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personification of an antithetical to a "civilized," normative existence. Race as a social category that defines physical characteristics in connection to ancestry was formed in the late eighteenth century. The emergence of race included the social creation of hierarchies that positioned white
Europeans at its top, with other racialized groups such as Black Africans and Australian Aborigenés at the bottom. Within these linguistic traditions of conceptualizing race, color terms such as black or white became a topology associated with racialization regardless of its visual reality. Within the Western imagination, color typologies reinforced the binarisms of race, especially between white and black, which became codified signifiers of social, racialized hierarchies.
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linguistically marginalize people. Many marginalized groups such as immigrants, indigenous people, and
African Americans endure the experience of their names being mispronounced, anglicized, or even replaced, which represents how specific names undergo a process of becoming deracialized and normative. An example of this includes the social phenomenon, most common in educational institutions and classrooms, where students have their names mispronounced or their given name displaced due to the assumption that their names are foreign or hard to pronounce. Many marginalized groups, however, do claim the right to name themselves such as choosing a new name, maintaining multiple pronunciations, and having different naming practices.
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group are expected to talk and linguistically express themselves in the same manner, may insinuate that deviations from presumed cultural norms are abnormal, and can falsely imply that one's linguistic characteristics are dissociated from their culture. Instructors who are non-native
English speakers (NNES) are impacted by student evaluations that undergird ideologies of "nativeness," or the measurement of one's linguistic competence based on being a native speaker, which holds the assumption that non-native speakers have accents or are linguistically incomprehensible. In a study of student evaluations of Asian American professors on
66:. Racialization is the process of imposing and prescribing a racial category to a person or group, often by associating certain racialized traits such as cultural history, skin color, and physical features. Language constitutes authoritative knowledge as well. When speaking a specific language, one adopts its ideas of morality and discipline, including the dynamics of power that gives particular groups authority and others not. Additionally, how languages are taught and standardized contributes to how authoritative knowledge is created.
241:, which often manifest negative connotations regarding an individual's or group's speech patterns or linguistic expressions in a demeaning manner. Linguistic racism underscores how race and linguistic practices are intertwined and how languages can be a tool for perpetuating racism. The everyday biases that define microaggressions are exemplified in statements that claim someone talks like or sounds like a specific cultural or racial group (Indian, Black, White, Mexican, etc.)
144:. Cultures that were predominantly oral and without writing systems were positioned as inferior to those with alphabet systems. Another function of missionaries was to choose a chosen language, typically a colonial language or indigenous language ranked high hierarchically, and impose it on communities that were linguistically diverse. Reducing linguistic diversity, which was perceived as a sign of primitiveness and barbarism, was one of the main goals of missionary projects.
228:. In the U.S., covert linguistic racism plays a role in a lack of diverse participation in large studies or political participation, as sufficient access to translations is often excluded. Counties with higher than average minority population percentages and counties with lower percentages of English-speaking residents have lower participation rates in survey participation due to lack of accommodation or outreach.
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43:. Linguistic racism also relates to the concept of "racializing discourses," which is defined as the ways race is discussed without being explicit but still manages to represent and reproduce race. This form of racism acts to classify people, places, and cultures into social categories while simultaneously maintaining this social inequality under a veneer of indirectness and deniability.
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strategies used by non-white people to situationally alter their individual status to modify the consequences of their racialized or marginalized status may invoke. For example, Black people may use a standard linguistic dialect when interacting with police officers to convey a higher social status and attempt to mitigate the effects of racial profiling.
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degradation, further defining and classifying languages and cultures hierarchically based on a perceived difference of quality or historical authenticity. Because language and race have been deeply intertwined historically, race remains a crucial concept in understanding how languages are defined and how the study of language developed.
151:, which saw the increase in immigration from Eastern and Southern Europeans as well as the internal migration of African Americans seeking a better life in the Northern states. This period of time is marked by rising social inequities, economic crises, and global expansion. The U.S. began to construct what constituted the
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Examples of microaggressions also include derogatory remarks about someone's intelligence based on their manner of speaking, suggesting unwarranted assumptions about someone's cultural identity and linguistic homogeneity within racial or ethnic groups. These statements imply that members of a certain
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was published, which influenced key debates and arguments surrounding colonialism, capitalism, and the ideas of evolution and eugenics. Darwin’s theories of evolution used evidence from societal conflicts to argue that the supplantation of other groups is a marker of a natural process that led to the
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hyper-masculinity, higher rates of violence, and promiscuity. Donor groups, which are the communities from which the language is appropriated, express linguistic appropriation as a form of theft in which those who utilize it reap the benefits of its associations while not acknowledging its origins.
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has been the target of linguistic appropriation for white audiences to make them appear knowledgeable about pop culture and have a “cool” persona that is adopted through the use of AAVE. However, these appropriations index dangerous and negative stereotypes attributed to
African Americans, including
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One's capacity to shift into and communicate with a standard dialect can significantly influence one's social status, signifying that racial and social identity can vary depending on certain contexts. Arthur K. Spears conveys how individuals can deploy what he terms "whiteners," which are linguistic
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This article describes linguistic features used to depict fictional
American Indian speech, a style referred to as “Hollywood Injun English,” found in movies, on television, and in some literature (the focus is on the film and television varieties). Grammatically, it draws on a range of nonstandard
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other than one’s own, typically without a cultural understanding or acknowledgment of said language and its social nuances. Linguistic appropriation typically affects languages or linguistic backgrounds that are historically marginalized. It can occur in everyday conversation but also in the media
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of nativeness was present in these student evaluations, there was also frequent resistance to it by students acknowledging the instructor's linguistic competence or accent but conceding one understands over time. This pattern
Subtirelu detected shows how some students navigate or resist biases
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in his essay, "La Razza e la lingua" ("Race and
Language"), shows that there are two ideas that look innocuous if considered as separated but which are extremely dangerous if combined: first, that there are languages that are better than others; second, that reality is perceived and elaborated
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from indigenous languages into the
English language, including place names. As an example, White Americans have historically appropriated indigenous place names to construct the idea of an "American" landscape, which includes locations such as "Massachusetts," "Chattahoochee," and "Tucson."
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and advertisements, in which certain dialects and their associated stereotypes are utilized to represent socially desirable qualities attributed to that language. Therefore, this appropriation contributes to the erasure, marginalization, and trivialization of the targeted language or dialect.
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research on indigenous place names defines the concept of "transfers," which refers to place names from indigenous languages that are used in locations disconnected from those languages, reflecting an assimilation of these names into White narratives and an alienation and alteration from its
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Mock language is defined as the action of imitating and mimicking another language, incorporating grammatical structures, expressions, and terminology that is not native to the speaker. Speakers of mock
Spanish reasoned their usage of it as a signifier of being exposed to Spanish, to incite
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is a foundational factor in many forms of linguistic racism, as it is a practice of defining a language as purer or of higher quality relationally to other languages. Therefore, linguistic purism is also motivated by protecting the perceived purity of specific languages from "corruption" or
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Names are tied to social meanings that may index and convey one's gender, ethnicity, class, religion, and other positionalities. Another form of linguistic racism is the process of ethnoracialized groups being misnamed or denamed, which can be a process of public shaming that others and
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mistaken belief that the inhabitants of the island of
Canibales engaged in the consumption of human flesh popularized the term "cannibal." This term not only supplanted "anthropophagy" in reference to consuming human flesh but embodied the construct of the other and became the ultimate
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amusement, or to claim regional authenticity to primarily the Southwest, California, or Floria. To understand the logic and semiotics of mock Spanish as humorous or even intelligible, it requires access to and understanding of negative stereotypes of Latinos and Chicanos. The works of
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to systematically hierarchize languages. This technique sought to identify certain language groups and, by extension, their speakers as a representation of an early, primitive stage of evolution while others as more advanced and civilized. Later in the early twentieth century,
199:, and an emphasis on fieldwork to combat discrimination. Edward Sapir, with his student Benjamin Whorf, developed the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and contributed to the discussions of how language influences the perception of one's reality, which is defined as
318:, of Elaine Chun "Ideologies of Legitimate Mockery" on "mock Asian," etc., demonstrate how parodying or re-appropriating non-English languages contributes to presenting certain cultures as inferior to European Americans by disparaging their languages.
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as an alternative to how languages and societies are studied. Contrary to ranking cultures and languages on a spectrum, Boas posits that cultures should be studied within the nuanced conditions of their own contexts and histories, the hybridity of
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features similar to those found in “foreigner talk” and “baby talk,” as well a formalized, ornate variety of English; all these features are used to project or evoke certain characteristics historically associated with "the
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Personally mediated racism is defined as the interpersonal interactions between individuals or groups that may marginalize or discriminate against one party. Personally mediated racism may take the form of
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associated with American Indians, and shows how the correspondence between nonstandard, dysfluent speech forms and particular pejorative aspects of the fictional Indian characters subtly reproduce
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How race is defined and described is implicated in the dynamics of power and the violence of colonialism. Difference has been recorded and actualized prior to the emergence of race as a category.
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Smitherman, Geneva (1998). "Word from the hood: The lexicon of African-American Vernacular English". In Bailey, Guy; Baugh, John; Mufwene, Salikoko S.; Rickford, John R. (eds.).
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Bucholtz, Mary (2016). "On Being Called Out of One's Name: Indexical Bleaching as a Technique of Deracialization". In Alim, H. Samy; Rickford, John R.; Ball, Arnetha F. (eds.).
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Subtirelu, Nicholas Close. ""She does have an accent but…": Race and language ideology in students' evaluations of mathematics instructors on RateMyProfessors.com".
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Subtirelu, Nicholas Close. ""She does have an accent but…": Race and language ideology in students' evaluations of mathematics instructors on RateMyProfessors.com".
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31:, marginalization, and prejudice customarily based on an individual or community's linguistic background. The most evident manifestation of this kind of
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Tankosić, Ana; Dovchin, Sender (7 April 2021). "(C)overt linguistic racism: Eastern-European background immigrant women in the Australian workplace".
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travel. In recording and studying Indigenous languages for the aim of conversion, Missionaries created linguistic hierarchies based on written and
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220:, teasing, laughing, joking, ridiculing, and interrupting. Covert linguistic racism, on the other hand, is expressed through indirect and
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Subtirelu found that many students mentioned the instructor's accents in a manner that questioned their linguistic competency. While the
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The rise in evolutionary theory intersected with discussions surrounding race and language, in which philologists and linguists used the
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1032:". The article also exemplifies some ways in which these linguistic features are deployed in relation to particular characteristics
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In the late fifteenth century, European expansion began, and the rise of dominant language ideologies occurred with the increase in
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differently, according to the language one speaks. He highlights that this linguistic racism was at the origin of the myth of the
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Languages coincide with classifying and reinforcing racial groups and the social associations with those groups, which relates to
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Langer, Nils; Nesse, Agnete (2012). "Linguistic Purism". In Hernández-Campoy, Juan Manuel; Conde-Silvestre, Juan Camilo (eds.).
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Hudley, Anne H. Charity (2016). "Language and Racialization". In GarcĂa, Ofelia; Flores, Nelson; Spotti, Massimiliano (eds.).
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Hudley, Anne H. Charity (2016). "Language and Racialization". In GarcĂa, Ofelia; Flores, Nelson; Spotti, Massimiliano (eds.).
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760:"Race, Ethnicity, and Linguistic Isolation as Determinants of Participation in Public Health Surveillance Surveys"
711:"Race, Ethnicity, and Linguistic Isolation as Determinants of Participation in Public Health Surveillance Surveys"
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Ronkin, Maggie; Karn, Helen E. (1999), "Mock Ebonics: Linguistic racism in parodies of Ebonics on the Internet",
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Barbara A. Meek, "And the Injun goes “How!”: Representations of American Indian English in white public space",
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998:"Review of Jane H. Hill's "Mock Spanish: A Site for the Indexical Reproduction of Racism in American English""
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Another example of linguistic appropriation began as early as the seventeenth century in the incorporation of
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Different forms of linguistic racism include covert and overt linguistic racism, linguistic appropriation,
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Linguistic appropriation is the act of adopting linguistic patterns and elements of a language or
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Spears, Arthur K. (2021). "White Supremacy and Antiblackness: Theory and Lived Experience".
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Link, Michael W; Mokdad, Ali H; Stackhouse, Herbert F; Flowers, Nicole T (2005-12-15).
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Link, Michael W; Mokdad, Ali H; Stackhouse, Herbert F; Flowers, Nicole T (2005-12-15).
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Scholars known for their work on linguistic racism and related concepts such as
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377:, "Theorizing Linguistic Racisms from a Language Ideological Perspective", In:
186:, challenged evolutionary theory and the comparative method, instead proposing
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Dick, Hilary Parsons; Wirtz, Kristina (2011). "Racializing Discourses".
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108:. Linguistic racism is studied in multiple disciplines, which include
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Hill, Jane H. (1998). "Language, race, and white public space".
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The late nineteenth century was characterized by the advent of
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Colonial Encounters: Europe and the Native Caribbean 1492-1797
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International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
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Language, Capitalism, Colonialism: Toward a Critical History
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Language, Capitalism, Colonialism: Toward a Critical History
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Language, Capitalism, Colonialism: Toward a Critical History
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Language, Capitalism, Colonialism: Toward a Critical History
54:, pejorative naming, and accent discrimination. Relevantly,
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Raciolinguistics: How Language Shapes Our Ideas About Race
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both spoken and written, is a mechanism that perpetuates
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Overt linguistic racism may be expressed in the form of
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African-American English: Structure, History, and Use
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and the devastating results it had on civilization.
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1088:, Volume 23, 2020 – Issue 7: "Linguistic racism",
1817:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
962:Native American Placenames of the United States
232:Personally Mediated Racism and Microaggressions
686:"The pervasive problem of 'linguistic racism'"
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8:
818:. Oxford University Press. pp. 381–402.
503:Ashcroft, Bill (2001). "Language and Race".
434:. Oxford University Press. pp. 381–402.
124:Origins and Development of Linguistic Racism
16:Use of language resources for discrimination
816:The Oxford Handbook of Language and Society
432:The Oxford Handbook of Language and Society
414:The Handbook of Historical Sociolinguistics
314:English", of Ronkin and Kan on parodies of
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581:Heller, Monica; McElhinny, Bonnie (2017).
566:Heller, Monica; McElhinny, Bonnie (2017).
544:Heller, Monica; McElhinny, Bonnie (2017).
448:Heller, Monica; McElhinny, Bonnie (2017).
282:African American Vernacular English (AAVE)
271:Linguistic Appropriation and Mock Language
1787:Interminority racism in the United States
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379:The Oxford Handbook of Language and Race
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1859:Sociology of race and ethnic relations
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665:MSUToday | Michigan State University
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166:improvement of intelligence through
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661:"Ask the expert: Linguistic Racism"
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880:Journal of Linguistic Anthropology
395:Journal of Linguistic Anthropology
212:Overt and Covert Linguistic Racism
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526:. New York and London: Routledge.
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964:. University of Oklahoma Press.
1777:Go back to where you came from
585:. University of Toronto Press.
570:. University of Toronto Press.
548:. University of Toronto Press.
452:. University of Toronto Press.
120:, education, and psychology.
1:
1094:10.1080/13670050.2020.1778630
182:and his students, especially
1058:Journal of Sociolinguistics
960:Bright, William O. (2004).
254:against NNES instructors.
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910:. Oxford University Press.
764:Preventing Chronic Disease
715:Preventing Chronic Disease
353:Standard Language Ideology
251:dominant language ideology
207:Forms of Linguistic Racism
52:standard language ideology
1918:Linguistic discrimination
1867:
613:10.1177/14687968211005104
338:Linguistic discrimination
188:historical particularism
158:On the Origin of Species
1807:Psychometrics of racism
1257:Anti-miscegenation laws
1070:10.1111/1467-9481.00083
980:American Anthropologist
118:linguistic anthropology
21:linguistic anthropology
1772:Ethnic plastic surgery
1267:Biological determinism
930:Hill, Jane H. (2008).
333:Linguistic imperialism
86:linguistic imperialism
50:, linguistic erasure,
19:In the terminology of
1692:In Jewish communities
1670:Hispanic & Latino
1014:, 35 (1), pp 93-128,
522:Hulme, Peter (1986).
463:Moro, Andrea (2019).
201:linguistic relativity
149:industrial capitalism
130:Christopher Columbus'
110:communication studies
39:; however, there are
1782:Herrenvolk democracy
469:. La Nave di Teseo.
466:La razza e la lingua
343:Linguistic Profiling
298:indigenous origins.
94:Tove Skutnabb-Kangas
48:linguistic profiling
1802:Perpetual foreigner
1012:Language in Society
856:Language in Society
834:Language in Society
295:William O. Bright's
1832:Racial integration
1812:Race and sexuality
1617:Japanese Americans
1337:Racial segregation
1327:Racial nationalism
1030:White Man's Indian
630:20.500.11937/91494
416:. Wiley-Blackwell.
247:Rate My Professor,
222:passive-aggressive
175:comparative method
98:Suresh Canagarajah
41:covert forms of it
25:linguistic racism,
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1653:African Americans
1600:Chinese Americans
1297:Ethnic stereotype
505:Social Identities
375:Paul V. Kroskrity
348:Linguistic Purism
168:natural selection
102:Geneva Smitherman
56:linguistic purism
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1559:
1549:
1548:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1527:
1526:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1496:United Kingdom
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1438:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1411:
1410:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1374:
1373:
1372:
1367:
1357:
1351:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1340:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1253:
1251:
1248:Manifestations
1245:
1244:
1242:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1140:
1138:
1134:
1133:
1128:
1126:
1125:
1118:
1111:
1103:
1097:
1096:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1074:
1064:(3): 360–380,
1048:
1046:
1045:
1003:
989:
967:
952:
937:
913:
889:
865:
843:
821:
799:
750:
701:
676:
652:
588:
573:
551:
529:
514:
482:
476:978-8834600238
475:
455:
437:
419:
404:
382:
363:
362:
360:
357:
356:
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
330:
323:
320:
272:
269:
263:
260:
233:
230:
213:
210:
208:
205:
163:Charles Darwin
142:oral knowledge
125:
122:
29:discrimination
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1935:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1898:
1890:
1888:
1880:
1878:
1870:
1869:
1866:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1848:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
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1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1724:Wine industry
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1684:
1683:
1680:
1676:
1673:
1672:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1651:
1650:
1649:
1646:
1642:
1639:
1635:
1632:
1631:
1630:
1627:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1614:
1613:
1610:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1593:
1592:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1582:
1580:
1576:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1554:
1553:
1552:South America
1550:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1540:United States
1538:
1536:
1533:
1532:
1531:
1530:North America
1528:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1505:
1504:
1501:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1416:
1415:
1412:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1379:
1378:
1375:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1352:
1350:
1348:
1344:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1317:Racialization
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1282:Ethnic hatred
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1255:
1254:
1252:
1246:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1199:Laissez-faire
1197:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1184:Institutional
1182:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1169:Environmental
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1141:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1124:
1119:
1117:
1112:
1110:
1105:
1104:
1101:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1084:
1083:
1079:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1052:
1049:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1026:
1023:
1022:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1007:
1004:
999:
993:
990:
986:(3): 680–689.
985:
981:
974:
972:
968:
963:
956:
953:
948:
941:
938:
933:
926:
924:
922:
920:
918:
914:
909:
902:
900:
898:
896:
894:
890:
886:(2): 157–179.
885:
881:
874:
872:
870:
866:
861:
857:
850:
848:
844:
839:
835:
828:
826:
822:
817:
810:
808:
806:
804:
800:
795:
791:
786:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
754:
751:
746:
742:
737:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
705:
702:
691:
687:
680:
677:
666:
662:
656:
653:
648:
644:
640:
636:
631:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
595:
593:
589:
584:
577:
574:
569:
562:
560:
558:
556:
552:
547:
540:
538:
536:
534:
530:
525:
518:
515:
510:
506:
499:
497:
495:
493:
491:
489:
487:
483:
478:
472:
468:
467:
459:
456:
451:
444:
442:
438:
433:
426:
424:
420:
415:
408:
405:
400:
396:
389:
387:
383:
380:
376:
371:
369:
365:
358:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
328:Mock language
326:
325:
321:
319:
317:
313:
309:
305:
299:
296:
291:
286:
283:
278:
270:
268:
261:
259:
255:
252:
248:
242:
240:
231:
229:
227:
223:
219:
211:
206:
204:
202:
198:
194:
189:
185:
181:
176:
171:
169:
164:
160:
159:
154:
150:
145:
143:
139:
134:
131:
123:
121:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
78:
76:
71:
67:
65:
64:racialization
60:
57:
53:
49:
44:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
1847:in Australia
1837:Racial quota
1481:Soviet Union
1424:Saudi Arabia
1365:South Africa
1292:Ethnic slurs
1287:Ethnic jokes
1203:
1189:Internalized
1085:
1061:
1057:
1051:
1024:
1011:
1006:
992:
983:
979:
961:
955:
949:. Routledge.
946:
940:
934:. Routledge.
931:
907:
883:
879:
859:
855:
837:
833:
815:
767:
763:
753:
718:
714:
704:
693:. Retrieved
689:
679:
668:. Retrieved
664:
655:
604:
600:
582:
576:
567:
545:
523:
517:
511:(3): 311–28.
508:
504:
465:
458:
449:
431:
413:
407:
398:
394:
378:
308:mock Spanish
304:Jane H. Hill
300:
287:
274:
265:
256:
246:
243:
235:
215:
184:Edward Sapir
172:
156:
146:
135:
127:
90:Jane H. Hill
79:
68:
61:
45:
37:racial slurs
24:
18:
1762:Anti-racism
1503:Middle East
1397:South Korea
1392:North Korea
1307:Hate speech
1229:Substantive
1209:Neocolonial
862:(1): 35–62.
840:(1): 35–62.
690:www.bbc.com
607:(5): 1–32.
601:Ethnicities
70:Andrea Moro
1912:Categories
1641:Vietnamese
1414:Arab world
1312:Hate group
1302:Hate crime
1239:Xenophobia
1219:Scientific
1204:Linguistic
770:(1): A09.
721:(1): A09.
695:2023-06-01
670:2023-06-01
359:References
180:Franz Boas
138:missionary
82:linguicism
75:Aryan race
1822:Race card
1757:Alt-right
1557:Argentina
1518:Palestine
1436:Australia
1262:Apartheid
1250:of racism
1025:Abstract:
776:1545-1151
727:1545-1151
647:233600585
639:1468-7968
621:1741-2706
290:loanwords
1877:Category
1792:Lynching
1767:Casteism
1612:Japanese
1471:Portugal
1402:Thailand
1370:Zimbabwe
1234:Symbolic
1224:Societal
1214:Romantic
1179:Gendered
1159:Cultural
1149:Colorism
1144:Aversive
794:16356362
745:16356362
322:See also
224:acts of
88:include
1887:Commons
1797:Passing
1752:Ableism
1675:Mexican
1595:Chinese
1491:Ukraine
1456:Germany
1446:Denmark
1407:Vietnam
1020:4169479
785:1500943
736:1500943
316:Ebonics
277:dialect
218:mocking
197:creoles
193:pidgins
1923:Racism
1719:Slavic
1714:Romani
1709:Muslim
1682:Jewish
1629:Korean
1590:Asians
1562:Brazil
1545:Mexico
1535:Canada
1523:Turkey
1513:Israel
1476:Russia
1466:Poland
1451:France
1441:Europe
1360:Africa
1194:Patent
1174:Formal
1154:Covert
1130:Racism
1018:
792:
782:
774:
743:
733:
725:
645:
637:
619:
473:
262:Naming
104:, and
33:racism
1897:Index
1658:Women
1648:Black
1567:Chile
1486:Spain
1461:Italy
1429:Sudan
1419:Libya
1387:Japan
1382:China
1164:Cyber
1016:JSTOR
643:S2CID
617:eISSN
401:(s1).
312:Injun
153:Other
1699:LGBT
1585:Arab
1508:Iran
1377:Asia
790:PMID
772:ISSN
741:PMID
723:ISSN
635:ISSN
471:ISBN
306:on "
195:and
84:and
1090:doi
1066:doi
984:100
780:PMC
731:PMC
625:hdl
609:doi
170:.
161:by
35:is
1914::
1060:,
982:.
970:^
916:^
892:^
884:31
882:.
868:^
860:44
858:.
846:^
838:44
836:.
824:^
802:^
788:.
778:.
766:.
762:.
739:.
729:.
717:.
713:.
688:.
663:.
641:.
633:.
623:.
615:.
605:23
603:.
591:^
554:^
532:^
507:.
485:^
440:^
422:^
399:21
397:.
385:^
367:^
203:.
116:,
112:,
100:,
96:,
92:,
23:,
1122:e
1115:t
1108:v
1092::
1068::
1062:3
1044:.
1000:.
796:.
768:3
747:.
719:3
698:.
673:.
649:.
627::
611::
509:7
479:.
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