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basic uniformity to
Australian languages which is the natural result of a long period of diffusion. Although no justification had been provided for 'Pama-Nyungan', it came to be accepted. People accepted it because it was accepted—as a species of belief. ... It is clear that 'Pama-Nyungan' cannot be supported as a genetic group. Nor is it a useful typological grouping.
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does not identify these. Lexicostatistics is a distance-based method, whereas the comparative method considers language characters directly. The lexicostatistics method is a simple and fast technique relative to the comparative method but has limitations (discussed below). It can be validated by cross-checking the trees produced by both methods.
115:, which attempts to use lexicostatistical methods to estimate the length of time since two or more languages diverged from a common earlier proto-language. This is merely one application of lexicostatistics, however; other applications of it may not share the assumption of a constant rate of change for basic lexical items.
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The aim is to generate a list of universally used meanings (hand, mouth, sky, I). Words are then collected for these meaning slots for each language being considered. Swadesh reduced a larger set of meanings down to 200 originally. He later found that it was necessary to reduce it further but that he
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The term "lexicostatistics" is misleading in that mathematical equations are used but not statistics. Other features of a language may be used other than the lexicon, though this is unusual. Whereas the comparative method used shared identified innovations to determine sub-groups, lexicostatistics
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Australia provides a prototypical instance of a linguistic area. It has considerable time-depth, fairly uniform terrain leading to ease of interaction and communication, a fair proportion of reciprocal exogamous marriages, rampant multilingualism, and an open attitude to borrowing ... There is a
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language family has been a long-standing issue for
Australianist linguistics, and general consensus held that internal connections between the 25+ different subgroups of Pama-Nyungan were either impossible to reconstruct or that the subgroups were not in fact genetically related at all. In 2012,
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A trained and experienced linguist is needed to make cognacy decisions. However, the decisions may need to be refined as the state of knowledge increases. However, lexicostatistics does not rely on all the decisions being correct. For each pair of words (in different languages) in this list, the
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representing all major subgroups and isolates of Pama-Nyungan. Their model "recovered" many of the branches and divisions that had erstwhile been proposed and accepted by many other
Australianists, while also providing some insight into the more problematic branches, such as
347:(1956) have showed that there were difficulties in finding equivalents to the meaning items while many have found it necessary to modify Swadesh's lists. Gudschinsky (1956) questioned whether it was possible to obtain a universal list.
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This percentage is related to the proportion of meanings for a particular language pair that are cognate, i.e. relative to the total without indeterminacy. This value is entered into an
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Some of the modern computational statistical hypothesis testing methods can be regarded as improvements of lexicostatistics in that they use similar word lists and distance measures.
335:). They conclude that Pama-Nyungan languages are in fact not exceptional to lexicostatistical methods, which have successfully been applied to other language families of the world.
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Creation of the language tree is based solely on the table found above. Various sub-grouping methods can be used but that adopted by Dyen, Kruskal and Black was:
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316:(where the genetic picture is obscured by very high rates of borrowing between languages). Their dataset forms the largest of its kind for a
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gives the total 207 meanings in a number of languages. Alternative lists that apply more rigorous criteria have been generated, e.g. the
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Dobson, Annette and Black, Paul (1979). Multidimensional
Scaling of some Lexicostatistical Data. Mathematical Scientist 1979/4, 55-61.
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cognacy of a form could be positive, negative or indeterminate. Sometimes a language has multiple words for one meaning, e.g.
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ones. A major study of the latter was reported by Dyen, Kruskal and Black (1992). Studies have also been carried out on
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Dyen, Isidore; Kruskal, Joseph; Black, Paul (1992). "An
Indoeuropean Classification, a Lexicostatistical Experiment".
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in 1834 who compared various "Oceanic" languages and proposed a method for calculating a coefficient of relationship.
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Bowern, Claire; Atkinson, Quentin (2012). "Computational phylogenetics and the internal structure of Pama-Nyungan".
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McMahon, April and McMahon, Robert (2005). Language
Classification by Numbers. Oxford University Press.
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Wittmann, Henri (1973). "The lexicostatistical classification of the French-based Creole languages."
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could include some meanings that were not in his original list, giving his later 100-item list. The
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in a series of articles in the 1950s, based on earlier ideas. The concept's first known use was by
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Dyen, Isidore (1962). "The lexicostatistically determined relationship of a language group".
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Lexicostatistics in genetic linguistics: Proceedings of the Yale conference, April 3–4, 1971
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Dobson, Annette (1969). Lexicostatistical
Grouping. Anthropological Linguistics 7, 216-221.
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can skew the results, as with other methods. Sometimes lexicostatistics has been used with
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Dyen, Isidore (1965). "A lexicostatistical classification of the
Austronesian languages".
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A simplified explanation of the difference between glottochronology and lexicostatistics.
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between languages to determine their relationship. Lexicostatistics is related to the
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Wittmann, Henri (1969). "A lexico-statistic inquiry into the diachrony of
Hittite."
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Sankoff, David (1970). "On the Rate of Replacement of Word-Meaning Relationships."
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Swadesh, Morris (1952). "Lexicostatistical dating of prehistoric ethnic contacts".
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the two closest members are removed and form a nucleus which is placed in the pool
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being used rather than cognacy to find resemblances. This is then equivalent to
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Dyen, Isidore (1963). "Lexicostatistically determined borrowing and taboo".
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Calculations have to be of nucleus and group lexical percentages.
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The choice of meaning slots is subjective, as is the choice of
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A leading exponent of lexicostatistics application has been
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Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences
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Swadesh, Morris (1950). "Salish internal relationships".
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this is repeated until the pool only contains one group.
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Hoijer, Harry (1956). "Lexicostatistics: a critique".
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314:Ngumpin-Yapa
301:phylogenetic
296:Pama-Nyungan
293:
290:Pama-Nyungan
268:Isidore Dyen
265:
262:Applications
257:
234:
217:
213:
209:
199:
195:
191:
188:
155:Swadesh list
151:
126:
117:
92:
91:
76:
67:
48:
1273:Ilia Peiros
1157:Sino-Uralic
1152:Indo-Uralic
1147:Ural-Altaic
1111:Proto-human
1059:Macrofamily
1008:Long-range
968:IE database
929:46.564-569.
578:(1): 3–44.
274:as well as
70:August 2014
62:introducing
1426:Categories
1137:Eurasiatic
823:1885/61360
524:: 452–463.
464:References
339:Criticisms
280:Amerindian
225:triangular
159:Wiktionary
45:references
1186:Linguists
1127:Nostratic
682:143070513
609:. Bochum.
592:144569209
557:145122561
503:144581963
457:Word list
352:borrowing
305:doculects
1413:Category
1312:Journals
1017:Concepts
936:74.1-10.
927:Language
847:Language
802:Language
697:Language
385:See also
371:synonyms
329:Archived
165:and the
1172:Austric
1122:Amerind
964:project
832:4375648
647:1006517
397:Cognate
200:not big
175:Kruskal
123:History
58:improve
1142:Altaic
1117:Borean
867:410652
865:
830:
717:410762
715:
680:
645:
590:
555:
501:
345:Hoijer
196:little
143:Method
47:, but
1337:Books
863:JSTOR
828:S2CID
713:JSTOR
678:S2CID
643:JSTOR
588:S2CID
553:S2CID
499:S2CID
356:taboo
310:Paman
192:small
137:Hymes
886:Word
282:and
241:pool
198:for
194:and
171:Dyen
894:doi
855:doi
818:hdl
810:doi
705:doi
670:doi
635:doi
580:doi
545:doi
491:doi
157:in
1428::
890:12
888:.
884:.
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804:.
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641:.
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615:^
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173:,
1001:e
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637::
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576:1
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493::
324:(
218:N
216:Ă—
214:N
83:)
77:(
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68:(
54:.
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