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1205:
Lemuel Shaw: Chief Justice of the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts
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grounds, as he felt bound by the Constitution and the law, as the recent
746:, to Lemuel Shaw. Shaw also may have been the model for Captain Vere in
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234:
753:, due to his unflinching application of the harsh fugitive slave law.
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indicate individuals who were offered seats on the court, but refused
1219:
Memorial Biographies of the New England Historic Genealogical Society
1169:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, pp. 6-7, 250-252.
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movement, Shaw oversaw numerous cases related to slave law and race.
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of a human being without malice, does not carry the death penalty."
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877:"Chief justice centennial memorial, 272 Massachusetts Reports 591"
742:
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No single case brought Shaw such criticism or such respect as the
321:
473:(N.J. 1845), which stated that New Jersey still allowed slavery.
714:(1850), Shaw established negligence as the dominant standard of
1374:
388:
During his tenure as Chief Justice, Shaw authored over 2,150
493:
In a later case, he again refused to release fugitive slave
1014:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, p. 265.
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Chief justices of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court
1353:
Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court
1292:"Sketch of the Late Chief Justice Shaw, of Massachusetts"
476:
His ruling in favor of the constitutionality of school
341:, but remained all his life a free-trader. He attended
1298:. April 4, 1861. p. 4 – via newspapers.com.
1286:. April 2, 1861. p. 5 – via newspapers.com.
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Members of the Massachusetts House of Representatives
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Justice Accused: Antislavery and the Judicial Process
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Justice Accused: Antislavery and the Judicial Process
634:
The trial of anti-Catholic rioters who destroyed the
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Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1228:. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1957.
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Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society
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1226:The Law of the Commonwealth and Chief Justice Shaw
950:The Law of the Commonwealth and Chief Justice Shaw
1246:Boston and Toronto, Little, Brown and Co., 1971.
923:. Massachusetts Bar Association. pp. 20–63.
652:Farwell v. Boston & Worcester Railroad Corp.
833:. The Massachusetts Bar Association. p. 9.
1207:. Boston and New York, Houghton Mifflin, 1918.
1179:American Antiquarian Society Members Directory
846:"Lemuel Shaw: America's "Greatest Magistrate""
380:offered Shaw an appointment as chief justice.
353:, serving in 1811–14, 1820 and 1829, and as a
1386:
8:
1265:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
875:Rugg, Chief Justice Arthur Prentice (1930).
2485:Members of the American Antiquarian Society
952:. Oxford University Press. pp. 22–28.
1393:
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1371:
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1029:Dead Certainties: Unwarranted Speculations
983:"Sims' Case, 7 Cushing (Mass.) 285 (1851)"
61:August 30, 1830 – August 21, 1860
20:
249:, father of George Hayward, the surgeon.
701:(1849), Shaw presided over the trial of
385:30 years, resigning on August 21, 1860.
810:. American Academy of Arts and Sciences
805:"Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter S"
796:
458:Further, Shaw rejected the doctrine of
166:Elizabeth Knapp (m. 1818–22, her death)
926:
351:Massachusetts House of Representatives
2470:People from Barnstable, Massachusetts
1140:Oren, Laura E. (September 24, 2007).
359:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
7:
1403:Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court
1196:, vol. 17, pp. 42–3. New York,
490:" as a legal doctrine in the state.
287:. In 1802, he moved with Everett to
207:Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court
49:Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court
898:. Simon and Schuster. p. 118.
168:Hope Savage (m. 1827–61, his death)
1031:, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991.
309:Hillsborough County, New Hampshire
14:
2435:19th-century American legislators
1838:Associate justices (1780–present)
1244:The Disappearance of Dr. Parkman.
766:Shaw was elected a member of the
2480:Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery
1357:August 30, 1830–August 21, 1860
1194:Dictionary of American Biography
529:, held in Boston in March 1850.
188:
31:
1617:Associate justices (1692–1775)
1318:New International Encyclopedia
894:Friedman, Lawrence M. (1973).
751:, Sailor (An Inside Narrative)
552:Chief Justice of New Hampshire
372:On the death of Chief Justice
368:Chief Justice of Massachusetts
330:In politics, Shaw was first a
313:Plymouth County, Massachusetts
223:West Barnstable, Massachusetts
1:
1410:Chief justices (1692–present)
933:: CS1 maint: date and year (
273:proficiently from a refugee,
119:Province of Massachusetts Bay
2465:Massachusetts state senators
2430:19th-century American judges
1782:Associate justices (1775–80)
768:American Antiquarian Society
438:Boston's strong abolitionist
311:, in September 1804, and in
519:Parkman–Webster murder case
443:In 1836, Shaw's opinion in
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503:Fugitive Slave Act of 1850
303:Legal and political career
277:, afterwards a founder in
47:19th Chief Justice of the
37:Chief Justice Shaw in 1856
2445:Massachusetts Federalists
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1359:
1350:
1342:
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1237:The North American Review
1214:, x. 50-79 (Boston, 1869)
1203:Frederic Hathaway Chase,
948:Levy, Leonard W. (1957).
921:The Genius of Lemuel Shaw
896:A History of American Law
844:Levy, Leonard W. (1962).
831:The Genius of Lemuel Shaw
694:in a polygamous marriage.
655:(1842), Shaw created the
483:Roberts v. City of Boston
281:of the liberal newspaper
196:
99:
54:
42:
30:
1210:Address by BF Thomas in
1103:Chase, 201 and Levy, 221
690:and eventually marrying
432:Slavery and civil rights
217:Early life and education
143:United States of America
1262:Encyclopædia Britannica
1198:Charles Scribner's Sons
644:Commonwealth v. Buzzell
527:Commonwealth v. Webster
511:Commonwealth v. Webster
307:Admitted to the bar in
237:in 1636 and settled in
2440:Harvard College alumni
1296:Cincinnati Daily Press
987:Caselaw Access Project
919:Adlow, Elijah (1962).
829:Adlow, Elijah (1962).
619:
610:
595:
572:
536:
418:Francios Xavier Martin
327:
289:Amherst, New Hampshire
1233:"The Law of Homicide"
780:Mount Auburn Cemetery
774:Resignation and death
724:Commonwealth v. Alger
699:Commonwealth v. Goode
657:"fellow servant" rule
614:
612:Shaw further stated:
605:
590:
567:
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325:
1779:Revolutionary period
1363:George Tyler Bigelow
1312:"Shaw, Lemuel"
1256:"Shaw, Lemuel"
989:. Harvard Law School
850:Villanova Law Review
669:Commonwealth v. Hunt
603:found, Shaw stated,
486:(1849) established "
446:Commonwealth v. Aves
95:George Tyler Bigelow
2450:Massachusetts Whigs
1835:Commonwealth period
593:William Morris Hunt
326:Portrait photograph
1283:The New York Times
761:English literature
721:Shaw's opinion in
596:
574:The definition of
548:Harvard Law School
488:separate but equal
412:(North Carolina),
402:Theophilus Parsons
328:
284:Le Constitutionnel
2407:
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1614:Provincial period
1369:
1368:
1360:Succeeded by
1242:Robert Sullivan,
1224:Leonard W. Levy,
1130:Sullivan, 144-145
629:Other noted cases
546:, a professor at
460:interstate comity
404:(Massachusetts),
243:Congregationalist
221:Shaw was born in
200:
199:
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1401:Justices of the
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1343:Preceded by
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1278:"(death notice)"
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1163:Cover, Robert M.
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711:Brown v. Kendall
703:Washington Goode
636:Ursuline convent
408:(Pennsylvania),
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241:. Oakes Shaw, a
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1304:External links
1302:
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1251:Chisholm, Hugh
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471:State v. Post
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452:habeas corpus
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410:Thomas Ruffin
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139:Massachusetts
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41:
34:
29:
22:
19:
2397:
1807:
1800:
1793:
1508:
1471:
1351:
1346:Isaac Parker
1330:Find a Grave
1316:
1295:
1281:
1260:
1243:
1236:
1232:
1225:
1218:
1211:
1204:
1193:
1188:Bibliography
1187:
1186:
1174:
1166:
1158:
1135:
1126:
1117:
1108:
1099:
1090:
1081:
1072:
1063:
1054:
1045:
1036:
1028:
1019:
1011:
1003:
991:. Retrieved
986:
977:
968:
949:
943:
920:
914:
895:
889:
880:
870:
858:. Retrieved
853:
849:
839:
830:
824:
814:September 9,
812:. Retrieved
799:
790:
789:
777:
765:
758:
755:
747:
741:
735:
722:
715:
709:
698:
684:Cobb v. Cobb
683:
676:
667:
661:moral hazard
650:
643:
624:
620:
615:
611:
606:
601:
597:
591:Portrait by
581:Manslaughter
573:
568:
564:
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541:
537:
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526:
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516:
510:
498:
492:
481:
475:
470:
466:
464:
457:
444:
442:
435:
426:
422:
416:(Ohio), and
400:(New York),
387:
378:Levi Lincoln
374:Isaac Parker
371:
363:
348:
334:and later a
329:
317:
306:
292:
282:
268:
257:
251:
220:
202:
201:
130:(1861-03-30)
91:Succeeded by
84:Isaac Parker
67:Appointed by
56:
18:
2425:1861 deaths
2420:1781 births
2375:Georges Jr.
1709:Saltonstall
1326:Lemuel Shaw
1040:Parker, 179
993:December 4,
860:December 4,
640:Charlestown
550:and former
544:Joel Parker
495:Thomas Sims
478:segregation
436:Because of
376:, Governor
275:Antoine Jay
266:newspaper.
203:Lemuel Shaw
79:Preceded by
25:Lemuel Shaw
2414:Categories
2385:Wolohojian
2250:H. Wilkins
2205:Whittemore
2190:R. Wilkins
1960:C. Cushing
1855:N. Cushing
1764:W. Cushing
1749:Trowbridge
1584:H. Wilkins
1564:R. Wilkins
1121:Bemis, 470
1112:Bemis, 463
1094:Bemis, 457
1076:Bemis, 456
1058:Chase, 205
1049:Chase, 200
972:Chase, 278
786:References
749:Billy Budd
398:James Kent
394:common law
332:Federalist
264:Federalist
174:Alma mater
153:Federalist
2370:Wendlandt
2240:Hennessey
2145:Sanderson
2075:J. Morton
1825:D. Sewall
1729:Lynde Jr.
1704:Remington
1684:Davenport
1674:Lynde Sr.
1574:Hennessey
1462:Lynde Jr.
1442:Lynde Sr.
1427:Addington
1417:Stoughton
1085:Levy, 221
929:cite book
770:in 1855.
361:in 1823.
343:Unitarian
227:Braintree
185:Signature
163:Spouse(s)
57:In office
2320:Botsford
2290:Marshall
2275:O'Connor
2235:Braucher
2200:Counihan
2195:Williams
2185:Spalding
2150:F. Field
2115:DeCourcy
2070:Knowlton
2050:C. Allen
2045:W. Field
2035:W. Allen
2020:Endicott
1940:Fletcher
1920:C. Dewey
1905:D. Dewey
1890:Sedgwick
1885:Thatcher
1870:Bradbury
1820:Sullivan
1664:Leverett
1659:Hathorne
1639:Winthrop
1629:Richards
1624:Danforth
1589:Marshall
1554:F. Field
1544:Knowlton
1534:W. Field
1432:Winthrop
1422:Winthrop
1165:(1975).
1010:(1975).
881:Mass.gov
2398:Italics
2345:Gaziano
2295:Ireland
2280:Greaney
2230:Quirico
2225:Reardon
2155:Donahue
2130:Carroll
2105:Sheldon
2090:Hammond
2085:Lathrop
2065:Gardner
2055:Colburn
1980:Chapman
1965:Merrick
1955:Bigelow
1950:Metcalf
1935:Hubbard
1925:Lincoln
1900:Jackson
1789:Sargent
1739:Russell
1724:Hubbard
1594:Ireland
1519:Chapman
1514:Bigelow
1494:Parsons
1484:Sargent
1479:Cushing
1321:. 1905.
1200:, 1935.
1150:1016403
688:Mormons
646:(1834).
336:Webster
254:Harvard
235:England
231:Halifax
2365:Kafker
2360:Cypher
2330:Duffly
2310:Sosman
2260:Abrams
2255:Liacos
2245:Kaplan
2210:Cutter
2160:Lummus
2135:Jenney
2125:Pierce
2120:Crosby
2100:Braley
2095:Loring
2080:Barker
2060:Holmes
2040:Devens
2015:Devens
1995:Foster
1970:Thomas
1945:Forbes
1910:Putnam
1895:Parker
1880:Strong
1875:Sewall
1845:Sumner
1815:Foster
1809:Warren
1744:Oliver
1714:Graves
1694:Dudley
1689:Quincy
1679:Thomas
1669:Curwin
1654:Saffin
1649:Walley
1579:Liacos
1539:Holmes
1529:Morton
1504:Parker
1499:Sewall
1467:Oliver
1447:Dudley
1148:
956:
902:
576:murder
513:(1850)
279:France
271:French
247:Boston
239:Dedham
135:Boston
2380:Dewar
2340:Hines
2325:Gants
2315:Cordy
2305:Spina
2300:Cowin
2285:Fried
2270:Nolan
2265:Lynch
2180:Ronan
2175:Dolan
2030:Soule
2005:Wells
1915:Wilde
1865:Dawes
1860:Paine
1802:Paine
1769:Brown
1759:Ropes
1644:Cooke
1599:Gants
1569:Tauro
1473:Adams
808:(PDF)
791:Notes
743:Typee
2355:Budd
2350:Lowy
2335:Lenk
2215:Kirk
2140:Wait
2110:Rugg
2025:Lord
2000:Ames
1990:Colt
1985:Gray
1975:Hoar
1850:Dana
1795:Reed
1604:Budd
1549:Rugg
1524:Gray
1509:Shaw
1489:Dana
1146:SSRN
1023:See
995:2020
954:ISBN
935:link
900:ISBN
862:2020
816:2016
716:tort
523:i.e.
467:Aves
465:The
339:Whig
262:, a
157:Whig
125:Died
109:Born
2170:Cox
2165:Qua
1559:Qua
1328:at
1235:in
708:In
697:In
682:In
675:In
666:In
649:In
642:in
638:in
497:on
480:in
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